Ancient Tamil Nadu History

The practice of burial of the dead in the urns, the worship of the Sun and
the Mother Goddess explains the links between the Tamils and
Sumerians. As there is no general calendar for the entire India it is very
difficult to calculate the Royal rule historic period and fix the historic
events of the long and hoary past of India. It was only after the advent of
the Europeans rule, the use the Christian era came into effect and the
period was calculated. The History of Tamil Nadu prior of the world, the
language and the conditions of society at that time.

Pre Historic age in Tamil Nadu

The origin of human race on the planet earth took place several
thousands of years ago. The early history of human beings is called the
pre-historic age, Written records are not available for the pre-Historic
period. However, the pre-historic people had left many things such as
pieces of pottery, stone and metal tools, simple drawings, bones and
skeletons. These materials provide some clue to know the history of the
pre-historic period. Material remains belonging to the pre-historic period
have also been unearthed in many places of Tamil Nadu.

The period between the genesis of the world and the dawn of civilization
is the Paleolithic period. The Period before the Sangam age is called pre-
historic period. The archaeological excavations such as urns, skeletons,
(fossils) and the evidences from the language, civilization and the
anthropology are the tools to understand the pre-historic period.

The pre-historic period in Tamil Nadu may be classified into

1. Old Stone Age
2. New Stone Age
3. Metal Age
4. Megalithic Age

Old Stone Age

The first stage of human life is called the Old Stone Age. The people of
this period used crude and rough stone implements for hunting the
animals. These implements were made of quartzite or hard rock.
Therefore, this period is named as the Old Stone Age. The implements of
this period are found in several parts of Tamil Nadu. Robert Bruce Foote
had first discovered the Old Stone Age implements at Pallavaram near
Chennai. Later, similar discoveries were made in the districts of
Kanchipuram, Vellore and Thiruvallur.

Simple hand axes and pieces of stone tools were found in the valley of
river Koratalayar near Chennai and in Vada Madurai. Thus it is clearly
evident that the Old Stone Age people lived in different parts of Tamil
Nadu. It is generally believed that the Old Stone Age lasted up to B.C.
10.000.

Old Stone Age

The first stage of human life is called the Old Stone Age. The people of
this period used crude and rough stone implements for hunting the
animals. These implements were made of quartzite or hard rock.
Therefore, this period is named as the Old Stone Age. The implements of
this period are found in several parts of Tamil Nadu. Robert Bruce Foote
had first discovered the Old Stone Age implements at Pallavaram near
Chennai. Later, similar discoveries were made in the districts of
Kanchipuram, Vellore and Thiruvallur.

Simple hand axes and pieces of stone tools were found in the valley of
river Koratalayar near Chennai and in Vada Madurai. Thus it is clearly
evident that the Old Stone Age people lived in different parts of Tamil
Nadu. It is generally believed that the Old Stone Age lasted up to B.C.
10.000.

Old Stone Age Life Style:

The Old Stone Age people led a nomadic life wandering in search of food.
Therefore, they are called as food gatherers. Fruits, vegetables, roots and
animal flesh constitute their chief food. They had no idea of cultivation.
They did not know the art of making pottery. They took shelter in caves in
order to protect themselves from wild animals as well as from harsh
climates.

Old Stone Age Dress

In the beginning, the Old Stone Age people did not wear any dress.
Subsequently, they began to use animal skins, leaves and barks to cover
their bodies. In this way they protected themselves from bitter cold and
burning heat.
 Old Stone Age Fire:

The Old Stone Age people produced fire by rubbing two flint stones. They
used fire to scare away animals and also to roast the flesh of animals to
eat. They also used fire to warm themselves during the cold weather.

Old Stone Age Paintings:

We find paintings in the caves in which the Old Stone Age people lived.
The most popular among them are the paintings, which portray the
hunting of animals like elephant, bear, and deer.

Old Stone Age Beliefs:

The Old Stone Age people had no idea of God or religion. They did not
know how to dispose off the dead and therefore, they left the dead bodies
as a prey to animals and birds.

New Stone Age

The New Stone Age followed the Old Stone Age. It is to he noted that the
transition from Old Stone Age to New Stone Age was only gradual. The
New Stone Age people had improved their life in all respects. The tile in
the New Stone Age was not only more progressive than that of the Old
Stone Age hut also varied. The New Stone Age people used trap rock
instead of hard rock to make their stone implements Their stone weapons
and tools were also more polished and sharpened The began to lead a
settled life instead of wandering from place to place. These people
abandoned caves and began to build clay huts and thatched houses for
living. The New Stone Age people lived and worked in groups. It is
important to know that this kind of group-life had subsequently led to the
formation of villages.

The most important features of the New Stone Age include he beginning
of agriculture domestication of animals and pottery ‘flaking, In short, the
New Stone Age witnessed an all round development in the human life.
This development indicates the, gradual evolution of human life in
different stages. It had also resulted in enormous changes in human life. It
took a long period for those changes to happen.

Agriculture

In the New Stone Age, people had learnt the art of cultivation. Therefore,
they began to live in the river valleys since agriculture had become their
primary occupation. They produced rice, millet, Vegetable and fruits. It is
to be noted that the food gatherers of the Old Stone Age had become the
food producers in the New Stone Age.

Domestication of Animals

During the New Stone Age, people started domesticating animals such as
dog, sheep, cow and buffalo, Dog was helpful to them while going for
hunting. Other animals such as cattle were used for transportation and
also as food.

Wheel and Pottery

The discovery of wheel was a remarkable event in the life of man. The
New Stone Age people used wheels to carry goods from one place to
another. They also used the wheel for making pottery. In Tamil Nadu, the
New Stone Age potteries have been discovered in the districts of
Tirunelveli, Salem, Pudhukottai and Tiruchirapalli. Burial urn, water pots,
lamps and other vessels of this period have also been found in these
places.

Dress and Ornaments

The New Stone Age people knew the art of weaving. In Tamil Nadu,
cotton was grown in plenty and it was used for weaving clothes. Cotton
clothes were widely used by the New Stone Age people. Later, they
developed the art of dyeing the clothes and wore colored clothes. The
New Stone Age people used ornaments like necklace, beads and
bangles. These ornaments were made of shells and bones.

Belief

The custom of burial developed during the New Stone Age. Burial have
been unearthed in several parts of Tamil Nadu.

Metal Age
Copper was the first known metal to man. In North India, the Copper Age
followed the Stone Age. In the South, iron was discovered and used by
man. Iron implements have been found along with stone implements in
Perumbhudhur near Chennai so, it may be said that the Iron Age followed
the Stone Age in Tamil Nadu.
During the Metal Age, agriculture had improved much, iron implements
were efficiently used for cultivation Paddy was extensively cultivated
Later, irrigation System had also improved there was a general progress
and development in the life of the people during the Metal Age.

Megalithic Age

The word megalith refers 10 the burial monument. The people who lived
during the last stages of the New Stone Age began to follow the
megalithic system of burial, According to this system, the dead body was
put in a black and red pot along with iron implements and the pot was
buried. A circular tomb using big stone slabs was built upon the place of
burial. This is called megalith. Such megaliths have been found in the
districts of Kanchipuram, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai , Cuddalore,
Tiruchirappalli and Pudukottai.

Another system of burial was known as urn burials. Urns without circular
megalithic tombs have been discovered at Adhichanallur in Tirunelveli
district. Bronze articles and iron implements are found in these urns. The
discovery of trident or Vel in some of these urns suggests that these
people worshipped Lord Muruga, the famous God of the Tamil people.

Several utensils made of bronze have been found in Adhichanallur. The

hook or alagu, which is still used in religious ceremonies, has been found
here. Hence, it may he said that the use of hooks in religious ceremonies
was prevalent right from the megalithic period.

