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12TH CHEMISTRY
NOTES/REVISION
YOUTH PAID SERVICE
FOR ALL PUNJAB BOARDS
BY USAMA KHALID KAMBOH
CEO
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Dear Students,

Teachers always motivate and guide the students to learn all the content of the book so that
scoring highest in the exams is ensured, still some students lag behind when it comes to effective
preparation of the Chemistry subject and many find it tough to decide what to revise just before
the final exam.

An effort has been made to select the most repeated short questions and highlights of long
questions which students need to keep in their mind before appearing for the final exam. Under
some topics you will find the statement written LONG QUESTION and then you will see some
short questions. Learning the answers to those short questions will help you learn good portion
for long question. Long questions are given in minimum possible length. This will enable you to
avoid getting no credit for answer to any question. Getting reasonable marks is better than
getting no marks. In every answer, some words have been kept in bold font style. Combining
those words will give you the key words to remember so you may never fail in attempting any
question correctly. It may help you in learning the shortest answer so there are no blank sheets
left by you in the answer book.

The total of 321 pages excluding glossary of your textbook have been reduced to 141 pages.
Make sure that it is a preparation material for those who, due to many reasons, couldn’t touch the
book even. Moreover, it is meant to help in last moment revision plan. Once you have
memorized all the content given in this book you are encouraged to learn the chapters
thoroughly.

Teachers always wish and strive to see their students achieving their best and heading towards
their goals successfully. Prayers for your glorious future. Amen.

God Bless You!

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT PAID SERVICE 9TH,10TH,11TH,12TH

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Chapter 1
Periodic Classification of Elements and Periodicity
Historical Background and Improvements in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(Long Question)

Q. Give two defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table.

1. The elements were arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses.

2. Another confusion in Mendeleev’s table was that elements like Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Zn,

Cd, Hg were placed in a single vertical group, while according to their properties they belonged

to two different categories. The same was true for so many other elements placed in the same

vertical group.

Q. Give four improvements made in Mendeleev’s periodic law.

1. After the discovery of atomic number by Moseley in 1911, it was noticed that elements could

be classified more satisfactorily by using their atomic numbers rather than their atomic

masses.

2. The periodic table was improved by arranging the elements in ascending order of their

atomic numbers instead of their atomic masses.

3. Another improvement was the addition of an extra group (group VIIIA) at the extreme

right of the periodic table. This group contains noble gases, which had not been discovered in

Mendeleev’s time.

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4. In modern periodic table, the confusion of placing elements with different properties in same

group was removed by dividing the elements in two types of vertical groups, A and B. In

modern periodic table, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba are placed in group IIA and Zn, Cd, Hg in

group IIB.

The Modern Periodic Table

Q. Define Periodic table. How many groups and periods are in it?

The periodic table provides a basic framework to study the periodic behaviour of physical

and chemical properties of elements as well as their compounds.

There are eight groups and seven periods in the periodic table.

Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

Atomic Radius

(Long Question)
Q. Why ionic radii of negative ions are larger than parent atoms?

A negative ion is always bigger than its parent atom. The reason is that addition of one or more

electrons in the shell of a neutral atom enhances repulsion between the electrons causing

expansion of the shell. Thus, the radius of fluorine atom is 72pm and that of the fluoride ion (F-)

is 136pm.

Q. Why ionic radii of positive ions are smaller than parent atoms?

The removal of electrons causes an imbalance in proton-electron ratio. Due to the greater

attraction of the nuclear charge, the remaining electrons of the ion are drawn closer to the

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nucleus. A positive ion is always smaller than the neutral atom from which it is derived. The

radius of Na is 157pm and the radius of Na+ is 95pm.

Q. What is the trend of atomic radius in the periodic table?

Atomic radius decreases from left to right in periods of the periodic table as the shielding

effect remains constant and effective nuclear charge increases so hold of nucleus on

outermost shell electrons increases. Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a group

because shielding effect increases and effective nuclear charge decreases so hold of nucleus

on outermost shell electrons decreases. The trend of ionic radius is same.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• Half of the distance between the centers of two bonded atoms is considered to be the

radius of the atom.

• The gradual decrease in the atomic size of the elements in the lanthanide series is

significant and is called lanthanide contraction.

• This contraction controls the size of 6th and 7th period elements.

Ionization Energy

(Long Question)

Q. Define ionization energy.

The ionization energy of an element is the minimum quantity of energy which is required to

remove an electron from the outermost shell of its isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.

For example,

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Q. Discuss the trend of ionization energy in the periodic table.

Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group because shielding effect increases,

effective nuclear charge decreases and size of atom increases so less energy is required to

remove electron from the outermost shell as the hold of nucleus on the outer shell electron

decreases. Ionization energy increases from left to right in a period as the shielding effect

remains constant, effective nuclear charge increases and size of atom decreases so more

energy is required to remove electron from the outermost shell as the hold of nucleus on the

outer shell electron increases.

Electron Affinity

(Long Question)

Q. Define electron affinity.

The electron affinity is the energy released or absorbed, when an electron is added to a

gaseous atom to form a negative ion. For example,

Q. What is the trend of electron affinity in the periodic table?

Electron affinity increases from left to right in periods of the periodic table because effective

nuclear charge increases, shielding effect remains constant, size of atom decreases so hold

of nucleus on outermost shell electrons increases. Electron affinity decreases from top to

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bottom in the periodic table because effective nuclear charge decreases, shielding effect

increases, size of atom increases so hold of nucleus on outermost shell electrons decreases.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• The first value of electron affinity is shown with a positive sign while the second value

of electron affinity is shown with a negative sign as the incoming electron is repelled

by the already present electron.

Metallic and Non-Metallic Character

Q. Why metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group of metals?

Metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group of metal because atomic size

increases, shielding effect increases and effective nuclear charge decreases from top to

bottom in a group. As a result, the removal of electrons from the outermost shell becomes

easier as hold of nucleus on the outermost shell electrons decreases.

Melting and Boiling Points

Q. Explain the variation in melting points along the short periods.

Across the short periods, the melting and boiling points of elements increase with the

number of valence electrons up to group IVA and then decrease up to the noble gases.

Since carbon has the maximum number of binding electrons, thus, it has a very high melting

point in diamond in which each carbon is bound to four other carbon atoms. In general, the

elements which exist as giant covalent structures have very high melting points.

Hydration Energy

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Q. What is hydration energy? Give an example.

The hydration energy is the heat absorbed or evolved when one mole of gaseous ions dissolve

in water to give an infinitely dilute solution. For example, when one mole of gaseous hydrogen

ions is dissolved in water to give an infinitely dilute solution and a large amount of heat is

liberated:

Q. Hydration energies of ions are in the following order. Al+3>Mg+2>Na+1. Justify it.

Hydration energy depends upon the charge to size ratio, greater the charge to size ratio

greater the hydration energy. Hence, in the given order (Al+3>Mg+2>Na+1), Al+3 has greater

charge to size ratio than Mg+2 and Na+1. That’s why, the hydration energies are in this order:

Q. What is the trend of hydration energy in the periodic table?

Hydration energies highly depend upon charge to size ratio of the ions. Charge to size ratio

decreases from top to bottom in a group, the hydration energy also decreases in the same

fashion. The hydration energy increases significantly by moving from left to right in a period

as the charge to size ratio increases.

Oxidation State

Q. Why the oxidation states of noble gases are usually zero?

The oxidation states of noble gases are usually zero because their outermost shell is complete

and they are inert.

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Q. AlF3 has higher melting point thanAlI3. Why?

AlF3 is purely ionic compound having melting point 1290 °C and fairly a good conductor,

whereas, AlI3 is predominantly covalent with melting point 198 °C and electrically a non-

conductor.

Q. Why PbCl2 is ionic but PbCl4 is fairly covalent compound?

When a metal forms more than one halide, the halides in which metal has lower oxidation

state tends to be ionic while that in higher oxidation state is covalent. Similarly, high

polarizing power of Pb+4 as compared to Pb+2 makes PbCl2 mainly ionic, but, PbCl4 fairly

covalent.

Electrical Conductance

Q. Why diamond is a non-conductor and graphite fairly a good conductor of electricity?

Carbon, in the form of diamond is non-conductor because all of its valence electrons are

tetrahedrally bound and unable to move freely, while in the form of graphite, carbon is fairly a

good conductor because one of its four valence electrons is relatively free to move.

Periodic Relationship in Compounds

Halides

(Long Question)

Q. Define halides.

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Halides are the binary compounds which halogens form with other elements. For example,

NaCl, KBr, NaI.

Q. How are halides classified?

Halides can be classified into two general classes: ionic and covalent. In between the two, there

is another class of halides in which the halogen atom acts as a bridge between the two atoms of

the other element. Such halides are termed as “Polymeric” halides.

Q. What is the trend of halides from left to right and top to bottom in the periodic table?

On moving across the periodic table from left to right, the electronegativity difference reduces

and the trend shifts towards covalent halides. Ionic halides are formed by elements on the

right side of the periodic table (IA and IIA).

For a metal the order of decreasing ionic character of the halides is:

fluoride > chloride > bromide > iodide

Points to Remember for Long Question

• Strongly electropositive elements, having greater electronegativity difference with

halogen atom, form ionic halides.

• Less electropositive elements, such as Be, Ga and Al form polymeric halides having

partly ionic bonding with layer or chain lattices.

• The intermolecular forces in covalent halide molecules are weak van der Waal’s forces so

they are often gases, liquids or low melting point solids.

Hydrides

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(Long Question)

Q. What are hydrides?

The binary compounds of hydrogen with other elements are called hydrides. For example,

NaH, H2O, H2S.

Q. How hydrides are classified?

Hydrides may be broadly classified into three classes: ionic, covalent and intermediate.

Q. What is the trend of hydrides from left to right in the periodic table?

The elements on the left side of the periodic table (IA and IIA) form ionic hydrides. The

tendency towards covalent character increases by moving from left to right in the periodic

table. Hydrides of beryllium and magnesium represent the class of intermediate hydrides.

Their properties are in between the ionic and covalent hydrides.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• The elements of group IA and the heavier members of group IIA form ionic hydrides.

• The covalent hydrides are usually gases or volatile liquids.

• The boiling points of covalent hydrides generally increase on descending a group.

Oxides

(Long Question)

Q. Define oxides.

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The compounds which oxygen forms with other elements are called oxides. For example,

P2O5, Na2O, CO2.

Q. How oxides are classified?

Oxides can be classified based upon the type of bonding they have as well as their acidic or basic

character. On the basis of acidic and basic character they are categorized as acidic, basic and

amphoteric oxides.

Q. What are acidic oxides and what are basic oxides?

Metals form basic oxides. When oxides of metals are dissolved in water they give bases. For

example:

Non-metals give acidic oxides. When oxides of non-metals are dissolved in water they form

acids. For example:

Q. What are amphoteric oxides?

The oxides having both acidic and basic properties are called amphoteric oxides.

Q. What happens when acidic and basic oxides combine with each other?

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Basic oxides and acidic oxides react with one another to give salts e.g,

Points to Remember for Long Question

• In a given period, the oxides progress from strongly basic through weakly basic,

amphoteric, and weakly acidic to strongly acidic.

• The basicity of main group metal oxides increases on descending a group of the periodic

table.