Sangam Age in Tamil Kingdoms

The history of the Tamil country becomes clear only from the Sangam
period. The word Sangam means an association. Here, it refers to the
Tamil Sangam, an association of Tamil poets, which flourished in ancient
Tamil Nadu. These Tamil poets had composed the Sangam literature.
The period in which these literatures were composed is called the
Sangam Age in the history of Tamil Nadu. During this age there were
three Tamil Kingdoms, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandy kingdoms in
the Tamil country. They were popularly known as Moovendar.

Sangam literatures are the major historic sources of Sangam period. We

do not have enough stone inscriptions about this age. Mangulam
inscription talks about pandiyan of sangam period. The Romans coins
found at Aruganmedu (Arikkammedu), works of the Romans and Greek
authors like Pliny and Ptolemy, the Greek book “Periplus of Erythraean
sea “, confirm the trade links of ancient Tamils as explained in Sangam
literature. The Pandiya Coins pertaining to the period between 2nd
Century BC and 2nd Century AD with rectangular shapes were found with
fish emblem on one side and bull or elephant figure on the other side.
These showed us the economic conditions of Sangam period. The twin
epics, (Silappathikaram and Manimegalai) were the documents about
Sangam period and served as indicators of Post-Sangam transition period
towards decline.

Sources

The historical sources for the Sangam Age may classified into

1. Literary Sources
2. . Archaeological sources and
3. Foreign Accounts.

Sangam Age Sources

Literary Sources

The Sangam literature chiefly consists of Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogal and

Pathuppattu. These works provide valuable information to know the
history of the Sangam Age. Among these Tholkappiyam was the earliest.

During the post-Sangam period, the Pathinen Kilkanakku or the Eighteen

Works was composed. The twin epics - Silappathigaram and Manimegalai
- also belonged to the post- Sangam period. All these literature help us to
know the society, economy and culture of the ancient Tamils.

Archaeological

The archaeological sources for the sangam period are limited. They may
be classified into

(a) Epigraphy
(b) Excavations and
(c) Coins.

Epigraphy

Epigraphical information for the Sangam period is scanty. The Asokan

Edicts refer to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms. The Hathikumba
Inscriptions of the Kalinga king , Kharavela also mentions the three Tamil
Kingdoms. The Kalugumalai inscriptions help us to know about ancient
Tamil scripts called Tamil Brahms. The Tirukkovalur inscriptions refer to
the local chieftains and the tragic end of the Tamil Poet, Kapilar. The
inscriptions at Thirupparankundrum mention the gift of cave beds to the
Jam monks. The inscriptions found at Arnattar hills, near Pugalur
belonged to the First Century A.D. and these inscriptions furnish
information regarding the Chera kings.

Excavations

Several monuments of this period have been brought to light by the

excavations conducted at various places in Tamil Nadu. Robert Bruce
Foote conducted excavations at Adhichanallur where he had found a
large number of articles made of iron, bronze and gold. They depict the
life of the ancient Tamils. Dubreuil and Mortimer Wheeler also made
excavations at Arikkamedu near Pondicherry. Roman pottery, glass
howls, gems and coins have been found there. These findings confirm the
commercial contacts between the Roman Empire and Tamil country
during the Sangam Age. A Buddhist Vihara was found at Kilaivur near
kaveripoompattinam. It belonged to the post-Sangam period. Other
Important sites of excavations are Uraiyur, Kanchipuram and Kodumanal.
The under-water archaeology has also developed recently and
excavations have been made under the sea near Poompuhar. A
shipwreck has been found there. These findings focus much light on the
history of the Sangam period.

Coins

The study of coins is called numismatics, We get useful historical

information from the study of ancient coins. The Tamil Kings of the
Sangam period issued gold and silver coins but they are not found in
large numbers. However, Roman coins made of gold and silver are found
all over Tamil Nadu. These coins further confirm the trade relations
between Tamil country and Rome during the Sangam Age.

Foreign Accounts

In addition to the Sangam literature, foreign literary accounts remain

useful sources for the study of the Sangam Age. Greek and Roman
writers had mentioned about the society and economy of the Sangam
Tamils in their accounts. Megasthanes in his book Indica also referred to
the three Tamil Kingdoms. Other authors such as Strabo, Pliny and
Ptolemy provide valuable information regarding the Sangam Age. The
Ceylonese books - Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa - help us to fix the date of
the Sangam.
 Chronology of the Sangam Age

Chronology means the arranging of the historical events on the basis of

the date of happenings. It remains very difficult to find out the exact date
of the Sangam period. There are different opinions in fixing the date of the
Sangam. It is believed that there existed three Sangams. The First
Sangam had flourished at Then Madurai and the Second Sangam at
Kapadapuram. Since these two places were eroded into the Indian
Ocean, the Pandyan kings had established the Third Sangam at Madurai.
Many scholars did not believe the existence of Three Sangams. However,
the Sangam literature, which we possess now, might have been
composed during the period of the Third Sangam. Hence, the Sangam
Age that we come to know denotes only the Third Sangam. Based on the
literary, epigraphic and archaeological sources, it is established by
scholars that the Sangam Age flourished from Third Century B.C. to Third
Century A.D.

Chera Kingdom in Sangam Age

The Chera kings of the Sangam Age were known by many titles such as
Vanavar, Villavar and Malaiyar. There were two important lines of Chera
Kings. The first one started from Odiyan Cheralathan and the second from
Irumporai. The kings belonging to these two lines ruled the Chera
kingdom. Their capital was Vanji and their chief port Thondi, Their symbol
in the flag was bow and arrow.

Cheran Senguttuvan was the most popular king of the Sangam Cheras.
The Sangam works, Padhithrupaththu and Ahananuru provide a lot of
information about him. The Tamil Epic Silappathigaram also tells about
his military achievements. Senguttuvan led an expedition up to the
Himalayas. He crossed the river Ganges and defeated his enemies, He
reached the Himalayas and hoisted the Chera flag. He brought stones
from there and built a temple in memory of Kannagi. His brother Elango
Adigal composed Silappathigaram.

Padirruppattu and other Sangam literature give a long list of Chera kings.
The most popular among them were Cheralathan, Peruncheral Irumporai
and Kanaikkal Irumporai. The territory of the Sangam Cheras mostly
comprises the present Kerala state.

Chola Kings in Sangam Age

The Chola kingdom is referred to in the Sangam literature as Chonadu,
Kaveri Nadu, Kaveri Soozh Nadu, Neer Nadu, and Punal Nadu. These
names indicate the rich water resources of the Chola country. The river
Kaveri has flown through the Chola kingdom and made its soil fertile. The
capital of the Sangam Cholas was Uraiyur. Their second capital was
Kaveripoompattinam. It was also the chief port of the Sangam Cholas.
Their symbol was tiger. The Sangam literature also mentions a number of
Chola kings. They had surnames like Kill, Valavan, Senni and Cholan.
The kingdom of the Sangam Cholas comprises the present Tanjore and
Tiruchirappalli districts.

The most popular among the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan. Both the
Sangam works, Pattinappalai and Porunaruatruppadi give information
about Karikalan. Even in his young age, he proved his extraordinary
ability of settling the disputes in his kingdom. He was also a great warrior.
He defeated the Chera and Pandya kings at Venni. In another battle
Karikalan defeated a confederacy of nine princes. He extended his
kingdom beyond Kanchipuram in the North.

Karikalan had also become popular for the development activities in his
kingdom. He had encouraged the growth oil agriculture as well as
commerce. He had built the dam called Kallanai across the river Kaveri to
tame that river and the water was used for irrigation. Karikalan had also
fortified the port-city Kaverippumpattinam or Puhar and made it as his
capital. It flourished as a great emporium of trade. Merchants from foreign
countries visited Puhar. Karikalan was generous towards Tamil poets and
patronized them. Porunarnatruppadi gives details about his munificence.

A long line of Chola monarchs succeeded Karikalan and, Nalamkilli,

Killivalavan and Kopperumcholan were the most, famous among them.
Kochenganan was the last in the line of th Sangem Cholas.

Cholas of Sangam Period

Who are Cholas?

The Tamils who ruled the banks of River Kaveri were of Cholas ancestry.
The availability of plenty and the rich food in their empire, gave the name
Chola to them as per Tamil Etymology.

The names Killi Valalvan, Chembiyan and Chenni Denoted Cholas. They
belonged to peasantry, fertile land and the valiant chieftains. Some would
say the name Chembiyan meant that they were successors of Sibi.
Prehistoric Cholas

The information on pre historic period came from Puranic mixed historical
sources. Silapathikaram and Manimekalai recorded the names of the
kings such as Kanthan, Kakanthan and Sembiam. The King who savered
the dove from the suffering and the King who removed the suffering of the
cow and its calf who mentioned (Manu and Sibi without referring to their
names) in Silambu.

Chola Kings of Kadai Sangam Period

Karikal Valavan (325 – 250 BC)

In Agam and Puram Poets like Mamoolanar, Nakkeerar, Paranar,

Vennikuyathiyar and Kazhathalaiyar and poet Mudathama Kanniyar in
Porunaratrupadai and poet Uruthiran Kannanar in Pattinapalai wrote
poems on Karikal Valavan.

It is said that there were two or three kings in the name of Karikal
Valavan. But K.K. Pillai opined that there was only one king in this name.
The Poets wrote the actions of a King attributing to his successor and the
naming of the kings with their forefathers resulted in this confusion on the
number of kings with the same name.

Many poets of Sangam wrote poems on him. According to one lyric the
king mentioned in Agam and Puram poems and the king mentioned in
Atrupadai belonged to a later period and there were two kings. There is
one more view that the kings referred to in Agam and Puram and
Pattinapalai were three different kings. The later period works like
Silambu, Kalingathuparani and Moovarulla said that there was only one
king in that name, Karikalan. As the poet Mammallans pertained to
400BC, he should have been connected to earlier period.

He ascended the throne at an early age. He built the banks of River

Kauveri. In the copper plates and the inscriptions the Telugu Cholas
claimed to be his successors.

The last stanza of Prounnatrupadai describes the great escape of

Karikalan with burnt leg, from the burning prison on account of the
conspiracy of the enemies in the royal family.

His other names were Karikal Peruvalathan and Thirumavalavan. His

escape from the prison was well documented in the anthology
Pattinapalai (220 – 227) and Porunatrupadai (131-138). His maternal
uncle helped him in his escape (Pazhamozhi Seyyul – 239). Having
overcome the confusion created by his enemies within at the young age
and become the King, he defeated the combined opposition from
Pandiyan, Cheran and 11 Velirs at Paranthalai. Out of the defeated Velirs
in the battle of Venni, 9 Velirs attacked him at Vahaiparanthalai and faced
defeat. (Agam 125)

Pattinapaalai further described the defeat of Oliyar and Aravaalar and his
hands. On his march to north he reached the Himalayas and engraved
the Tiger emblem before his return. Silambu describes his return journey
through the countries Vajram, Maghad and Avanthi and their gift
presented to him.

Mr. Ragava Iyangar noted that the place the Tiger emblem engraved was
in the Himalayan Range between Sikkim and Bhutan. In these areas
even today the mountain range is called Chola Range and Chola Pass.
Karikalan won Eelam and brought prisoners to build the Grand Anaicut. –
Maha Vamsam and Deepa Vamsam.

The Copper plates of Thiruvalangadu and Ray country’s Telugu Chola

recorded the Grand Anaicut built by Karikalan.

Peruvirar Killi

He had a title “Verphradakai Peruvirar Killi”. Poets Paranar and

Kazhathalayar wrote Poems (Puram 62,63, 368) Mourning the deaths of
the king Cheran Imayvaramban, Kudako Neduncheralathan and Peruvir
Killi at Thiruporpuram war.

Elanjhetchenni

Poet Oonpothi Pasungudaiyar wrote poems on him and he had a title

“Serupazhi Erintha Elanjetchenni”. Cheraman Pammulur Erintha Cholan
Neithalanganal Elanjchetsenni is his another title with his name. (Puram
203). He might have won Chera’s Pamulur.

The Poem Purananooru (10) Calls his “Neithalanganal Nediyoi” and his
vapital was Pujar. But Elanjetchenni’s Capital might have been Woraiyur.

Perunthirumavalavan (200 – 180BC)

He had friendship with Pandiyan Velliambalathu Thunjiya Peruvazhuthi.

The poet Kaveripoompattinathu Karikannanar blessed their friendship and
co-existence. For unknown reasons and reasons and irritated the delay in
giving gifts by the king, he poet Chonattu Erichaloor Maadalan Madurai
Kumaranar wrote about the greatness of poets instead of the king.
Killivalavan (200 -180BC)

Dr. G. U. Pope considered that this King was the same Kurappalli
Thunjiya Killivalavan. 18 poets wrote poems on him. Poet Alathur Kizhar
(Puram 36) advised him not to go on war with a coward when he
besieged Karuvaoor King’s fort. The fort was closed and never opened,
the king remaining inside. The Chola removed the siege on the advice of
the poet. Karuvaur King felt ashamed and faced defeat and Napasaliayar
(Puram 39) wrote that Cholan won the war.

Poet nakkeeran (Agam 205, 346) wrote about his victories against Kosar
King of Tulu country and Pandiya’s Chieftain Pazhaiyan Maran. Poet
Kovur Kizhar protected the greatness and virtue of Chola besides the
lives of the children of Malayaman Thirumudikhari from death.

Nalangilli (180 – 160BC)

Poet(Puram 72) eulogize him as a king waging war against northern

countries and a king who could gift Vanji and Madurai too to Viraliyars, the
women artists.

The strength of his forces are amply described in Puram – 225. On

account of a dispute over Woraiyur he went on war with his cousin
Nedungilli who ruled Aavoor. Nalangilli took over Woraiyur after winning
Nedungilli who kept himself inside the fort locking the doors of the fort.
He died Elavanthigai (Puram 61). Nobody knew who killed Kaariyatru
Thunjiya Nedungilli. But K.A. Neelaganta Sastri said it was Nalangilli who
killed him.

Koprunj Cholan (160-130BC)

The poet king wrote 4 poems in Kurunthogai and 3 in Purananooru. His

poems and the poems on him did not reveal his political history but spoke
about the greatness of the culture and civilization. When his children
wanted the share in ruling the Kingdom and confronted him, he also
started preparing for the war in the interest of his people. On heeding the
advice of Pulatrur Eyitriyanar (Puram 213), the Chola King abandoned the
war to avoid the history that he fought against his own kins.

Further to avoid the history that his sons fought him he decided to die by
facing the customary North. (Fasting into death). In the poem
Puranaanooru (215) the poet King wrote that even though his friend
Pisiranthaiyar whom he never met earlier did not come when he was a
king he was sure that he would come during the time of distress.
Hence he made a request to reserve a place for him by his side to join
him in his death. As per his wish Pisiranthaiyar came from Pandiya
country to join his friend and the King in death. The friendship between
the King and his friend was so strong even without seeing each other,
Pisiranthaiyar was prepared to spare his life for a friend.

The poet king Koperunchozhan in the poem Kurunthogai (129) wrote on

the greatness of friendship. Parimel Azhagar said “like Koperunchozan
and Pisiranthaiyar if the feelings merge that would result in the friendship
sharing their lives for each other in death as well”.

Rajasooyam Vetta Perunarkilli (160-130BC)

He performed the “Rajasooyam”, usually performed by an emperor who

defeated other kings without challenge. With the help of valiant forces of
four types he won many a battle (Puram 16, 377). Joining Thervan
Malayan, he won Chera King Mantharaj Cheral Erumborai because of
differences. He was a friend of Kanaper Eyil Kadantha Ukkira
Peruvazhuthi.