• The acidity of MnO < Mn2O3< MnO2< Mn2O7

The Position of Hydrogen

(Long Question)

Q. Discuss position of hydrogen with respect to IA.

Similarities

1. Like alkali metals hydrogen atom has one electron in Is sub-shell, which it can lose to form

H+.

2. Both hydrogen and alkali metals have a strong tendency to combine with electronegative

elements such as halogens.

3. Similar to alkali metals hydrogen also forms ionic compounds, which dissociate in water.

Dissimilarities

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1. Hydrogen is a nonmetal in true sense. It does not lose electron as easily as most of the alkali

metals do.

2. Unlike alkali metals molecular hydrogen exists in open atmosphere.

Q. Discuss position of hydrogen with respect to VIIA.

Similarities

1. Hydrogen is a gas like most of the halogens and is stable in diatomic form such as F2, Cl2 and

Br2.

2. As required by halogens, hydrogen also needs one electron to complete its outermost shell.

3. By accepting one electron hydrogen forms H- (Hydride ion) similar to F-, Cl- and Br-.

4. Both hydrogen and halogens form stable ionic compounds with alkali metals.

Dissimilarities

1. By losing its only electron, hydrogen forms H + but halogens do not form positive ions.

2. Combining with oxygen, hydrogen forms very stable oxides while halogens lack this property.

Q. Discuss position of hydrogen with respect to IVA.

Similarities

1. Valence shell of hydrogen is half filled like those of group IVA elements.

2. Both, hydrogen and group IV elements combine with other elements through covalent
bonding.

3. Like carbon, hydrogen also possesses remarkable reducing properties.

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Dissimilarities

1. Carbon and silicon form long chain compounds, when their atoms combine with each other,

while hydrogen does not form such compounds.

2. Carbon can simultaneously form bonds with more than one elements, whereas, hydrogen due

to having only one electron can combine with only one element at a time.

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Chapter 2
s-Block Elements
Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals
Q. Give formulae of Natron and Halite.

Natron Na2CO3.H2O

Trona Na2CO3.2NaHCO3.2H2O

Peculiar Behaviour of Lithium

(Long Question)

In case of long question learn minimum 8 points

Q. Give four points in which lithium differs from its own family members?

1. Lithium is much harder and lighter than the other alkali metals.

2. The lithium salts of anions with high charge density are generally less soluble in water

than those of the other alkali metals, e.g. LiOH, LiF, Li3PO4, Li2CO3.

3. Lithium forms stable complex compounds. One of the stable complexes formed by lithium is

[Li(NH3)4]+

4. Lithium reacts very slowly with water while other alkali metals react violently.

(Long Question)

Q. Give four reactions in which Lithium behaves differently from its own groups.

1. Decomposition of lithium nitrate gives different products than nitrates of other alkali metals as

shown below:

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2. Lithium is the only Group IA metal that combines with nitrogen and carbon to form nitride

and carbide, respectively.

3. Only lithium burns in air to form the normal oxide, Li2O.

4. Lithium hydroxide when strongly heated forms lithium oxide but the other alkali metal

hydroxides do not show this behaviour.

Peculiar Behaviour of Beryllium

(Long Question)
Q. Write two points of difference of Beryllium with its family members.

1. Beryllium metal is almost as hard as iron and hard enough to scratch glass.

2. The melting and boiling points of beryllium are higher than other alkaline earth metals.

General Behaviour of Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals

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Q. Prove that decomposition of lithium nitrate gives different products than nitrates of
other alkali metals?

Decomposition of lithium nitrate gives different products than nitrates of other alkali metals as

shown below:

Q. What happens when?

a. Li2CO3 is heated

b. Na2CO3 is heated

Q. What happens when LiOH is heated to red hot?

Q. BeO is Amphoteric. Prove it.

BeO is amphoteric in nature since it reacts with both acids and bases.

Q. Why KO2 is used in breathing equipment used by mountaineers and astronauts?

Potassium superoxide (KO2) has a very interesting use in breathing equipments for mountaineers

and in space craft. It has the ability to absorb carbon dioxide while giving out oxygen at the

same time.

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Q. Why lime water turns milky by passing CO2 gas but becomes clear with excess of CO2?

Lime water turns milky by passing CO2 gas due to formation of insoluble CaCO3

On further addition of CO2 insoluble CaCO3 changes into soluble Ca (HCO3)2

Q. Why is the aqueous solution of Na2CO3 alkaline in nature?

The solution of Na2CO3 in water is basic due to hydrolysis of carbonate ion.

NaOH is a strong base and H2CO3 is a weak acid. So the solution is alkaline in nature.

(Long Question)

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Commercial Preparation of Sodium by Down’s Cell

(Long Question)
• Sodium metal is produced by the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride.

• Melting point of sodium chloride is 801 ⁰C some calcium chloride is added to lower

its melting point to about 600 ⁰C.

• The large block of graphite at the centre is the anode above which there is a dome for

the collection of chlorine.

• The cathode is a circular bar of copper or iron which surrounds the anode but is

separated from it by an iron screen.

Q. Give advantages of Down’s Cell.

Following are the advantages of Down’s cell:

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(a) The metallic fog is not produced.

(b) Liquid sodium can easily be collected at 600 °C.

(c) Material of the cell is not attacked by the products formed during the electrolysis.

Commercial Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide by the Diaphragm Cell

(Long Question)
Q. Give two major problems that may arise in Nelson’s cell.

1. Chlorine produced can react with hydroxide ions in cold giving hypochlorite ions.

2. Hydroxide ions may be attracted towards anode, where they can be discharged releasing

oxygen gas. This oxygen gas may contaminate the chlorine and renders it impure.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• It is prepared by the electrolysis of brine solution.

• An oblong perforated steel vessel lined inside with asbestos diaphragm serves as a

cathode.

• Constant level device is provided.

• A graphite anode is held within the U shaped diaphragm and it projects into the salt

solution.

• Reaction at anode

2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (aq) + 2e-

• Reaction at cathode

2 H2O + 2e- 2 OH- (aq) + H2 (g)

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• The first problem is solved by using asbestos diaphragm. This keeps the two solutions

separate and the movement of ions keeps the current following through the external

current.

• The second problem is solved keeping the level of brine in anode compartment

slightly higher. This keeps the direction of flow of liquid toward the cathode and thus

prevents the possibility of hydroxides ions to reach the anode.

Role of Gypsum in Agriculture and Industry

(Long Question)

Q. How gypsum is converted into Plaster of Paris?

Calcium sulphate occurs in nature as gypsum CaSO4.2H2O. When it is heated above 100°C, it

loses three quarters of its water of crystallization, giving a white powder called Plaster of Paris.

Q. Give two uses of Plaster of Paris.

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• Used for making plaster walls, casts of statuary, coins, etc.

• It is used in surgery. Plaster of Paris bandages are used for holding in place fractured

bones.

Q. Why 2% gypsum is added into the cement?

About 2% of gypsum is added during grinding of cement clinkers which prevents the cement

from hardening too rapidly. It increases the setting time of cement.

Q. Mention the types of Plaster.

(1) Cement Plaster

It is plaster of Paris to which usually glue or other oils have been added as retarders to

prolong the time of setting.

(2) Hard Finish Plasters

These are made by the calcination of the anhydrous sulphate with alum or borax. These

plasters are set very slowly but give a hard finish. When mixed with wood pulp and allowed to

set in the form of boards, it forms a material, much used in the construction of buildings as

wall boards and partitions.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• Gypsum is applied to the soil as a source of calcium and sulphur. The calcium

supplied by gypsum in fertilizers is of importance in crop production in area where soils

are subject to extensive leaching.

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• Plants deficient in sulphur exhibit a pale green colour. The root systems of several

plants have been observed to be greatly enlarged by the application of sulphur. It helps in

synthesis of proteins.

Role of Lime in Agriculture and Industry

(Long Question)

Q. What is lime mortar? How is it formed?

Ordinary mortar, also called lime mortar, is prepared by mixing freshly prepared slaked lime

(one volume) with sand (three or four volumes) and water to form a thick paste. This

material when placed between the stones and bricks hardens, thus, binding the blocks firmly

together.

Q. What is lime water and milk of magnesia?

A saturated solution of Ca(OH)2 in water is called lime water and is used as a test for CO2. A

suspension of Mg (OH)2 in water is called milk of magnesia and it is used for the treatment of

acidity in stomach.

Q. Why lime is added to acidic soil?

Large quantities of calcium oxide are used in agriculture for neutralizing acidic soils. It has

been found that application of lime (CaO) to acidic soils increases the amount of readily

soluble phosphorus.

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Q. How lime and sand are used to make glass?

The ability of lime to react with sand at high temperature forming calcium silicate (CaSiO3)

serves as an important basis for glass manufacture. Lime is added in sand and on heating gets

converted to calcium silicate. Addition of lime in glass increases the hardness and chemical

durability of glass.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• Large quantities of lime are used in the extraction and refining of metals.

• Lime is also used in paper, cement and leather industries.

• Lime is used in ceramic industry for producing different types of sanitary materials.

• Lime is also used in refining of sugar and other food products.

• Lime is used in the manufacturing of bleaching powder, which is used for the bleaching

of the fabric and paper pulp.

• Lime is often employed as a dehydrating agent, for example, in the preparation of

absolute alcohol and the drying of ammonia gas.

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Chapter 3
Group IIIA and Group IVA Elements
Group IIIA Elements
Q. Write the formulas of borax, colemanite and bauxite.

Borax: Na2B4O7.10H2O

Colemanite: Ca2B6O11. 5H2O

Bauxite: Al2O3. 2H2O

Q. Give four differences of boron from other elements of group IIIA.

1. Only non-metal element in Group IIIA.

2. Only non-metal element with less than four electrons in the outermost shell.

3. Boron uses three of its valence electrons for bonding and its common oxidation states are +
3 and -3.

4. It has ability to form molecular addition compounds.

Compounds of Boron

Q. How would you prepare borax from colemanite?

Finely powdered colemanite is boiled with Na2CO3 solution, when CaCO3 precipitates out

and a mixture of borax and sodium metaborate is formed.

Q. Explain chemistry of borax bead test.

Borax, when fused, is decomposed into sodium metaborate and boric anhydride.

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The metallic oxide combines with B2O3 giving the coloured metallic borates. Cupric borates

are blue in colour.

Q. Write four uses of borax.

1. It is used to prepare borate glass, which is heat resistant.

2. It is used in softening of water.

3. It is employed in borax bead test for the detection of metallic cations.

4. It is used in metallurgical operations.

Q. Why aqueous solution of borax is alkaline?

Borax when dissolved in water ionizes as:

Boric Acids

Q. Write the formulae of four boric acids.

(i) Orthoboric Acid, H3BO3

(ii) Metaboric Acid, HBO2

(iii) Tetraboric Acid, H2B4O7

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(iv) Pyroboric Acid, H6B4O9

Q. How will you convert boric acid into borax and vice versa?

It is partially neutralized by caustic soda to give borax.

Borax on hydrolysis gives boric acid.

Q. What is the effect of heat on boric acid?

Q. Give uses of boric acid.

1. Boric acid is used in medicines as an antiseptic.

2. It is used in pottery as a glaze.

3. It is also used in candle industry for stiffening of wicks.

Q. Why borate glazes are preferred over silicate glazes?

It is used in pottery as a glaze because borate glazes are more fusible than silicate glazes and
possess a higher coefficient of expansion.

Q. Write the reactions of boric acid with i. Ethyl alcohol ii. Sodium hydroxide.

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Reactions of Aluminium
Q. Write any four uses of aluminium.

1. It is non-magnetic and is used in navigational equipment.

2. It is found in the form of cooking utensils, window frames and kitchen foil.

3. Used for making food and brewing equipments and in packaging.

4. Forms alloys with other metals like copper, magnesium, nickel and zinc.

Group IVA Elements

Q. Give two similarities between carbon and silicon.

1. Carbon and silicon both form acidic oxides, whereas, the oxides of germanium, tin and lead
are amphoteric in nature.

2. Both carbon and silicon form covalent bonds. Their oxides are acidic and both form hydrides
and chlorides.

Q. How carbon shows peculiar behaviour as compared to rest of the group members?

1. Carbon and silicon are non-metals while the other members of the family are metalloids or
metals.

2. Catenation or self-linkage is shown by carbon and it decreases down the group.

Q. Explain structure of CO2.

Carbon dioxide exists in the gaseous state as linear molecules. The observed C-O bond

distance is 115 pm. Solid CO2 has a face-centered cubic structure. Being linear its dipole

moment is zero.

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Q. What is vitreous silica?

When crystalline silica is heated sufficiently it melts to give a viscous liquid having a random

structure, presumably with the silicon atoms still on the average close to four oxygen atoms

and the oxygen atoms close to two silicon atoms. It is then super cooled to give a rigid

structure called vitreous silica or silica glass.

Q. How sodium silicate is prepared?

Q. Give four uses of sodium silicate.

1. It is used as filler for soap in soap industry.

2. It is used in textile as a fire proof.

3. It is used as furniture polish.

4. It is also used in calico printing.

Q. What is chemical garden?

When crystals of soluble coloured salts like nickel chloride, ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate or

cobalt nitrate, etc. are placed in a solution of sodium silicate, they produce a very beautiful

growth, like plant, which is called chemical garden.

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Q. What are the products of weathering of potassium feldspar?

Silicones

Q. Why liquid silicones are preferred over ordinary organic lubricants?

If the temperature is dropped from 100°C to 0°C the viscosity of petroleum oil may increase

about one hundred folds, whereas, that of silicone oil will increase less than four folds. In the

presence of air or oxygen at temperature as high as 300 °C, silicone oils remain free from

acid formation, oxidation and similar phenomena, which frequently limit the usefulness of

petroleum products and other synthetic organic liquids.

Q. Give two uses of silicones.

1. Some of the methyl silicones are oily liquids and they become more viscous as the chain

length increases. They are used as lubricants, either incorporated in greases or as oils, in

bearings, gears, etc. They are also used in hydraulic brakes and other hydraulic systems.

2. If the temperature is dropped from 100°C to 0°C the viscosity of petroleum oil may

increase about one hundred folds, whereas, that of silicone oil will increase less than four

folds. In the presence of air or oxygen at temperature as high as 300 °C, silicone oils remain

free from acid formation, oxidation and similar phenomena, which frequently limit the

usefulness of petroleum products and other synthetic organic liquids.

Semiconductors

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Q. Define semiconductor. Write its properties.

A semiconductor is a substance that has different resistances to the passages of an electric

current under different circumstances.

In semiconductors flow of electricity increases by increasing temperature because as the

temperature increases the number of free moving electrons increase in case of semiconductors,

thereby, increasing the flow of electricity.

Uses of Lead Compounds in Paints

Q. Give uses of lead suboxide.

It is used as a pigment.

It is also used in the manufacture of lead storage batteries.

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Chapter 4
Group VA and Group VIA Elements
Group VA Elements
Q. Write four differences of nitrogen from its family.

1. Nitrogen shows the typical properties of non-metals.

2. Poor conductor of heat and electricity and

3. It gives acidic oxides.

3. Compounds are predominantly covalent.

4. Nitrogen has the greatest tendency to attract the electrons.

Oxides of Nitrogen
Q. Draw structural formulas of dinitrogen pentoxide and dinitrogen oxide.

Dinitrogen pentoxide

Dinitrogen oxide

Q. What happens when NO2 is dissolved in water?

In the absence of air, it dissolves in water to form nitric and nitrous acids.

In the presence of air or oxygen, nitric acid is the final product.

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Q. Give two reactions which show oxidizing behaviour of NO.

Q. Describe Ring test for the confirmation of presence of nitrate ions in the solution.

Nitrogen oxide forms a brown coloured addition compound with FeSO4. This test is used to

confirm the presence of nitrates (Ring Test).

Oxyacids of Nitrogen

Q. Explain the structure of HNO2 and HNO3.

HNO2 Nitrous acid HNO3 Nitric acid

Q. How does HNO2 act as reducing agent?

Q. Write two reactions of preparation of nitrous acid.

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1. It can be prepared by dissolving dinitrogen trioxide in water at 0 °C.

2. Pure nitrous acid solution can be prepared by reaction between ice cold barium nitrite solution

and ice cold dilute sulphuric acid.

Q. Write any four uses of Nitric acid.

1. as a laboratory reagent.

2. in the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers.

3. in the manufacture of explosives.

4. for making varnishes and organic dyes.

Q. Give the names of four elements which do not react with nitric acid.

Gold, platinum, iridium and titanium do not react with nitric acid.

Q. What is aqua regia?

When one volume of concentrated HNO3 is mixed with 3 volumes of concentrated HCl, aqua

regia is formed. It is employed to dissolve gold and platinum.

NOCI formed is decomposed giving NO and Cl2

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This liberated chlorine gas converts noble metals such as gold and platinum into their water

soluble chlorides.

Phosphorus and its Compounds

Q. How does P2O5 react with water in cold and hot state?

With cold water phosphorus pentoxide forms metaphosphoric acid.

With hot water it forms orthophosphoric acid.

Q. Give two methods for the preparation of PCl3

1. It is usually prepared by melting white phosporus in a retort in an inert atmosphere of CO2 and

current of dried chlorine is passed over it. The vapours of PCl3 are collected in a flask kept in an

ice-bath.

2. It may also be prepared by the action of phosphorus with thionyl chloride.

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Q. P2O5 is powerful dehydrating agent. Give two examples.

Q. What is the action of heat on orthophosphoric acid? Write chemical equation also.

Q. Give the reactions of phosphorous with: a. Thionyl chloride b. Cl2 gas

a. Thionyl chloride

b. Cl2 gas

Q. Name three allotropic forms of phosphorus. How red phosphorous is prepared?

The three allotropic forms of phosphorus are:

White phosphorus

Red phosphorus

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Black phosphorus

Red phosphorus is much less reactive and less poisonous than white phosphorus. It is prepared

by heating white phosphorus in the presence of a little iodine or sulphur as a catalyst up to

250 °C in vacuum. The tetra-atomic molecules of red phosphorus combine to form

macromolecules.

Group VIA Elements

Q. Why the elements of VIA other than oxygen show more than two oxidation states?

Except oxygen the other members of the group show a covalency of +2 ,+4, and +6. +2

oxidation state is shown due to 2 unpaired electrons in the p-orbitals. +4 oxidation state is shown

when 1 electron from p-orbilal is promoted to the next vacant d-orbital, while + 6 oxidation state

is shown when another electron from s-orbital is also promoted to the next vacant d-orbital.

Q. Write two similarities and two dissimilarities of oxygen and Sulphur.

Similarities

1. Both oxygen and sulphur have same outer electronic configuration of ns2p4.

2. Both oxygen and sulphur are usually divalent.

Dissimilarities

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Sulphuric Acid

Q. Justify that sulphuric acid is king of chemicals.

Sulphuric acid is called king of chemicals because of its direct and indirect applications in

manufacture of many chemicals including fertilizers. It dissolves its own compounds. It replaces

salts from weaker acids. It acts as an oxidizing and dehydrating agent for a variety of

compounds.

Q. Write down two chemical reactions which show that sulphuric acid is a dehydrating

agent?

Q. Complete and balance the following chemical equation. KMnO4+ FeSO4+ H2SO4

Q. Give two reactions of sulphuric acid which show its oxidizing behaviour.

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Q. Write any four properties of sulphuric acid.

1. Pure sulphuric acid is a colourless oily liquid without an odour.

2. Its specific gravity is 1.834 at 18 °C.

3. It freezes at 10.5 °C.

4. Its boiling point is 338 °C.

Q. Write four uses of Sulphuric acid.

1. In the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium sulphate and calcium superphosphate.

2. In refining of petroleum to remove nitrogen and sulphur compounds.

3. In the manufacture of HCl, H3PO4, HNO3 and sulphates.

4. In the manufacture of many chemicals, dyes, drugs, plastics, disinfectants, paints,

explosives, synthetic fibers, etc.

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Chapter 5
The Halogens and the Noble Gases
Peculiar Behaviour of Fluorine

(Long Question)
Q. Why iodine has metallic luster?

The size of iodine is big due to which outermost shell electrons are loosely bound. They absorb

energy and excite. On de-exciting they release energy which is seen in the form of light.

Q. Give peculiar behaviour of fluorine.

1. Small size of F atom and of F- ion.

2. High first ionization energy and electronegativity.

3. Low dissociation energy of F2 molecule as compared to Cl2 and Br2.

4. Restriction of the valence shell to an octet.

5. Direct combination with inert gases.

Points to Remember for Long Question

• Due to the small size of the F atom (or F- ion), there will be a better overlap of orbitals.

• Ionic fluorides have higher lattice energies than the other halides.

• Due to the low dissociation energy of fluorine molecule, it is highly reactive.

• The fluorides are, however, more stable with respect to dissociation into elements.

• Due to the restriction of valence shell to an octet, many fluoro compounds show

inertness.

• Fluorine is the only element that combines directly with noble gases.

Oxidizing Properties

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(Long Question)

Q. Oxidizing power of halogens depends on which factors?

1. Energy of dissociation

2. Electron affinity of atoms

3. Hydration energies of ions

4. Heats of vaporization (for Br2 and I2)

Points to Remember for Long Question

Fluorine can oxidize all the halide ions to molecular halogens.

Chlorine will oxidize both bromide and iodide ions, while bromine can oxidize only iodide ion.

Compounds of Halogens
Q. How halogen acids are ionized in water?

Halogen acids ionize in water and form halide ions and hydronium ions. For example,

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Q. What is disproportionation reaction. Give an example.

A reaction in which a species (molecule, atom or ion) is simultaneously oxidized and

reduced, is called a “disproportionation reaction”

In cold (15°C) state chlorine will react with NaOH (aq) to form hypochlorite and a halide.

Zero oxidation state of chlorine atom in Cl2, is converted to -1 in chloride and +1 in

hypochlorite.

Q. How NaOH reacts with Cl2 in cold and hot state?

In cold (15°C) state chlorine will react with NaOH (aq) to form hypochlorite and a halide.

Zero oxidation state of chlorine atom in Cl2, is converted to -1 in chloride and +1 in

hypochlorite.

Sodium hypochlorite which is produced in cold state in the above reaction decomposes forming

sodium chloride and sodium chlorate at 70°C.

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Chlorine atoms are both reduced and oxidized.

Q. Why HF is a weaker acid than other halogen acids?

HF acts as a weak acid because it has a zig-zag structure and hydrogen is trapped between

two fluorine atoms so cannot be released easily, thereby, decreasing the acidic strength of

hydrogen fluoride.