Senganan (100-30 BC)

He won Cheran Kanayakhalirumporai at the battle of Thiruporpuram and

imprisoned him in Kuduvayilkottam prison. The insult of delay in giving
water to Cheran resulted in his death. The efforts of Poigaiyar to get the
release of Chera king is described in his poem “Kalavazhi Naarpathu” in
praise of the Chola king. Vikrama Cholan Ula praised the Chola King.

Cholan Senganan with the assistance of Perumbutsenai, the lieutenant of

Chieftain Pazhaiyan fought a war with Cheran Nannan. Kaniyan, Otrai,
Athi, Gangan and Katti were at the side of Cheran. He fought ferociously
and won the war in the battle of Kazhumalam after he had lost his
chieftain Pazhaiyan. (Agam 44).

Thirumangai Azhwar tells us of his victory over the king Vilanthaival.

Periya Thirumozhi tells the construction of 70 Siva temples by
Kochenganan.

Appar wrote about his previous birth as a spider. The stories on him were
found in the copper plates of Thiruvaalangaadu, Kalingathupuram,
Vikrama Sozha Tulaa, Thiruthondar Anthaadhi and Periyaparanar. The
spider with the help of its web protected the God of Thiruvanayakoil from
the falling dry leaves etc., an elephant which worshipped the God
destroyed the web. The spider entered the trunk of the elephant upon
which both died. The same spider was born as Sanganaan in its next
birth – Periyapuranam.

He might belong to 4th or 5th century BC as the saint poet Thirumangai

Azhwar wrote on him. But K.A.N. Sastri said the Sangam period
Sarganaan was different from that of Senganaan referred to by Azhwar.

Cholas of Sangam Decline Period

Valavan Killi (70 – 120AD)

He was the son of Manakilli and brother of Narsonai. Nine members of

his cousins opposed his ascendancy to royalty. His brother-in-law Cheran
Senguttuvan defeated them at narivayil and made Killi the King. During
his reign Manimekalai went Jawa (Indonesia) to preach Buddhism.

At that time she built a Buddha Vihar with the help of the sculptors from
Chola Kingdom at Porpatham (Perumbatham) and even today it exists.
Manimekalai described his as Killivalavan, Thodukazhar Killi, Nedumudi
Killi, Maavan Killi, Vadiverkilli and Velverkilli. Accirdubg to some of the
King referred to by Silambu and Manikekalai was different from each
other.

His wife was from the clan of Marali born in Pana Royalty by name
Seerthi. Her son was Uthayakumaran. His younger brotherElankilli
defeated the Chera and Pandiya at Kariyar.

The story of his love marriage with Peelivalai and their son’s death by
drowning in the sea, besides the tragic end of Kaveripoompattinam
submerging into the sea are told by Manimekalai.

Pandyan Kingdom In Sangam

The most ancient people of Tamil Country were called Pandiyar and now
known as Pandiyars. Their emblem was fish and hence it is said that they
hailed from the fishermen community of the land of Neithal. Some would
say they were the descendants of Pandiyar dynasty of Northern side. But
the Mahabharata and earlier Ramayana also referred to the virtuous rule
of Chera, Chola and Pandiya dynasty of Tamil country and hence could
not be the descendants of Pandiya dynasty. Pliny and Megasthanese
said that they were the descendants of Pandeya daughter of Heracles.
Based on various mythologies and epics researchers arrived at their
conclusions. It is believed they were the descendants of Goddess
Meenakshi and hence Gowriyar. But Pandiyars were the original and
ancient Tamils of Kumari continent.

The extent of the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam Age comprised
the present districts of Madurai, Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram. The
Pandyan kings were known as Maran, Valudhi and Chezhiyan. Their
Capital was Madurai and their chief port was Korkai. Their symbol was
fish. The Pandyan kings earned name and fame for their patronage to the
Tamil Sangam. It can be said that their capital Madurai had also remained
the capital of Tamil language and literature.

The Sangam literature provides a long list of Pandyan kings. Some of

them had become most popular. Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi performed
many sacrifices to celebrate his victories. Therefore, he was given the title
Palyagasalai. Another Pandyan king Bootha Pandiyan was a great warrior
and also a patron of Tamil poets. His wife Perungoppendu was a poetess.
It is referred that she committed self at the death of her husband.
Ariyappadaikadantha Nedunchezhiyan was also a famous Pandyanr ruler.
He gave death sentence to the hero of Silappathigaram, Kovalan, by
mistake, for which he gave his life when he came to know the truth.
Another important ruler was Thalaiyalanganathu Nedunchezhiyan. He
defeated the combined forces of Chera, Chola and other local chieftains
at a place called Thalaiyalanganam. He also patronized a number of
Tarnil poets including Mangudi Maruthanar. The Pandyan rule
disappeared along with that of the Cheras and Cholas in the Third century
A.D. The Kariakalan occupied the Tamil country for another three
centuries.

Prehistoric Pandiyar

The King with mythological and historical background belonging to the

period prior to Kadai sangam (3000BC) whose period could not be
ascertained were the prehistoric Pandiyars.

Nediyon

The later period kings’ inclination to link them with God, saints or as the
descendants of Aryan race also resulted in the confusion in Tamils
history. That was the reason why K.A. Neelaganta Sastry in his book on
the History of South India stated “Aryanisation”. So, K.A. Neelaganta
Sasthri said that Prehistoric Pandiyars appear to be mythological kings
rather than historical. At a later period the early period kings were mixed
with mythology and hence the confusion.
In the Velvikudi and Chinnnamanoor copper plates the name Nediyon
was recorded ad later in Thiruvilayadal Puranam as a mythological king.
He was called, “Vadivalamba Nindra Pandiyan” Nilantharu Thiruvir
Pandiyan and Pandiyan Makeerthi. As he ruled for a longer period he
was called “Nediyon”.

The king’s names, “Vadivalamba nindra Pandian”, was “Adi Alamba

Nindra Pandiyan” amd “Nilanthara Thiruvir Pandiyan” were derived from
the fact that he gave his land in the north when Kumari Continent
submerged into the sea. Makeerthi was the name he got as he was
called by the Northerners “Sathyavrathan” and “Sahyamuni”.
Nachinarikiniyar exaggerated that he ruled for 2500 years.

Tholkappiyam was completed and published in his assembly.

Purananooru said that he engineered the river “Pahruli” and celebrated
the festival for the Sea God. He reigned during 400BC when the sea rise
engulfed Kumari continent.

Pal(Yaga) Salai Mudhukudumi Peruvazhuthi (350-300BC)

He won many battles. Madurai Kanji called him “Palsalai Mudhukudumi’

and this name came from the fact he arranged free feeding centres for the
poor. By practice and usage the name would have changed as
‘Palyagasalai’. The anthology Purananooru by Karikizhar, Nettimaiyar,
and Nedum Palliyathanar are in praise of him. The Chief Priest who
completed the Yaga was given the village Velvikudi by the king. The
Velvikudi Copper Plates stated the name “Kol-yanai Palavotti Kooda
Mannar Kuzham Thavirtha Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi alias
Pandiyadhirasan” for Ukkira Peruvazhuthi whose reign was 130 – 100
BC.

Kadai Sangam Period Pandiyar

Mudathirumaran (300 – 240BC)

Irayanar Kalaviyal Urai said that the king shifted the capital to Manalur
after the sea disappearance of Kapadapuram deep into the sea. When
Manalur met engulfed same fate he shifted to ‘Then Madurai’. He
established Kadai Sangam there. Two poems written by him were in
Natrinai.

Pandiyan Ariya Padai Kadantha Nedunchezhiyan (250 -200BC)

He wrote this poem in praise of the greatness of education.

Pandiyan Arivudainambi (200 – 150BC)

He wrote about the value of having children. The poet king wrote four
poems in Natrinai (15), Kurunthogai (230), Agam(28) and Puram (188).
He was a contemporary to Pisirantaiyar and Koperuncholan.