Oxyacids

(Long Question)

Knowing this table can help in adding explanation

Q. Arrange the following oxy acids in the increasing order of acid strength. HClO4, HClO3,

HClO2, HOCl

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The oxyacids of halogens show their strength in the order given below:

Points to Remember for Long Question

• The increase in the oxidation state of the halogen from +1 to + 7 is accompanied by:

(a) An increase in the thermal stability of the acid

(b) The decrease in oxidizing power of the acid

(c) The increase in acidic strength of the acid

• The acid strength increases with the increase in the number of oxygen atoms.

Q. On what basis perchloric acid is considered a valuable analytical reagent?

Due to its oxidizing effect, acidic strength and solubility of its salts, perchloric acid is

considered a valuable analytical reagent.

Q. How perchloric acid is prepared?

Bleaching Powder

(Long Question)

Bleaching powder can be manufactured by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime using any

one of the following methods:

(a) Hasenclever’s method (old method)

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(b) Beckmann’s method (modern method)

Beckmann’s method: a cast iron tower with eight horizontal shelves. In each shelf there is a

rotating rake. Powdered slaked lime is introduced through hopper at the top with

compressed air. A mixture of hot air and chlorine are introduced from the base of the tower.

Bleaching powder is collected at the bottom of the tower.

In Hasenclever method there is no counter-current principle and no rotating rakes. Rest of

the procedure is same.

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Q. How bleaching powder acts as an oxidizing agent?

It is an oxidizing agent. This property is due to the generation of hypochlorite ion (-OCl) in

water.

Q. What is meant by available chlorine?

If excess of an acid (weak or strong) is added to bleaching powder, chlorine is given out.

The amount of chlorine thus set free is called “available chlorine”. The activity of bleaching

powder is measured in terms of available chlorine. The average percentage of available

chlorine in bleaching powder is 35-40 percent.

Q. Mention any two uses of bleaching powder.

1. as a disinfectant and in the sterilization of water.

2. for making unshrinkable wool.

Commercial Uses of Halogens and their Compounds

Q. What is structural formula of Teflon? Mention its two uses.

Fluorine is used for the preparation of freons. Freon is the commercial name of low molecular

mass fluorochlorocarbons, CCl2F2, CClF3. These are being used as refrigerants and aerosol

propellants. Fluorine is used to prepare Teflon (-CF2 — CF2-)n. It is a polymerized tetrafluoro

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ethylene compound. It is a valuable plastic which resists the action of oxidants, acids and

alkalies. Corrosion proof parts of machinery are made of it.

Q. What is iodized salt?

To ensure the presence of iodide ion in the diet, sodium or potassium iodide is added to the

common salt which is known as iodized salt.

Q. What is iodex and tincture of iodine?

Iodex and tincture of iodine are popular preparations of iodine. It is used as a disinfectant and

germicide.

Noble Gases

Q. The elements of group VIIIA are called noble gases. Comment.

The outermost shell of group VIIIA elements is complete and they are inert. That is why,

they are called noble gases.

(Long Question)

Q. Give four applications of noble gases.

Neon

Neon is largely used in making neon advertising signs, in high voltage indicators and TV

tubes.

Neon and helium arc is used in making glass lasers.

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Krypton

Krypton is used to fill fluorescent tubes and in flash lamps for high speed photography.

Xenon

Xenon is used in bactericidal lamps.

Q. Write two uses of each helium and argon.

Helium

1. Helium is used in weather balloons, in welding and in traffic signal light.

2. A mixture of 80% helium and 20% oxygen is used for breathing by the sea divers.

Argon

Argon is used in electric light bulbs, in fluorescent tubes, in radio tubes, and in Geiger

counters.

Q. Why solubility of noble gases increases down the group?

The solubility of the noble gases in water increases with increasing atomic number. This is

because the bigger atoms are more readily polarized by water molecules.

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Chapter 6
Transition Elements
Q. What is meant by outer transition metals and inner transition metals?

f-block elements, i.e., Lanthanides and Actinides are also called inner transition metals,

whereas, d-block elements are called outer transition metals.

Q. Why d and f block elements are called transition elements?

The d-block and the f-block elements are called transition elements because they are located

between the s and p-block elements and their properties are in transition between the

metallic elements of the s-block and nonmetallic elements of the p-block.

Q. What are coinage metals?

Group IB elements (Cu, Ag, Au) are called coinage metals.

Q. What are typical and non-typical transition elements?

Group IIB elements (Zn, Cd and Hg) and group IIIB elements (Sc, Y and La) do not show

many of the properties associated with typical transition elements. They are non-typical

transition elements. The elements other than IIB and IIIB are called typical transition elements.

Properties of Transition Elements

Q. Define Paramagnetism, diamagnetism and Ferromagnetism.

Paramagnetism

Substances which are weakly attracted by a strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic

substances.

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Example

Mn2+

Diamagnetism

Those substances which are weakly repelled by a strong magnetic field are called diamagnetic

substances.

Example

Zn2+

Ferromagnetism

A ferromagnetic substance contains permanent atomic magnetic dipoles that are

spontaneously oriented. Ferromagnetism is a kind of magnetism that is associated with iron,

cobalt, nickel, and some alloys or compounds containing one or more of these elements.

Q. Why transition elements have variable oxidation states?

They show variable valencies because of the involvement of the unpaired d electrons in

addition to s electrons in bond formation.

Q. What is ligand? Give types of ligands.

The atoms or ions or neutral molecules which surround the central metal ion and donate

electron pairs to it are called ligands. They may be anions or neutral molecules, e.g.

K4[Fe(CN)6], [Ag(NH3)2]Cl.

CN- and NH3 are the anionic and neutral ligands. Ligands having two donor atoms are called

bidentate ligands, e.g. Oxalate ion is a bidentate ligand

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and its coordination with the metal ion occurs through its both negatively charged oxygen atoms.

Q. What are chelates? Give an example.

When all the donor atoms of a polydentate ligand get coordinated with the same metal ion,

a complex compound is formed which contains one or more rings in its structure and hence is

called a chelate.

For example,

When two oxalato ligands C2O42- (bidentate ligand) get coordinated with Pt2+ ion, dioxalato

platinate (II) ion is obtained. Each oxalate ligand forms a five membered ring with the cation.

Q. Give reason for the development of colours in the transition metal complexes.

In transition elements, the d orbitals are responsible for the colour development in their

compounds. When these orbitals are involved in bonding, they split up into two energy levels,

one set has a higher energy than the other. The electrons residing in low energy d-orbitals absorb

a part of the visible light and jump to high energy d orbitals. The process is called d-d transition.

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In [Ti(H2O)6]3+, yellow light is absorbed, while most of the blue and red lights are transmitted,

therefore the solution of [Ti(H2O)6]3+ ions looks violet in color.

Q. What is meant by interstitial compound and substitutional alloy?

Q. Give coordination number and oxidation number of iron (Fe) in K4[Fe(CN)6].

The coordination number of iron (Fe) in K4[Fe(CN)6] is 6 and the oxidation number is 2.

Iron
Q. Give formulas of Magnetite and Haematite.

Magnetite (Fe3O4)

Haematite (Fe2O3)

Q. Write carbon content in pig iron and cast iron.

Pig iron or cast iron has 2.5 to 4.5% carbon.

Q. What is the %age of carbon in different types of steel?

1. Mild Steel (0.1 - 0.2 % C)

2. Medium Carbon Steel (0.2 - 0.7 % C)

3. High Carbon Steel (0.7 -1.5 % C)

Q. What is galvanizing or anode coating? How is it done? OR What is sacrificial corrosion?

Galvanizing is done by dipping a clean iron sheet in a zinc chloride bath and heating. The iron

sheet is then removed, rolled into zinc bath and air cooled. In this case, if a protective layer of

zinc is damaged a galvanic cell is established in the presence of moisture. Iron serves as a

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cathode and zinc as an anode. Electrons flow from zinc to iron, as a result of which Zn decays

while Fe remains intact. This is called sacrificial corrosion.

Q. Why does damaged tin plated iron get rusted quickly?

If the protective coating is damaged, then a galvanic cell is established in which tin acts as a

cathode and iron as an anode. The electrons flow from iron to tin, where they discharge H+

ions, leaving behind OH- in the solution. These hydroxide ions react with iron forming Fe

(OH)3, which dissolves rapidly in water.

Q. Give the prevention of metals from corrosion.

Coating it with oil, paint, varnish or enamel.

By alloying the metals or by coating the metal with a thin layer of another metal.

Chromates and Dichromates

Q. What is Stadeler’s process?

In this method Cl2 is passed through the green solution of K2MnO4 until it becomes purple due to

the formation of KMnO4. Here, Cl2 oxidizes K2MnO4 into KMnO4.

Q. How KMnO4 can be prepared by electrolytic method.

Manganate is converted to permanganate by electrolytic oxidation. During electrolysis of an

aqueous solution of K2MnO4, water is decomposed to evolve hydrogen gas at the cathode and

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oxygen gas at the anode. Oxygen liberated at the anode oxidizes manganate ion (MnO4)2-

into permanganate ion (MnO4)1- , while hydrogen is liberated at the cathode.

The purple solution of KMnO4, obtained as above is filtered through asbestos, concentrated and

allowed to crystallize when KMnO4 deposits as deep purple-red rhombic prisms

Q. KMnO4 acts as oxidizing agent. Show with two examples.

1.

2.

Q. What is chromyl chloride test? Give chemical equation.

When solid potassium dichromate is heated with solid metal chloride in the presence of

concentrated sulphuric acid chromyl chloride is produced.

Q. Write down any two uses of potassium dichromate.

1. K2Cr2O7 finds extensive use in dyeing.

2. It is used in leather industries for chrome tanning.

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Chapter 7
Fundamental Principles of Organic Chemistry
Q. What is vital force theory? Who rejected it?

Organic compounds could be manufactured only by and within living things and these

compounds could never be synthesized from inorganic materials. This theory was referred to as

vital force theory.

This theory was rejected by Friedrick Wohler when he obtained urea (NH2)2CO, an organic

compound in the urine of mammals, from ammonium cyanate, NH4CNO.

Features of Organic Compounds

(Long Question)
Organic chemistry is that branch of chemistry which deals with the study of compounds of

carbon with hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

1. Peculiar nature of carbon

The main reason for such a large number of compounds is its unique property of linking with

other carbon atoms to form long chains or rings. This self-linking property of carbon is called

catenation.

2. Non-ionic character of organic compounds

Organic compounds are generally covalent compounds, therefore, do not give ionic reactions.

3. Similarity in behaviour

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There exists a close relationship between different organic compounds. This is exemplified

by the existence of homologous series.

4. Complexity of organic compounds

Organic molecules are usually large and structurally more complex.

5. Isomerism

Very common phenomenon in organic compounds in which compounds are represented by the

same molecular formula but have different structural formulas.

6. Rates of organic reactions

The reactions involving organic compounds are slow and in general the yields are low.

7. Solubility

Most organic compounds are insoluble in water and dissolve readily in non-polar organic

solvents, such as, benzene, petroleum ether, etc.

Cracking of Petroleum

(Long Question)

Q. Define cracking.

It is defined as breaking of higher hydrocarbons having high boiling points into a variety of

lower hydrocarbons, which are more volatile (low boiling). For example,

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Q. What is thermal cracking?

Breaking down of large molecules by heating at high temperature and pressure is called

Thermal Cracking. It is particularly useful in the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons such

as ethene and propene.

Q. What is catalytic cracking?

Higher hydrocarbons can be cracked at lower temperature (500°C) and lower pressure (2

atm), in the presence of a suitable catalyst. A typical catalyst used for this purpose is a

mixture of silica (SiO2) and alumina (AI2O3). Catalytic cracking produces gasoline of higher

octane number and, therefore, this method is used for obtaining better quality gasoline.

Q. What is steam cracking?

In this process, higher hydrocarbons in the vapour phase are mixed with steam, heated for a

short duration to about 900°C and cooled rapidly. The process is suitable for obtaining lower

unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Reforming

(Long Question)
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Q. Define reforming.

The octane number of gasoline is improved by a process called reforming. It involves the

conversion of straight chain hydrocarbons into branched chain by heating in the absence of

oxygen and in the presence of a catalyst.

Q. What is octane number and how it can be improved?

Percentage by volume of isooctane relative to that of n-heptane in a fuel is called octane

number. Octane number is improved by making isooctane through the process of reforming and

adding it to a low octane number fuel.

Q. What is meant by knocking?

Straight chain hydrocarbons e.g., n-Heptane have low octane number and burn rapidly in

internal combustion engine producing sharp metallic sound called knocking.

Classification of Organic Compounds

Q. Define homocyclic compounds. Give examples.

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The compounds in which the ring consists of only carbon atoms are Homocyclic or

carbocyclic compounds. Homocyclic compounds are further classified as:

1. Alicyclic compounds

2. Aromatic compounds

Q. What are alicyclic compounds? Give two examples.

The homocyclic compounds which contain a ring of three or more carbon atoms and

resembling aliphatic compounds are called alicyclic compounds. Typical examples of

alicyclic compounds are given below:

Cyclopropane Cyclobutane

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Q. What are aromatic compounds?

These carbocyclic compounds contain at least one benzene ring. Typical examples of

aromatic compounds are given below. For example,

Q. Differentiate between homocyclic and heterocyclic compounds.

Q. What are fused ring aromatic compounds?

Those compounds in which the benzene rings are fused together at ortho positions. For

example, naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene.

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Functional Group

Q. Define functional group. Give two examples of functional groups containing oxygen.

An atom or a group of atoms or a double bond or a triple bond whose presence imparts

specific properties to organic compounds is called a functional group. For example,

COOH carboxyl group carboxylic acid CH3COOH Acetic acid

CHO aldehyde group HCHO formaldehyde

Hybridization of Orbitals and the Shapes of Molecules

(Long Question)

Q. Define hybridization.

When atomic orbitals of different energy and shape intermix to form a new set of orbitals of

same shape and energy then it is called hybridization.

Q. Define sp3 hybridization.

In sp3 hybridization, one s and three p atomic orbitals intermix to form four equivalent

orbitals called sp3 hybrid orbitals. Examples CH4, NH3 and H2O.

Q. Explain structure of methane according to sp3 hybridization.

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Geometry: Tetrahedral geometry with carbon at center.

Bond angles: Total six bond angles of 109.5⁰

Total bonds: Four sigma bonds formed by the overlap of sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon with 1s

orbitals of four hydrogen atoms.

Q. Define sp2 hybridization.

In sp2 hybridization, one ‘s’ and two ‘p’ atomic orbitals of an atom intermix to form three

orbitals called sp2 hybrid orbitals. Example, BF3 and Ethene.

Q. Explain structure of ethene (ethylene).

Geometry: Trigonal planar.

Bond angle: The bond angle between any two sp2 hybrid orbitals is 120°

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Overlap of orbitals: sp2 hybrid orbital of each carbon overlaps to give sp2 -sp2 sigma bond and

the other two sp2 orbitals overlap with 1s orbitals of hydrogen to give sp2 -s sigma bonds. The

unhybridized 2pz orbitals overlap sideways to give a π-bond.

Q. Define sp hybridization.

In sp hybridization, one ‘s’ and one ‘p’ orbitals intermix to form two sp-hybrid orbital called

sp hybrid orbitals. Examples BeCl2 and ethyne.

Q. Explain structure of ethyne.

Geometry: Linear shape.

Total bonds: One sp-sp sigma bond and two sp-s sigma bonds. Two, 2py-2py and 2pz-2pz, π-

bonds.

Bond angles: These orbitals have a bond angle of 180o.

Isomerism

(Long Question)

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Q. Define isomerism.

Two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural

formulas and properties are said to be isomers and the phenomenon is called isomerism.

Q. Define structural isomerism./Two possible isomers of C4H10

The structural isomerism arises due to the difference in the arrangement of atoms within the

molecule.

Q. Define chain isomerism.

This type of isomerism arises due to the difference in the nature of the carbon chain. For

example, for pentane (C5H12), the following arrangements are possible.

Q. Define position isomerism.

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This type of isomerism arises due to the difference in the position of the same functional

group on the carbon chain. For example,

Q. Define functional group isomerism.

The compounds having the same molecular formula but different functional groups are said

to exhibit functional group isomerism. For example,

Q. Define metamerism.

This type of isomerism arises due to the unequal distribution of carbon atoms on either side

of the functional group. For example,

Q. Define tautomerism.

This type of isomerism arises due to shifting of proton from one atom to other in the same

molecule.

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Q. What is cis-trans or geometrical isomerism?

Such compounds which possess the same structural formula, but differ with respect to the

positions of the identical groups in space are called cis-trans isomers and the phenomenon is

known as the cis-trans or geometric isomerism.

Q. Why free rotation is not possible in case of pi bond?

The parallel overlap of the orbitals in a pi bond restricts rotation of the double bonded carbon

atoms in alkenes.

Q. 2-butene shows geometrical isomerism but 1-butene does not. Why?

1- Butene has two hydrogen atoms on first carbon atom therefore it does not fulfill the condition

necessary for geometric isomerism. Hence, has no cis or trans isomers.

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Q. What are the conditions for cis-trans isomerism?

Restricted rotation of carbon atoms due to a double bond.

Two different groups attached to each carbon atom making the double bond.

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Chapter 8
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
(Most Repeated Reactions from Past papers are Focused which may
come for both Short Questions and Long Question)
Alkanes
Write down structural formulas of the following:

a. 2-Methyl propane

b. Neopentane

c. 3-Ethylpentane

d. 2,2-Dimethyl pentane

a.

b.

c.

d.

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Q. Why sigma bond is inert?

In a sigma bond the electrons are very tightly held between the nuclei which make it a very

stable bond. A lot of energy is required to break it. The electrons present in a sigma bond can

neither attack on any electrophile nor a nucleophile can attack on them. Both these facts

make alkanes less reactive.

Q. Give any two uses of methane.

(i) As a fuel and as an illuminating gas.

(ii) For the preparation of methyl chloride, dichloromethane, chloroform and carbon

tetrachloride.

Q. How would you prepare alkane from carbonyl compounds?

Q. Alkanes are less reactive than alkenes. Comment.

Alkanes have sigma bond between them in which electrons are tightly held between the nuclei.

In pi bond, π-electrons are less firmly held between the nuclei. A π-bond breaks comparatively

easily rendering alkenes as reactive group of compounds.

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Q. Convert methane into i. Formaldehyde ii. Nitromethane

Q. Prepare Ethane from i. Ethyl alcohol ii. Ethyl chloride

Q. How is Methane converted to Ethane and Ethane converted to Methane?

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Alkenes

Q. Give two uses of ethene.

1. For artificial ripening of the fruits.

2. As a general anesthetic.

Q. Discuss hydroxylation of ethene.

Q. State Markownikov’s rule. Give example.

In the addition of an unsymmetrical reagent to an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the

adding reagent goes to that carbon, constituting the double bond, which has least number of

hydrogen atoms.

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Q. Ethene can be converted to ethyl alcohol. Write equation.

Q. Ozonolysis of alkene is used to locate the position of double bond. Comment.

Ozone is added at the point of unsaturation which shows the presence of double bond.

Q. Give the chemical reactions of Ethene with the following.

i. H2SO4 ii. Br2 iii. O3 iv. HOX v. HCl

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i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

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Alkynes

Q. Give two uses of ethyne.

1. In oxyacetylene torch which is in turn used for welding and cutting metals.

2. For the preparation of alcohols, acetic acid and acetaldehyde.

Q. How is water added to propyne?

Q. How Ammonical solution of AgNO3 can be used to distinguish between 1-Butyne and 2-

Butyne?

1-Butyne is a terminal alkyne and thus acidic in nature. It therefore reacts with cuprous chloride

Cu2Cl2 in presence of NH4OH to produce a red precipitate. In 2-Butyne triple bond is not

terminal hence triple bonded carbon atoms do not have a hydrogen atom attached and therefore

lack acidic character. It gives no reaction with cuprous chloride Cu2Cl2 in presence of NH4OH.

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Q. Write the chemical equation when alkaline KMnO4 reacts with ethyne.

Q. How cis and trans alkenes are prepared from alkyne?

Controlled hydrogenation of alkynes with hydrogen gas in an equimolar ratio over heated

catalysts, gives alkenes. The catalyst is finely divided palladium supported on BaSO4 and

poisoned by treatmentwith quinoline (Lindlar’s catalyst).

A trans alkene can be obtained by treating an alkyne with Na in liquid NH3 at -33 °C.

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Q. How will you synthesize following compounds from ethyne (acetylene) i. Benzene ii.

Chloroprene

Q. Convert ethyne into acetaldehyde.

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Q. How can you convert a. Propyne into acetone b. Ethyne into oxalic acid

Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

Q. Write mechanism for Kolbe’s electrolytic method for preparation of an alkane, alkene

and alkyne.

For alkane

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For alkene

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For alkyne

Q. Explain acidic nature of alkynes with at least two examples.

The sp hybridized carbon atom of a terminal alkyne pulls the electrons more strongly making the

attached hydrogen atom slightly acidic.

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Q. How can you convert (a) 2,3-Dibromo butane into 2-Butene (b) Acetone into propane (c)

Acetylene into Disilver acetylide

Q. Convert acetylene to (a) Vinyl acetylene (b) Divinyl acetylene (c) Acetaldehyde

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Q. How will you distinguish between Ethane, Ethene and Ethyne?

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Chapter 9
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(Most Repeated Reactions from Past papers are Focused which may
come for both Short Questions and Long Question)
Q. Draw structural formulae of following compounds:

i. m-Chlorobenzoic acid ii. 2,4,6-Trnitrotoluene iii. p-Dibenzylbenzene iv. p-Nitroaniline

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

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Q. What happens when:

a. benzene is heated with conc. H2SO4 at 250 oC.

b. Chlorine is passed through benzene in sunlight

a.

b.

Q. Predict major product of the bromination of benzene.

Q. Benzene can be prepared commercially from acetylene.

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Q. Convert benzene into:

i. Cyclohexane ii. Maleic anhydride

i.

ii.

Q. How will you prepare following compounds from benzene in two steps?

i. m-Chloronitrobenzene ii. p-Chloronitrobenzene

i.

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ii.

Q. What is Wurtz-Fittig reaction?

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Q. Give mechanism of sulphonylation of benzene.