Bootha Pandiyan (150-140BC)

His poems were found both in Agam and Puram. The Poet-King wrote
Poem, (Puram 71) on his friendship, love and governance. Mavan the
head Maiyal Town, Anthai the head of Eyil, Anthuvanjathan, Aatha Azhisi,
Eyakkan were some of his friends. The intense love for his wife made her
die by plunging into husband’s pyre. (Puram 246, 247)

Nedunchezhiyan (140 -130BC)

Madurai Kanji praised him as Thalayalanganathu Seruvenra

Neduchezhiyan. Nedunalvadai and Mullaipattu were written on him during
his period. He became a king in his younger days. Both Cheran
Mantharanjeral Erumporai and Kopperu Narkilli joined the five Velirs viz.,
Thithiyan, Ezhini, Erumaiyuran, Erungo and Venman to fight him at
Thalayalanganam and he won ultimately.

Cheran Mantharanjeral Erumporai was imprisoned (Puram19, 23) and the

enemies were driven upto Woraiyur Vanji (Puram 57,78) Velir’s Mizhalai
Kootram and Muthoor Kootram were taken over and made as part of
Pandiya Kingdom. (Puram – 24)

As per the Copper plates of Chinnamanoor in his royal assembly there

was a group of Poets headed by Mangudi Marudhanar.

Ukkira Peruvazhuthi – II (130 – 100BC)

He was considered the son of Thalaiyalanganathu Seruvendra

Nedunchezhiyan. He was Vengai Marban at Kana Pereyil (Kalaiyarkoil).
(Puram 21) His friends were Cheran Mari Vengo and Cholan Rajasooyam
vetta Perunarkilli. (Puram 367). Thirukkural was completed and published
in his royal assembly. He edited Agananooru with the help of
Rudrasanmar son of Madurai Uppoorikudi Kizhar.

Elamperu Vazhuthi (100 -50 BC)

He might have died in the naval war or during his swimming in the sea.
The poem by him reveals the excellent human culture at that time itself.
In praise of Thirumal he wrote a poem (Paripadal – 15). In as much as
Paripadal relates to a later period he might belong to the later kings of
Kadai (last) Sangam.

Pandiyars during the Decline of Sangam Period

Pandiya Nedunchezhian 70 – 120AD

He was the same king who died instantly on throne itself on realizing the
error in his judgment by pasing a death sentence on the case presented
by Kannagi. He won the war against the Aryans of the north – Silambu.
This was the reason why Kanaga – Vijaya insulted the Tamils.

Nanmaran (120 – 130AD)

He ruled as a prince with the name Vetrivelchezhian at Korkai. He

became king after the death of Nedunchezhian.

Other Pandias

Many kings of Pandiya Kingdom were not traceable for want of period
wise order and their period as well.

The Tamil Literature introduces:

1. Velli Ambalathu Thunjiya Peruvazhudhi

2. Koodakara Thunjiya Maran Vazhuthi
3. Elavanthigai Palli Thunjiya Nanmaran
4. Pannadu Thantha Pandiayan Maran Vazhudhi
5. Nambi Nedunchezhian

Local Chieftains
Apart from the three Tamil kingdoms, a number of local chieftains ruled in
different parts of Tamil Nadu. They were known as Velirs. The Sangam
literature furnishes lot of information about them. The most famous among
the Velirs were called Seven Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal. They were
Pari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay, and Nalli.

The local chieftains had extended patronage to the Tamil poets like
Kabilar,, Avvaiyar, Nallathanar and Perunchithiranar. In turn, these poets
hailed them for their generosity. They had also extended their help to
resolve any disputes between the rulers. For example, Avvaiyar played the
role of a diplomat in the court of Adhiyaman. Another Sangam poet,
Kapilar had taken care of Pari’s daughter’s after his death. These local
chieftains made generous donations to the poets, bards and their
consorts. Like the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, the local chieftains
had also played a significant role in the political, social and cultural
domains during the Sangam Age.

Social Life in Sangam Age

In the Sangam Age, the Tamil people had a common language and
culture. But, they lived in five different natural landscapes. These natural
landscapes or geographical regions were known as Thinais. The five
Thinais referred to in the Sangam literature were Kurinji, Mullai,
Marudham, Neydal and Palai, Each Thinai was geographically distinct
from the other. Moreover, each of these regions had reflected their own
social characteristics.

Kurinji

The Kurinji Thinai refers to the hilly region. The people in this region were
called Vettuvar and Kuravar. Hunting was their primary occupation. They
also cultivated fruits and vegetables and gathered honey. They
worshipped Murugan or Seyon.

Mullai

It is a forest tract with green pastures. The people of this region

domesticated animals. The people of the Mullai region were called as
Kovalar or Ayar. Being shepherds, they produced dairy products like milk,
curd and ghee. Their chief deity was Thirumal or Mayon

Marudham

The region Marudham refers to fertile and cultivable lands. Most of the
people in this region were called as Vellalars because they practiced
agriculture. They cultivated paddy, sugar cane and a variety of fruits like
mango, plantain and Jackfruit. Irrigation methods were also known to
them. Their chief deity was Indra or the rain God.
 Neydal

Neydal was the coastal region. The people of this region known as
Parathavar or Meenavar. Fishing was their natural occupation. They were
also famous sailors. A few people of this region produced and sold salt.
They were called as Umanar. The God of the Neydal region was Varunan
or the God of the sea.

Palai

The term Palai refers to the desert region. But, there was no desert in the
Tamil country. Therefore, it could be said that whenever there was
drought due to failure of rains, that region was called as Palai. The people
of this region were called as Maravar or Kalvar. They were forced to live
as robbers due to poverty. Maravar were also known for their heroism.
These people worshipped the Goddess Kotravai or Kali.

We have already studied about the pre society in the Tamil country. The
Sangam age was the continuation of the pre-historic period. As in the pre-
historic period, the life of the people in the Sangam age had remained
simple and natural. The Sangam Tamils had chosen their occupation
according to their natural environment. Although they lived in five different
regions, there was a close interaction between them. This interaction had
resulted in the development of a common language and culture in the
Tamil country.

Status of Women in Sangam Age

The Sangam literature describes the position of women in ancient Tamil
society. In the Sangam Age, women were treated with special
consideration. The natural feminine qualities such as Achcham, Madam
and Naanam were insisted in the Sangam literature. Their most important
virtue was chastity. The heroine of Silappathigaram. Kannagi had been
hailed for her chastity and worshipped by the people. The women were
given freedom to choose their life partners during the Sangam period. The
concept of love had been elaborately discussed in Agananuru.

Women treated their husbands as equivalent to God during the Sangam

period. They were not permitted to remarry and inherit property Sati or the
custom of self-immolation at the death of one’s husband was not
generally prevalent during this period. However, some women from the
royal family indulged in the practice of Sati. According to the Sangam
literature, a woman had to play different roles in the family such as a
dutiful wife, responsible mother and an ideal hostess to guests. Women’s
education was also insisted during the Sangam Age. We come to know a
few women poets like Avvaiyar, Kakkai Padiniyar and Nachchellaiyar,
whose verses are found in the Sangam literature. Sangam women were
also known for their courage. However, from the post-Sangam period,
there was a decline in the status of women.

ECONOMY, RELIGION AND CULTURE

OF THE SANGAM AGE
The Sangam Age in Tamil country is significant and unique for its social,
economic, religious and cultural life of the Tamils. There was an all round
development during this period. The Sangam literatures as well as the
archaeological findings reveal these developments.

Social Divisions

The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly divided into
several groups. In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the Tamil society
was not organized on the basis of the Vedic caste system, namely
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Sudras. However, the earliest of the Sangam
literature, Tolkappiyam refers to the four divisions prevalent in the
Sangam society namely, Anthanar, Arasar, Vaislyar and Vellalar, it may
be said that this classification roughly corresponds to the Vedic Social
division.

Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of ancient Tamil

tribes such as Thudiyan, Pannan, and Kadamban. These divisions
indicate the complex social structure prevalent in the Sangam Age.

Food and Hospitality

Rice was the staple food during the Sangam period. The food-habits
varied among the people according to their economic status.
The rich had their feasts every day, while the poor took simple food.
Chewing betel leaves was most common among the people. Offering
betel leaves to guests had become a social formality. Hospitality was a
special virtue of the Sangam Tamils. The Sangam literature describes
how hosts had always been waiting to welcome guests.

Dress and Ornaments

The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress. It varied according
to their status. The rich wore silk and fine cotton garments. The middle
class people generally wore two pieces of clothes made of Cotton.
Women paid much attention to their hairstyle. They used flowers like
Jasmine to decorate their plaits and tufts. Both men and women used
perfumes made of sandal and flowers.

The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments worn by both men

and women. They were made of gold, silver, pearls and precious stones.
Poor people used ornaments made of shells and beads.

Economic Life

Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an affluent economy during the
Sangam Age. Agriculture, industry, trade and commerce made the
Sangam Tamils almost self-sufficient. Exports were also made to the
other parts of the world.

Agriculture

The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. Paddy was the main
crop. Millet, grams and sugarcane were also cultivated. Irrigation through
rivers, tanks and wells was used for cultivation.

Occupation

Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of the Sangam
period. Uraiyur and Madurai were the main centers for the manufacture of
cotton fabrics. The weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes.
The word Kalingam refers to very nice garments. The Sangam literature
refers to clothes, which were thinner than steam. Silk clothes were also
produced in the Tamil country. Other craftsmen like the carpenter,
blacksmith, goldsmith and potter had practiced their respective
occupations. Fishing and hunting had also remained as important
occupation during this period.

Trade and Commerce

In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of trade was
followed. Generally, the people exchanged their commodities with their
neighbors. For example, the people of Kurinji region exchanged honey
with the people of Neydal region for getting fish and salt. Likewise, the
Mullai people gave their milk products to Marudham people to get rice
from them.

Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up rapidly. Local
markets came up and they were known as Angadis. Both Day Market
(Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar (Allangadi) existed in port towns. The
Pattinappalai refers to their existence at Puhar. Goods from distant places
were brought to these markets. The expansion of trade led to the growth
of towns. Moreover, export of goods to other countries had increased. (It
will be described in the next chapter).

Religion

We have already referred to the five Gods worshipped in the five different
regions. In addition to these Gods, the Sangam Tamils worshipped their
ancestors. They erected memorial stones called as Nadukal, They were
also known as Hero Stones or Veerakkal. Such stones were erected in
memory of those who died in battles.
The Sangam people had also worshipped the natural objects. For
example, the Sun. Moon.. Earth, rivers and mountains became their
objects of worship. Neem tree was considered sacred.

Cultural Life

The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life. Their interests
in education, literature, music, dance, drama and festivals have been
described in the Sangam literature.

Education and Literature

Education was common for all, men and women, rich and poor and for
different communities. Parents attached importance to the education of
their children. The Purananooru describes that it is the duty of the father
to make his children learned.
The bulk of the Sangamn literature written by about 500 poets indicates
the importance given to education. The poets of the Sangam period
played vital role in the social and culture life of the people.

Recreation

The people of the Sangarn Age had spent their time in excellent ways of
recreations. Poetry, music, dance and drama were significant. The
Sangam poets made the kings as well as the people through rendering
beautiful verses. The bards made merry in the king’s courts. The rulers
and nobles patronized them with liberal donations. Hunting was another
important recreation. The young and energetic took part in duals, while
the old played indoor games like dice. Women and girl children had their
own games to play and evinced much interest in swimming.
 Fine Arts

The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in fine arts.
They developed the concept of Muthamizh iyal, Isai and Naatakam. The
Paanars or bards were experts in music. They moved from place to place,
singing bards in praise of kings and local chieftains. Later, the Tamils
developed musical notes or swarams. The musical tune was known as
Pann. Several musical instruments were also used. Shells, drums, flute
and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan had been hailed as Ezhisai
Vallavan. The art of dancing was encouraged during the Sangam period.
Attam and Koothu were performed during festivals. Tholkaappiyam refers
to Naatakam or Drama. The art of painting was also known to the
Sangam Tamils. They celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam and
Indra festival were some of them. The indra festival had been celebrated
annually at Puhar. The dance and music had its religious connotation
from the earliest times.

THE GREEK AND ROMAN CONTACTS

WITH ANCIENT TAMIL COUNTRY
The Sangam Age in Tamil country is significant and unique for its social,
economic, religious and cultural life of the Tamils. There was an all round
development during this period. The Sangam literatures as well as the
archaeological findings reveal these developments From the very early
times, Tamil country had carried on an extensive trade with foreign
countries. The Greeks and Romans had commercial contacts with the
Tamil country from about the Third century B.C. These trade relations had
lasted throughout the Sangam period. We have plenty of sources to study
the maritime activities during the Sangam Age.

Literary Sources

The Sangam literature refers to the Greeks and Romans as Yavanas. The
Sangam poems describe the trading activities of Greek and Roman
merchants in the Tamil country. They mention the important seaports and
also about the exports and imports.Similarly, the Greek and Roman
writers of that period mention the details of the commercial contacts
between their countries and South India. Particularly, the writers like Pliny,
Ptolemy. Plutarch and the author of the Periplus had described the
condition of trade in the First and Second centuries A.D.
 Archaeological Sources

The archaeological evidences have further supplemented literary sources

relating to the foreign trade, The Arikkamedu excavations remain as the
important evidence for die Greek and Roman trade in the Tamil country.
The place Arikkamedu, near Pondicherry had remained an important
centre of trade for Greets and Romans, The Greek writers had referred to
this place as Poduke, There was a great Roman Factory at Arikkamedu.
Many articles such as coins, porcelain, jars and tubs for the purpose of
dyeing clothes have also been found there. Further, Roman coins, pottery
and other articles have been found in other parts of Tamil Nadu.
Excavations have also been conducted at Puhar, Kanchipuram,
Alagankulam, Madurai, Kodumanal and other places. Greek and Roman
coins and other articles have been found in these places confirming the
foreign trade during the Sangam Age.

Coins

Plenty of Roman coins have been found all over Tamil Nadu, particularly
in the coastal areas. From these coins we come to know that the Roman
emperors like Augustus Caesar, Tiberius and Nero had issued them.
Since they lived in the First and Second centuries A.D., it may be said that
the Sangam Tamils had trade relations with the Roman Empire.

Greeks

The Greeks were the first to enter into trade contacts with the Tamil
region in about Third century B.C. The Greeks had adopted and
mentioned several Tamil names for the commodities that were available
in the Tamil country. For example, they had adopted the Tamil word Ansi
(rice) and mentioned it as Oriza in the Greek language. The Greeks had
paid much attention on the West coast. The seaport Musiri had remained
their important trading centre. The Greeks provided an important link
between Tamil country and the West, via Egypt.

Romans

After the Greeks, the Romans began to arrive in the Tamil country. The
Pandyan kingdom was the first to get the benefit of the Roman trade. The
Romans had employed the Tarn ii merchants to buy and sell goods in the
local market. They had also served in the Pandyan army. In the First and
Second centuries A,D,, both the Greeks and Romans expanded their
trade in the Tamil country. After that period, there was a gradual decline in
the overseas trade. The confusion in the Roman Empire and the collapse
of the Sangam age in the Third century A.D. put an end to the Greek and
Roman contacts with the Tamil country.