Q. Write down mechanism for Halogenation of benzene.

Q. Give mechanism for nitration of benzene.

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Q. Give reaction of benzene with ozone.

Q. Give mechanism of Friedel -Craft’s Acylation and Alkylation.

Alkylation

Acylation

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Q. What happens when toluene is reacted with i. Cl2 in sunlight ii. KMnO4 in presence of
H2SO4.

Q. Convert benzene into

(a) Glyoxal

(b) Benzene sulphonic acid

Q. Write down two reactions in which benzene behaves as saturated hydrocarbon and two
reactions in which as unsaturated hydrocarbon.

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Saturated Hydrocarbon

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

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Structure of Benzene

(Long Question)
X-Ray Studies

• Hexagonal structure

• All the angles are of 120°

• All C - C and C -H bond lengths are 1.397 ⁰A and 1.09 ⁰A,

respectively

Atomic Orbital Treatment of Benzene

• Each carbon in benzene is sp2 hybridized

• All the angles are of 120° which confirms the regular hexagonal structure of benzene

• The unhybridized 2pz orbitals partially overlap to form a continuous sheath of electron

cloud, enveloping, above and below, the six carbon carbon sigma bonds of the ring.

Stability of Benzene

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This difference between amount of heat actually released and that calculated on the basis

of the Kekule’s structure is now called the ‘Resonance energy’ of the compound. It

means benzene shows the phenomenon of resonance which makes it more stable than

others.

The Resonance Method

Major contributor: Kekule’s structures

Minor contributor: Dewar structures

In benzene the C-C bond length is 1.397A. The C - C bond length in benzene is

intermediate between those in alkanes and alkenes. The resonating single

and double bonds in benzene can better be represented as a complete circle

inside the ring.

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Chapter 10
Alkyl Halides
Q. Write IUPAC names of:

a. Carbon tetrabromide b. Chloroform c. Methylene chloride d. Methyl iodide

a.

b. CHCl3

c. CH2Cl2

d. CH3I

Q. How will you convert CH3—CH3 to (CH3-CH2)4NBr?

Q. Which method is considered best for the preparation of alkyl halides?

Alcohols react with thionyl chloride in pyridine as a solvent to give alkyl chlorides. This is the

best method because HCl, and SO2 gases escape leaving behind the pure product.

Q. Define nucleophile, electrophile, leaving group and substrate molecule.

Nucleophile

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Nucleophile means nucleus loving. It has an unshared electron pair available for bonding

and in most cases it is basic in character. It may be negatively charged or neutral.

Electrophile

It is specie which attracts electrons. The carbon atom of an alkyl group attached with the

halogen atom and bearing a partial positive charge is called an electrophile or electrophilic

center. An electrophile may be neutral or positively charged. Example, C+, Na+, K+, BF3

Leaving Group

L is also a nucleopile. It is called leaving group because it departs with an unshared pair of

electrons. Iodide ion is a good nucleophile as well as a good leaving group.

Substrate Molecule

The alkyl halide molecule on which a nucleophile attacks is called a substrate molecule.

Q. Convert Ethyl bromide into: (a) Ethane (a) n-Butane (c) diethyl amine (d) Propane (e)
Ethyl alcohol

(a)

(b)

(c)

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(d)

(e)

Q. Write reactions of Ethanol with i) PBr3 ii) PCl3

Q. What is Wurtz’s synthesis?

Q. Prepare from Ethyl bromide i. Ethyl thioalcohol ii. Ethyl acetate.

Q. How does ethyl magnesium bromide react with: a. CO2 b. CH3-CHO c. H2O d. CH3OH,
e. CH3COCH3 f. HCHO g. ClCN h. H2O i. Ammonia j. propanoic acid k. Ethane

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Q. How will you bring about the following conversions from an alkyl halide? A. Diethyl
ether b. Nitroethane

a.

b.

Grignard Reagent

Q. What is the nature of C-Mg bond in R-Mg-X? It is prepared in ether (dry) so

hydrolysis may not occur
resulting in formation of acids,
alcohols and aldehydes

Magnesium is less electronegative that carbon so partial positive charge appears on magnesium

and partial negative on carbon attached to it. This negative charge on carbon is very unusual

which makes alkyl group very reactive towards electrophiles.

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Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions and Elimination Reactions

(Long Question)

Substitution Reactions

Sr SN2 SN1
No
.
1. Name Name
It is called nucleophilic substitution It is called nucleophilic substitution
bimolecular unimolecular
2. Number of steps Number of steps
This is a single step mechanism This is a two step mechanism
3. Extent Extent
The extent of bond formation is equal to the The extent of bond formation is not equal
extent of bond breakage to the extent of bond breakage
4. Mechanism Mechanism

50% inversion
5. As soon as the nucleophile starts attacking the The first step is the reversible ionization
electrophilic carbon of the substrate, the bond of the alkyl halide in the presence of an
with which the leaving group is attached starts aqueous ethyl alcohol. This step provides
breaking a carbocation as an intermediate. In the
second step this carbocation is attacked
by the nucleophile to give the product
6. Direction of attack of nucleophile Direction of attack of nucleophile
Nucleophile attacks from the side which is The intermediate carbocation is a planar
opposite to the leaving group specie allowing the nucleophile to attack
on it from both the directions with equal
ease
7. Configuration of product Configuration of product
100% inverted product 50% inversion of configuration and 50%
retention of configuration in product
8. Hybridization
The substrate carbon atom changes its state of hybridization from tetrahedral sp3 to planar

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sp2 for a short time

9. Molecularity Molecularity
Two molecules are participating in this step soOnly one molecule participates in the rate
it is called a bimolecular reaction determining step (slow step) so it is
Molecularity= 2 unimolecular reaction.
Molecularity=1
10. Rate of Reaction Rate of Reaction
Rate=k[Alkyl halide]1[Nucleophile]1 Rate=k[Alkyl halide]1
11. Order of Reaction Order of Reaction
1+1=2 Second order reaction First order reaction
12. Primary alkyl halides give SN2 Tertiary alkyl halides give SN1
Secondary alkyl halides give both SN1 and SN2 depending on conditions
Elimination Reactions

Sr No E1 E2
1 It is a two step elimination reaction It is a one step elimination reaction
2 It is unimolecular It is bimolecular
3 It is carried out along with SN1 It is carried out along with SN2
4 It is given by tertiary alkyl halides It is given by primary alkyl halides
Secondary alkyl halides give both E1 and E2
5

Nature of the product in both the cases is an alkene

6 Molecularity of the reaction is 1 Molecularity of the reaction is 2
7 Rate=k[Alkyl halide] Rate=k[Alkyl halide][Base]
8 Order of the reaction is 1 Order of the reaction is 2

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Chapter 11
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Q. Give structural formulas of (i) methoxy ethane (ii) ethoxy benzene (iii) carbolic acid (iv)
glycerol.

(i)

CH3OC2H5

(ii)

C2H5OC6H5

(iii) C6H5OH

(iv)

Alcohols
Q. Ethanol reacts with sulphuric acid and gives different products at different
temperatures. Comment.

Q. How is ethyl alcohol prepared from molasses? Write equations.

The residue obtained after the crystallization of sugar from concentrated sugar cane juice is

called molasses. It undergoes fermentation in the presence of enzymes present in yeast to

give ethanol.

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Q. How is Lucas test used to distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols?

Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols are identified and distinguished by reacting them with

conc. HCI in anhydrous ZnCl2. An oily layer of alkyl halides separates out in these reactions.

1. Tertiary alcohols form an oily layer immediately.

2. Secondary alcohols form an oily layer in five to ten minutes.

3. Primary alcohols form an oily layer only on heating.

Q. What is denaturing of alcohols? Or How methylated spirit is prepared?

Sometimes ethanol is denatured by addition of 10% methanol to avoid its use for drinking

purposes. Such alcohol is called methylated spirit. A small quantity of pyridine or acetone may

also be added for this purpose.

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Q. Write any four uses of ethyl alcohol.

(i) It is used as solvent

(ii) It is used as a drink

(iii) It is used as a fuel

(iv) It is used as a preservative for biological specimen

Q. Why ethanol has higher boiling point than diethyl ether?

Ethanol has higher boiling point than diethyl ether because hydrogen bonding is present in

ethanol which increases the boiling point. No hydrogen bonding is present in diethyl ether.

Q. Define Absolute alcohol.

Alcohol is distilled again and again to obtain 95% alcohol which is called rectified spirit.

Absolute alcohol can be obtained by re-distillation of rectified spirit in the presence of CaO

which absorbs its moisture.

Q. Why we cannot get ethanol beyond 12 or 14% through fermentation?

Alcohol obtained by fermentation is only up to 12% and never exceeds 14% because beyond

this limit enzymes become inactive.

Q. How will you convert (i) Methanol into ethanol (ii) Ethanol into methanol.

(i) Methanol into ethanol

(ii) Ethanol into methanol

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Phenols
Q. Convert phenol into (a) 2,4,6-Trbromophenol (b) Cyclohexanol

a.

b.

Q. How phenol can be converted to benzene?

Q. How does phenol react with bromine water?

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Q. Write two methods of preparation of Phenol. OR Prepare phenol from chlorobenzene

by Dow’s method.

a.

b.

Q. Convert phenol to picric acid. OR Picric acid is a phenol which behaves like an acid.
Justify.

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Picric acid 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol has 3 nitro groups present which have electron withdrawing

nature. Nitro groups can engage the negative charge on benzene ring in delocalization, setting

the proton free for longer time. So, picric acid acts as an acid.

Q. Why is phenol acidic in nature?

The reason why phenol is acidic lies in the nature of the phenoxide ion. The negative charge on

oxygen atom can become involved with the pi electron cloud on the benzene ring. The

negative charge is thus delocalized in the ring and the phenoxide ion becomes relatively

stable.

Ethers
Q. What is Williamson’s synthesis?

Q. Why ethers are referred to as inert compounds?

Ethers are comparatively inert substances. It is because the oxygen atom is surrounded by

bulky alkyl groups rendering them inert towards majority of the reagents.

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Chapter 12
Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes
Q. How formalin (formaldehyde) is prepared on commercial (large) scale?

Formaldehyde (Formalin) is manufactured commercially by passing a mixture of methanol

vapours and air over iron oxide-molybdenum oxide or silver catalyst at 500 oC.

Q. Prepare following compounds from carbonyl compounds: a. Lactic acid b. Paraldehyde

c. Ethanal Oxime d. Crotonaldehyde e. Metaformaldehyde

a.

b.

c.

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d.

b&e.

Q. How formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone react with NaHSO3?

Q. Give mechanism of aldol condensation.

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Q. Give mechanism of Cannizzaro’s condensation.

Q. Give haloform reaction of acetaldehyde, acetone and ethanal.

Q. Tell about oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.

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Ketones do not undergo oxidation easily because they require breaking of strong carbon -

carbon bond. They give no reaction with mild oxidising agents. They are only oxidised by

strong oxidising agents such as K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4, KMnO4/ H2SO4, and conc. HNO3.

Q. Prepare acetone from calcium acetate?

Tests to Distinguish Carbonyl Compounds

2,4 DNPH Test

Aldehydes and ketones form a yellow or red precipitate with 2,4 dinitrophenylhdrazine
solution.

Sodium Bisulphite Test

Aldehydes and small methyl ketones form a crystalline white precipitate with saturated sodium
bisulphite solution.

Tollen's Test [Silver Mirror Test]

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Aldehydes form silver mirror with Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate solution).
Add Tollen’s reagent to an aldehyde solution in a test tube and warm. A silver mirror is formed
on the inside of the test tube. High quality mirrors are manufactured by using this principle.
Ketones do not give this test.

Fehling’s test

Fehling’s solution is a mixture of Cu(OH)2, NaOH and tartaric acid. It reduces aldehyde and
produces brick red ppt of Cu2O on heating.

Benedict’s solution

Aliphatic aldehydes form a brick-red precipitate with Benedicts's solution. To an aldehyde

solution, add Benedict's solution and boil. A brick-red precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.

Ketones do not give this test.

Sodium Nitroprusside Test

Ketones produce a wine red or orange red colour on adding alkaline sodium nitroprusside

solution dropwise. Aldehydes do not give this test.

Q. Give uses of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde.

Uses of formaldehyde

(i) It is used in the manufacture of resins like urea-formaldehyde and plastics such as bakelite.

(ii) It is used in the manufacture of dyes such as indigo, para-rosaniline, etc.

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(iii) Its 40% aqueous solution called formalin is used as an antiseptic, a disinfectant, a germicide,
a fungicide and for preserving animal specimens and sterlising surgical instruments.

(iv) It is used as a decolourising agent in vat dyeing.

Uses of acetaldehyde

1. It is used in the production of acetic acid, acetic anhydride, n-butanol, ethanol, 2-ethyl-1-
hexanol, vinyl acetate, paraldehyde, ethylacetate, etc.

2. It is used to make acetaldehyde ammonia used as a rubber-accelerator.

3. It is used to make chloral hydrate, ethanol trimer and tetramer. Chloral hydrate and ethanol
trimer are both used as hypnotic drugs whereas ethanol tetramer is used as a slug poison.

4. It is used as an antiseptic inhalant in nasal infections.

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Chapter 13
Carboxylic Acids
Q. Write structural formulae of Phthalic acid and Malonic acid.

Q. Why first four members of aliphatic carboxylic acids are soluble into water?

The first four members of aliphatic carboxylic acids are soluble into water due to hydrogen

bonding.

Q. Why do mostly carboxylic acids exist as dimers?

In pure carboxylic acids Hydrogen bonding can occur between two molecules of acid to produce

a dimer. This immediately doubles the size of the molecule and so increases Vander Waals

dispersion forces between one of these dimmers and its neighbours, resulting in a high boiling

point.

What is meant by Glacial acetic acid?

The pure, anhydrous acetic acid, forming ice-like crystals at temperatures below 16.7°C, is called

glacial acetic acid.

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Q. How carboxylic acid can be obtained from alkene?

Q. Write two reactions of carboxylic acids in which hydrogen atom of carboxyl group is
involved.

Acetic Acid
Q. How acetic acid is prepared from methyl nitrile?

Q. How acetic acid reacts with a. PCl5 b. SOCl2 c. Na2CO3

a.

b.

c.

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Prepare ethane from acetic acid by reduction.

Write reactions of acetic acid with: i. HI/Red Phosphorus ii. NH3/Heat

i.

ii.

Q. How will you convert acetic acid into methane and acetic anhydride?

Acetic acid to methane

Acetic acid to acetic anhydride

Amino acids
Q. Define amino acid.

Amino acids are organic compounds containing both amino and carboxyl groups. They are

represented by the general formula:

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Q. Write formulae of Glycine and Alanine.

Q. Tell about acidic and basic nature of amino acids.

1. When an acid is added to an amino acid the carboxylate ion accepts the proton and, therefore,

the basic character is due to this group.

2. When an alkali is added to an amino acid, NH3 group releases the proton and therefore the

acidic character is due to this group.

Q. Differentiate between acidic and basic amino acids.

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Q. Define neutral amino acids with example.

Since an amino acid has both an amine and acid group which have been neutralized in the

zwitter ion the amino acid is neutral unless there is an extra acid or base on the side chain.

If neither is present then the whole amino acid is neutral. eg. glycine, alanine, valine etc.

Q. What is difference between essential and non-essential amino acids?

Q. Define Zwitter ion or internal salt?

The amino acids exist as dipolar ion called Zwitter ion. It has positive as well as negative ends

within the same molecule. In the formation of Zwitter ion, the proton goes from the

carboxyl group to amino group. The Zwitter ionic structure of an amino acid may be written

as:

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Q. How amino acid is prepared by Strecker’s synthesis?

Q. What is peptide bond? Write formula of a dipeptide.

Peptides are the compounds formed by the condensation of two or more same or different α-

amino acids.

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Chapter 14
Macromolecules

Q. Define polymerization. Explain the term degree of polymerization.

Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to

form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.

The length of the polymer chain is specialized by the number of repeating units in the chain

known as the degree of polymerization (DP), for example, in linear polythene

The repeating unit is

Where, n is called degree of polymerization and it is usually a large number.

Q. How are macromolecules classified?

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Q. What is the structure of starch and cholesterol?

Structure of Starch

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Types of Polymers

Q. Define copolymer. Give four examples.

A copolymer is formed by the polymerization of two monomers together, e.g; vinyl acetate

reacts with butyl maleate to give a copolymer.

Q. How Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is prepared and give its uses?

It is an addition polymer obtained by polymerizing vinyl chloride at 52 °C and 9

atmospheric pressure.

It is widely used in floor coverings, in pipes, in gramophone recorders, etc.

Q. What are thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers?

A thermoplastic polymer is one which can be softened repeatedly when heated and

hardened when cooled with a little change in properties. Examples: PVC pipes, plastic toys,

etc.

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The polymers which become hard on heating and cannot be softened again are called

thermosetting polymers. A thermosetting polymer, on heating, decomposes instead of

melting. Examples: synthetic varnish, epoxy resins, etc.

Q. How is Nylon-6,6 prepared?

It is obtained by heating adipic acid (hexanedioic acid) with hexamethylene diamine.

Q. Write a note on condensation polymer.

This type of polymerization results from the mutual reaction of two functional groups. The

reaction usually involves the removal of a water molecule or a methanol molecule.

For example, dicarboxylic acids or esters combine with diols to get the desired polymer like

nylon and polyester fibre. Such polymerizations are generally ionic in nature.

Lipids

Q. In what way fats and oils are different?

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The glycerides in which long chain saturated acid components predominate tend to be solid

or semi-solid and are termed as fats. On the other hand, oils are glycerol esters which contain

higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acid components and are in liquid form at room

temperature.

Q. What are lipids? Give two physical properties.

Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds of animals and plant origin which are

soluble in organic solvents and belong to a very heterogeneous group of substances. Examples:

Fats & Oils

1. They are insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar solvents e.g. ether, chloroform and

benzene, etc.

2. Their primary building blocks are fatty acids, glycerol and sterols.

Q. Discuss Saponification number and give example.

It is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide

required to saponify one gram of the fat or oil. For example, one mole of glycerol tripalmitate

(mol. wt = 807) requires 168,000 mg of KOH for saponification. Therefore, one gram of fat will

require 168000/807 mg of KOH. Hence the saponification number of glycerol tripalmitate is

208.

Q. Define iodine number and acid number.

Iodine number is defined as the number of grams of iodine which will add to 100 grams of a

fat or an oil. The value of iodine number depends on the number of double bonds present in

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the acid component of the glycerides. The glycerides with no double bonds have zero iodine

number.

Acid number tells the amount of free fatty acids present in it. It is expressed as the number

of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize one gram of fat.

Q. What is rancidity of fats and oils?

Fats or oils are liable to spoilage and give off an odour known as rancidity. It is mainly caused

by the hydrolytic or oxidative reactions which release foul smelling aldehydes and fatty

acids.

Q. What is meant by hardening of oil?

Unsaturated glycerides react with hydrogen in the presence of a metal catalyst to give

saturated glycerides. The result is the conversion of a liquid glyceride (an oil) into a semi-

solid glyceride (a fat).

Proteins

Q. What is denaturation of proteins?

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The structure of proteins can be disrupted easily by heat, change in pH and under strong

oxidizing and reducing conditions. This is denaturation of proteins. The most familiar

example of denaturation is the change that takes place in albumin, the principle component of

egg white, when it is cooked.

Carbohydrates

Q. What are carbohydrates? Why are they called so?

The name carbohydrate (hydrate of carbon) is derived from the fact that the first compound of

this group which was studied had an empirical formula Cx (H2O)y . They are commonly

called ‘sugars’ and are ‘polyhydroxy compounds’ of aldehydes and ketones.

DNA and RNA

Q. What are differences between DNA and RNA?

Q. What is function of DNA and RNA?

The function of DNA and RNA is to carry genetic information which is used in cells to make

proteins necessary for cell function.

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Enzymes

Q. Give four properties of enzymes.

1. Enzymes are specific in their action which means that an enzyme will act on only one

substrate or a group of closely related substrates.

2. Enzymes with few exceptions are protein in nature.

3. Most enzymatic reactions are reversible.

4. The enzymes from the same organisms which catalyze the same reaction but

are chemically and physically distinct from each other are called isoenzymes.

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Chapter 15
Common Chemical Industries in Pakistan
Fertilizers
Q. What are fertilizers?

Fertilizers are the substances added to the soil to make up the deficiency of essential

elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) required for the proper growth of

plants. Fertilizers enhance the natural fertility of the soil or replenish the chemical elements

taken up from soil by the previous crops.

Q. What are micronutrients?

Elements required in very small amount for the growth of plants are considered as micro-

nutrients. These include Boron, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Molybdenum and Chloride.

These are required in range from 6grams to 200grams per acre.

Q. What are macronutrients?

Elements required in large amount are considered as macro-nutrients. These include Nitrogen,

Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. These

are required in range from 5kg to 200kg per acre.

Q. Mention any four essential qualities of a good fertilizer.

The essential requisites of a good fertilizer are:

1. The nutrient elements present in it must be readily available to the plant.

2. It must be fairly soluble in water so that it thoroughly mixes with the soil.

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3. It should not be injurious to plant.

4. It should be cheap.

Manufacturing of Urea is Long Question

Q. Mention the steps involved in the manufacturing of urea.

Following steps are involved in the manufacture of urea.

i) Preparation of Hydrogen and Carbon dioxide

ii) Preparation of Ammonia

iii) Preparation of Ammonium Carbamate

iv) Preparation of Urea

v) Concentration of Urea

vi) Prilling

Q. Which reactions are involved in the manufacture of urea?

Following reactions are involved in the manufacturing of urea:

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Q. What is meant by prilling of urea?

The molten urea is sprayed at the prilling tower by means of prilling bucket where it is cooled

by the air rising upward. Molten droplets solidify into the form of prills.

Q. What is the role of phosphorus in plant growth?

Phosphorus is required to stimulate early growth to accelerate the seed and fruit formation

during the later stages of growth. It also increases resistance to diseases.

Q. What is the role of potassium in plant growth?

Potassium is required for the formation of starch, sugar and the fibrous material of the plant.

They increase resistance to diseases and make the plants strong by helping in healthy root

development. They also help in ripening of seeds, fruits and cereals. Potassium fertilizers are

especially useful for tobacco, coffee, potato and corn.