Exports and Imports

The Tamil country exported a variety of goods to Greece and Rome

during the Sangam Age. The most important of them were spices like
pepper, cardamom, cloves and ginger. The other items of export include
sandal paste, flowers, scents, aromatic wood like Ahil, ivory, pearls,
corals, medicinal plants, banana and rice. There was also a great demand
in the west for the cotton clothes manufactured in the Tamil country. The
Sangam literature reveals that fine varieties of clothes had been exported
to the West. Further, varieties of beads, diamonds, sapphire, topaz,
emerald, tortoise shells were bought by the Romans, The pearls of the
Pandyan kingdom and the cotton clothes of Uraiyur had been largely
exported.

The imports into the Tamil country had almost remained less than its
exports. The imported goods include sweet wine, gold coins and
ornaments, glass, copper and other articles. The horses for the Pandyan
and other kingdoms of South India were brought in ships from foreign
countries.

Sea-ports

The development of overseas trade was made easy by the seaports

situated on the coasts of the Tamil country. There were several seaports
in the Tamil country during the Sangam period. The most important
seaports on the eastern coast were Mamallapuram, Poduke, Puhar
Poraiyaru, Korkai and Kumari. The Sangam literature, Pattinappalai
provides the details of the Puhar harbour and its activities. The port-town
Korkai had remained famous for its pearls. It was the primary port of the
Pandyan kingdom. On the West coast, Musiri and Thondi were the two
important seaports. Warehouses for storing the goods were built along the
coasts. The chief ports had their lighthouses, which were called in the
Tamil literature as Kalangarai Ilangu Sudar. Facilities were also made in
the seaports for repairing the ships. The arrival and stay of foreign
merchants in port towns were common during the Sangam period. People
from various countries had also lived in port towns and this paved the way
for the development of cosmopolitan civic system in these towns.
Thus, throughout the Sangam period, the Tamil country had maintained
commercial and other contacts with Greece and Rome.

Administration during the Sangam Age

The Sangam literature provides details regarding the administration
during the Sangam Age. Monarchy was the system of government during
this period. The kingv called as Vendan, Ko and Iral. The local chieftains
were known as Velirs. The law of succession was practiced and the eldest
son had enjoyed the right to succeed his father.

King and His Duties

During the Sangam period, the powers of the king were unlimited. He was
considered as the representative of God. The term Irai signifies this
theory. At the same time, the king was responsible for the welfare of the
people. He was the protector of the law. In his Court the king met the
people, heard their grievances and delivered justice. According to the
Sangam verses, the rulers of the Sangam Age like Karikalan. Manu
Needhi Cholan and Porkai Pandyan were known for their impartiality in
delivering justice.

Officials

In the Sangam Age, there were two councils two assist the king in his
day-to-day administration. They were known as Iymperumkuzhu
(Committee of the great five) and Enperayam (Council of the great eight).
There were also other officials to run the administration efficiently.

Army

The King’s army consisted of four divisions, namely, infantry, cavalry,

elephants and chariots, Swords, spears, bows and arrows were some of
the weapons used by the soldiers. The forts in the capital cities had been
highly protected by moats and trenches.

Revenue

Land revenue and custom duties were the chief sources of income to the
government. One sixth of the total produce was collected as land tax.
Tolls were also collected. The local chieftains paid tributes and gifts to the
king and this income constituted significant part of the government
revenue.

Local Administration

Each kingdom in the Sangam Age was divided into many administrative
divisions. These divisions were called as Mandalam, Nadu, Valanadu and
Koottram. The council of elders looked after the administration of the
villages during the Sangam period. These councils were called as
Manram, Podiyil, Avai and Ambalam.
Thus the Sangam administration had been efficiently organized. The later
Cholas and Pandyas had followed some of its features.

THE POST SANGAM PERIOD THE

KALABHRAS
The Sangam Age came to an end during the middle of the Third century
A.D. The closing years of the Sangam Age was called the post-Sangam
period. Then the Kalabhras captured the Tamil country from the Chera,
Chola and Pandyan rulers.

Tamil country during the post-Sangam period

There were indications of the declining trends in the Tamil society even
during the post-Sangam period. The North Indian religions, namely
Buddhism and Jainism began to spread in the Tamil region. The
traditional religious beliefs of the Tamil people gave way to the new
religious ideas.

There was also a declining trend in the social life of the Tamil people.
Social ethics began to decline during this period. The Tamil literature of
this period reflected the ethical and moral ideas with a view to reform the
society. The post-Sangam literature consists of the twin-epics -
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai and also Pathinen Keezhkanakku.

The impulse of these works was oriented towards reforming the society.
For example, morality in political and social life had been strictly insisted
in the poems of Thirukkural, Inna Narpathu, Iniyavai Narpathu and
Naladiyar. But finally, the Kalabhra rule had put an end to the classic age
of the Sangam.

The Kalabhras Sources

The Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil country from the middle of the
Third century A.D. to the end of the Sixth century A.D. We have very few
sources to study the history of the Kalabhras. This is one of the reasons
to call this period as Dark Age. The literary sources for this period include
Tamil Navalar Charithai, Yapperumkalam and Periyapuranam. The
Velvikkudi and Dalavaipuram copper plates also mention about the
Kalabhras. The inscriptions at Thiruppugazhur and Vaikunda Perumal
temple in Kanchipuram also refer to the Kalabhra rule.
 Kalabhra Origin

There is no clear evidence about the origin of the Kalabhras. The popular
belief was that the Kalabhras remained subordinates to the Gangas and
Kadambas of the Kannada region. Later, they might have migrated into
the Tamil country.

Kalabhra rule

We have little information about the Kalabhra rule in the Tamil country.
The Tamil grammar Yapperunkalam refers to a Kalabhra king, namely
Achutha Kalappalan. It appeared that he ruled the Tamil country from
Uraiyur. He had also patronized the Tamil poets. A Buddhist scholar
namely Buddhadatta lived in his kingdom. According to traditions, he
imprisoned the Chera, Chola and Pandyan rulers. He had extended
patronage to Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries.

By the end of the Sixth century A.D. the Pandyan ruler Kadungon had
liberated the southern part of the Tamil country from the Kalabhras. By
the same period, the Pallava king, Simhavishnu had captured
Tondaimandala and Cholamandalam from the Kalabhras. Thus, the
Kalabhra rule in Tamil country came to an end due to the ascendancy of
the Pandyas and Pallavas.

Society under the Kalabhras

We can find a lot of difference between the society and culture of the
Sangam Age and those of the Kalabhra rule. There was a political chaos
during the Kalabhra rule. The secular outlook of the Sangam period gave
way to the religious outlook of the Kalabhras. Both Buddhism and Jainism
became dominant religions during the Kalabhra period. Particularly, the
Jain monks had preached Jainism in the Tamil country. They were
patronized by the Kalabhra rulers. At the same time, efforts were made to
remove the evils from the society. The Tamil Siddhars like Thirumoolar
had preached their philosophical ideas. Morals and ethics had been
preached through education and literature.

Education and Literature

The Kalabhra rule in the Tamil country had witnessed the growth of
education and literature. Sanskrit and Prakrit languages had been
introduced in the Tamil region. This had resulted in the development of a
new script called Vattezhththu. The Tamil literature had also taken new
forms, and the Tamil grammar had also undergone a few changes during
this period. Many works under Pathineen Keezhkanakku were composed
during this period. Epics like Seevaka Chinthamani and Kundalakesi were
written. Nigandus were also composed during the Kalabhra period.

The Buddhist and Jain monks had contributed much to the growth of
education. The Buddhist educational institutions were called Ghatikas.
Scholars like Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosha and Bodhidharma lived during
this period. The Jain Palli had remained important educational centers
during the Kalabhra rule. The Jain Palli (School) at Thirupathirippuliyur
remained an important educational centre during this period. Sarva
Nandhi and Vajra Nandhi were the two great Jain scholars, who lived in
this period.