Q. What is the role of nitrogen in plant growth?

Nitrogen is required during the early stage of plant growth for the development of stems and

leaves. It is the main constituent of protein, imparts green colour to the leaves and enhances

the yield and quality of the plants.

Cement Industry

(Long Question)

Q. Define cement.

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Cement is the material obtained by burning an intimate mixture of calcarious and argillaceous

materials at sufficiently high temperature to produce clinkers. These clinkers are then ground to

a fine powder. The essential constituents are lime (obtained from limestone) silica and

alumina (present in clay).

Q. Give percentage composition of cement.

Q. What are the steps of the wet process for the manufacturing of cement?

1. Crushing and grinding of the raw material.

2. Mixing the material in correct proportion.

3. Heating the prepared mixture in a rotary kiln.

4. Grinding the heated product known as clinker.

5. Mixing and grinding of cement clinker with gypsum.

Q. Give different zones in the rotary kiln and their temperature ranges.

There four different zones:

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(a) Drying or Pre-heating Zone (Minimum temperature zone): In this zone the temperature is

kept at 500°C, whereby the moisture is removed and the clay is broken into AI2O3, SiO2, and

Fe2O3.

(b) Decomposition Zone (Moderate temperature zone): Here the temperature goes up to

900°C In this zone the limestone (CaCO3) decomposes into lime (CaO) and CO2

(c) Burning Zone (Maximum temperature zone): In this zone, the temperature goes up to

1500°C and the oxides, e.g. CaO, SiO2, AI2O3 and Fe2O3 combine together and form calcium

silicate, calcium aluminate and calcium ferrite.

(d) Cooling Zone: This is the last stage in the kiln where the charge is cooled up to 150- 200°C.

Q. What is clinker formation?

The resulting product obtained from the kiln is known as cement clinker. This has the

appearance of greenish black or grey colored balls varying in size from small nuts to peas.

Q. What is meant by setting of cement? Mention the reactions involved in setting of

cement.

When cement is mixed with water it sets to a hard mass when allowed to stand for some

time. This is called setting of cement. The reactions involved in the setting of cement are

described as follows:

Q. Mention the reactions taking place in first 24 hours in setting of cement.

Reactions Taking Place in First 24 Hours

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A short time after the cement is mixed with water, tri-calcium aluminate absorbs water

(hydration) and forms a colloidal gel of the composition, 3 CaO. AI2O3.6H2O, (hydrated

tricalcium aluminate). This gel starts crystallizing slowly, reacts with gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) to

form the crystals of calcium sulpho-aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.2H2O).

Q. Mention the reactions taking place between 1 to 7 days in setting of cement.

Reactions Taking Place Between 1 to 7 Days

Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2) and tri-calcium aluminate (3CaO. AI2O3) get hydrolyzed to

produce calcium hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide, thus formed,

starts changing into needle-shaped crystals, which get studded in the colloidal gel and impart

strength to it. Aluminium hydroxide, on the other hand, fills the interstices resulting in hardening

the mass. The gel formed starts losing water partly by evaporation and sets to a hard mass.

Q. Give flow sheet diagram for the manufacturing of cement.

Paper Industry

Q. Mention three non-woody and three woody raw materials used in paper industry.

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Names of the three non-woody materials are: i. Wheat straw ii. Cotton stalk iii. Rice straw

Names of the woody materials are: (i) Poplar (hard wood) (ii) Eucalyptus (hard wood) (iii)

Douglas fir (soft wood)

Q. What is meant by NSSC? Why it is commonly used in Pakistan?

The term NSSC stands for neutral sulphite semi chemical process. The neutral sulphite semi

chemical process has come to occupy the dominant position because of the advantages in

chemical recovery and pulp strength.

Q. Briefly describe the process of neutral sulphite semi chemical process.

The process utilizes sodium sulphite cooking liquor which is buffered with sodium carbonate

or NaOH to neutralize the organic acid liberated from the raw materials.

Q. Mention the parts of paper making machine.

Following are the parts of paper making machine:

(a) Flow Spreader

(b) Head Box

(c) Fourdrinier Table

(d) Press Section

(e) Dryer Section

(f) Calendar Stock

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(g) Reel

Long Questions

(Only main points are given to be remembered while attempting long question

so you may get some credit)

Add information from the short questions already given

Q. Explain neutral sulphite semi-chemical process for paper making.

The essential steps in the process are as follows:

i. Cutting of the raw materials

Precut state or big logs are cut into small chips.

ii. Dry cleaning

Air is blown into the raw material, which removes unwanted particles.

iii. Wet cleaning

It removes the remaining dust particles and the soluble materials also get dissolved in water.

iv. Screening

Magnetic separator remove iron pieces. Stones and other oversized pieces are removed by

centricleaners. The major types of chest screens are vibratory, gravity, and centrifugal.

v. Digestion

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As the raw material enters into the digester, steam is introduced at the bottom and a liquor

containing sodium sulphite is injected to cover the raw material. Sodium sulphite used is

buffered with sodium carbonate to maintain its pH 7-9. The digester is closed and revolved at 2.5

RPM and a temperature of 160-180°C is maintained. After 45 minutes the digester is switched

off automatically and pressure is released.

vi. Blow tank

The cooked material from the digester is blown into a blow tank and then pumped to a

centrifugal screen for the separation of cooked from uncooked materials.

vii. Pulp washing

The cooked material is washed with water using 80-mesh sieve to remove the black liquor. The

pulp is washed with required amount of water to remove soluble lignin and coloured compounds.

viii. Bleaching

Bleaching is done with chlorine or sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide.

ix. Stock preparation plant

ix. Paper making machine

(a) Flow Spreader

(b) Head Box

(c) Fourdrinier Table

(d) Press Section

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(e) Dryer Section

(f) Calendar Stock

(g) Reel

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Chapter 16
Environmental Chemistry
Components of the Environment
Q. Define Environmental chemistry. Name components of the environment.

Environmental chemistry deals with the chemicals and other pollutants in the environment.

Environment consists of following four components:-

i. Atmosphere

ii. Hydrosphere

iii. Lithosphere

iv. Biosphere/Ecosphere

Q. What is biosphere?

Biosphere is the region of earth capable of supporting life. It includes lower atmosphere, the

oceans, rivers, lakes, soils and solid sediments that actively interchange materials with all types

of living organisms i.e., human beings, animals and plants.

Q. What is hydrosphere?

The hydrosphere includes all water bodies, mainly oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, polar ice caps,

glaciers and ground water reservoirs (water below earth surface).

Q. Define atmosphere. What is the composition of atmosphere?

The layer of gases surrounding the earth is called atmosphere. It consists of various gases in

different proportions i.e., N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (0.9%), CO2 (0.03 %) and trace amounts of

H2, O3, CH4, CO, He, Ne, Kr and Xe. It also contains varying amounts of water vapours.

Q. What is lithosphere?

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It consists of rigid rocky crust of earth and extends to the depth of 100 km. The mantle and

core are the heavy interior of the earth, making up most of the earth’s mass.

Types of Pollution
Q. What are primary and secondary air pollutants?

The waste products given out from chimneys of industrial units and exhaust of automobiles

are called primary pollutants. For example, sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide, nitrogen oxides,

radioactive materials etc.

The primary pollutants in the atmosphere through various reactions produce secondary

pollutants. For example, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, hydrofluoric acid etc.

Q. CO is primary air pollutant. Write its poisoning effect on humans.

Carbon monoxide is highly poisonous gas and causes suffocation if inhaled. It binds blood

haemoglobin more strongly than oxygen thus excluding oxygen from normal respiration.

Exposure to high concentration of CO results in headache, fatigue, unconsciousness and

eventually death.

Q. How is water purified by aeration?

The quality of raw water is improved by aeration. Air is passed through water to remove the

dissolved gases such as foul smelling H2S, organosulphur compounds and volatile organic

compounds. Some of the organic materials produce CO2 in the aeration process. The

remaining portions of organic material are removed by passing water over activated

carbon. Aeration process also oxidizes water soluble Fe2+ to Fe3+ which then forms insoluble

Fe (OH)3 and can be removed as solid. Aeration also improves the oxygen level of raw

water.

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Q. How is oil spillage affecting the marine life?

Many petroleum products in oil spillage pose serious health problems. Hydrocarbons

particularly polycyclic aromatics are carcinogenic even at very low concentrations. The

marine organisms are severely affected by soluble aromatic fractions of oil (C-10 or less). The

light transmission through surface of water is affected by oily layer on it thus

photosynthesis of the plants and dissolved oxygen in water is decreased.

Q. How detergents are threat to aquatic life?

The waste water containing detergents when discharged in rivers or sea, greatly affects the

aquatic life. Detergent contents of waste water mobilize the bound toxic ions of heavy metals

such as Pb, Cd and Hg from sediments into water.

Q. What is acid rain?

The precipitation which is more acidic than natural rain is considered acid rain or acid

deposition. The rain water which has pH less than 5 is considered truly acidic.

Q. Write four harmful effects of acid rain.

Acidification of the soil and rocks can leach metals like aluminium, mercury, lead and calcium

and discharges them into water bodies.

The heavy metals are accumulated in the fishes and are health hazards for humans and birds as

they eat these fishes. The elevated concentration of aluminium is harmful for fish as it clogs the

gills thus causing suffocation.

Acidification of the soil can also leach nutrients thus damaging leaves and plants and growth

of forest.

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It also damages building materials such as steel, paint, plastic, cement, masonry work and

sculptural materials especially of marble and limestone.

Q. What are leachates?

The ground water which seeps in the landfill and liquid from the waste itself all percholate

through the refuse producing leachate. The leachate contains dissolved, suspended and

microbial contaminants. The gases which are produced in landfills from the waste are

methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. The leachate contains volatile organic

acids such as acetic acid and various fatty acids, bacteria, heavy metals and salts of common

inorganic ions such as Ca2+.

Q. What is smog?

The word smog is a combination of smoke and fog.

Q. What is meant by dissolved oxygen or D.O to check the quality of water?

In water the most important oxidizing agent is dissolved molecular oxygen (O2) the

concentration of which ranges from 4 - 8 ppm. The organic matter is oxidized with the help of

this dissolved oxygen in water. The dissolved oxygen value less than 4 ppm indicates that

water is polluted.

Q. What do you know about chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D)?

The organic content of water which consumes oxygen during chemical oxidation is

evaluated by its chemical oxygen demand.

Q. What is the role of chlorofluorocarbons in destroying ozone?

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) play an effective role in removing O3 in the stratosphere due to

following reactions.

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A single chloride free radical can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.

Q. What is B.O.D?

It is the capacity of organic matter in natural water to consume oxygen within a period of

five days. The value of BOD is the amount of oxygen consumed as a result of biological

oxidation of dissolved organic matter in the sample.

Solid Waste Management

Q. What are Landfills?

The municipal solid waste is mainly disposed off by dumping it in a landfill. The landfill is a

large hole in the ground or even a bare piece of land. When the landfill becomes full with

waste it is covered by soil or clay.

Q. What is depolymerization of plastic? Where it is used?

The recycling of plastics is done by reprocessing, depolymerization or transformation. In

reprocessing the used plastics are re-melted and used for manufacturing of different products

e.g., the original use of polystyrene is for the manufacturing of foam, packaging, cutlery,

furniture, etc, but after its reprocessing it is used mostly for the manufacturing of toys,

trays, etc.

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