During the end of the Kalabhra rule, the religion Saivism began to emerge
as a great religion. Some of the Kalabhra rulers had embraced Saivism.
However, it was only after the end of the Kalabhra rule, the Bakthi-cult
flourished in the Tamil country through which both Saivism and
Vaishnavism began to flourish.

PANDYAN EMPIRE
The Pandyas are one among the great Moovendars of the Tamil country.
The Pandyas who ruled Tamil country during the sangam period, are
called sangam Pandyas. After defeating the kalabhras the Pandya rulers
ruled between 550 AD to 950 AD. They were called as first Pandyas. After
the fall of the great pallavas and the cholas once again the Pandyas ruled
the Tamil country from 1190 AD to 1310 AD. They were called as second
Pandyas. Totally the Pandyas ruled the Tamil country three times for
about 460 years. Madurai was the capital of the Pandyas. Fish was the
royal emblem of the Pandyas.

We have studied that in the post-Sangam period, the Kalabhras had

occupied the Tamil country. The Pandyan rulers were reduced to the
position of local chieftains. The period of Kalabhras had lasted for about
three centuries. The Pandyan ruler Kadungon played an active role in
eliminating the Kalabhras. He restored the Pandyan rule in the Tamil
region by the end of the Sixth Century A.D. was considered as the
founder of the first Pandyan Empire.

The first Pandyan Empire continued till the beginning of the Tenth Century
A.D. The Cholas defeated the Pandyan ruler, Rajasimha II. Later,
Veerapandya (A.D. 946-966), the last ruler of the first Pandyan Empire
had been defeated and killed by Adhithya Chola. It was the end of the first
Pandyan Empire .
 Pandyan Kings

Kadungon (A. D. 575 - 600) was succeeded by Maravarman Avani

Sulamani (A. D. 600-625). He was given the title Sadayavarman. The
copper plates refer him as Friend of Truth. The next ruler of the Pandyan
Empire was Chezhiyan Sendhan (A.D. 625-640). He was also called
Vaanavan. This title indicates his success against the Cheras. He had
also assumed other titles like Maaran Sendhan and Vendar Vendan. He
was responsible for the carving of a cave temple at Malaiyidaikkurichi in
Tirunelveli District.

Maravarman Arikesari (A. D. 640-670)

Maravarman Arikesari was the most famous king of the first Pandyan
Empire. He had assumed the title Parangusan. He was also widely known
as Koon Pandyan. The Periyapuranam hails him as Nhiraseer
Nedumaran. He invaded the Pallava kingdom and defeated the Pallavas
at Nelveli after which he assumed the title Nelveli Nedumaran. He was an
ardent devotee of Saivism. He was also the contemporary of the. Saiva
Saint, Thirugnanasambandar, who converted him from Jainism to
Saivism.

Kochadayan Ranadhira A. D. 670-710)

Kochadayan Ranadhira had waged aggressive wars against the Cheras

and Cholas and defeated them. He had assumed titles like Mannar
Mannan, Vanavan Sembiyan, Madura Karunatakan and Kongar Koman.
During his rule, the Saiva saint, Sundaramoorthi Nayanar visited Madurai.

Religion under Pandiya Empire

After the decline of the Kalabhra rule, Hinduism was once again revived
and Buddhism and Jainism began to decline. The Pandyan kings had
patronized Vaishnavism, Saivism and Jainism.

The Nayanmars had preached Saivism while the Aiwars preached

Vaishnavism. They had spread the spirit of Bakthi among the people. The
spread of Bakthi cult inculcated religious feelings and service mindedness
among the people. These qualities had taken deep roots in the Tamil
society.

The Saivaite Saints, namely Thirugnana-sambandar and Manickavasagar

had lived in the Pandya country and propagated Saivism. Similarly the
Vaishnavaite Saints, Nammalwar, Perialwar and Andal had preached
Vaishnavism in the Pandyan kingdom. The Pandya kings generally
followed religious tolerance. They had made liberal donations and gifts to
the Jain monks and to their educational institutions.

Rock-cut Temples

We have studied the rock cut cave temples of the Pallava period. The
Pandyan kings had also carved several rock cut cave temples in their
kingdom. More than fifty cave temples have been found in different parts
of the Pandyan Empire. The most important of them are found in
Malaiyadikkurichi, Anaimalai, Thirupparankundram and Tiruchi. These
caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brabma.

Stone Temples

These temples were built of Stones and bricks. They are very simple in
their style. Each temple consists of a Garbagraha, Ardhamandapa and
Mahamandapa. The stone temples of the Pandyas were found at
Kovilpatti, Thiruppathur and Madurai.

Sculptures

The Pandyan period bad also witnessed the development of sculptures.

The sculptures of Siva, Subramanya, Ganesha, Brahmma and Durga are
found on the walls of the rock-cut caves. The Thirupparankundram temple
contains wonderful sculptures and they provide evidence for the growth of
sculptures in the Pandyan kingdom. They knew the technique of bronze
casting. Bronzes are kept in temples as Utsavamurthy.

Paintings

The trace of the Pandyan paintings can be seen in the Chittannavasal

cave temples. The ceilings and pillars bear the painted figures. The
technique is known as fresco. The paintings represent the dancing girls,
the king and queen, plants and animals. The paintings of Chittannavasal
are compared with those found at Ajantha caves. The contribution of the
Pandyan rulers for the Tamil art and architecture is commendable.

Sources for the History of the Pallavas

The sources for the history of the Pallavas may be classified as native
and foreign sources. The native sources may further be classified as
literary and archaeological sources.

The literary sources for the study of Pallavas include both Tamil and
Sanskrit literature. They provide a lot of information about the Pallavas.

Tamil Literature

The Tamil literature consisted of the songs composed by Azhalvars and

Nayanmars. They had lived during the Paliava period. The compositions
of Azhalvars are known as Nalayira Divya Prabhandam. The songs of
Nayanmars are compiled into Panniru Thirumurais. These works describe
the social and religious life of the people during the Pallava rule. The
Periyapuranam written by Sekizhar is also another important literary
source for this period.

Sanskrit Literature

The Sanskrit works Avani Sundari Katha written by Dandin and Loga
Vibagam written by Sarva Nandi provide a lot of information about the
importance of Simhavishnu and his rule, The famous Pallava monarch
Mahendravarman I himself wrote the Mathavilasa Prakasanam in Sanskrit
language. It provides information regarding the social and religious
condition during the Pallava period.

Archaeological Sources

Copper plates, inscriptions, monuments and coins remain the important

archaeological sources: for the study of the Pallavas. The Allahabad Pillar
Inscription of Samudra Gupta mentions about the Pallava king Vishnu
Gopa. The Aihole Inscription of the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II gives
details about the Pallava Chalukya conflict. The Kenthoor Stone Carving
of Keethivarman also belonged to the Pallava period Apart from these
popular inscriptions, there exist hundreds of Pallava inscriptions
throughout South India. They depict the military achievements of the
Pallava kings. These inscriptions also explain the social and economic
conditions of the Pallava period.

The copper plates of the Pallava period remain useful historical sources.
The Kuram Copper Plates issued by Parameshwaravarman and the
Velurpalayam copper plates of Nandivarman III record their military
achievements. The temples, sculptures and other monuments of the
Pallava period also provide valuable historical information. The coins of
the Pallava period remain important sources to study the economic
conditions of this period.

Foreign Sources

The foreign sources for the Pallava period include the Sri Lankan books,
namely, Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa. These books are written in Pali
language. They describe about the relationship between the Pallava kings
Narasimhavarman I and the Sri Lankan king Manavarman. The Chinese
traveler Hiuen Tsang had visited the Pallava kingdom and his travel
accounts are known as Siyuki. He had given a detailed account of the
capital city of the Pallavas, Kanchipuram. He also mentioned about the
Buddhist Viharas in Kanchi and described the social and economic
conditions of the Pallava kingdom.

Pallava Origin of the Pallavas History

The period of Pailava rule is an important chapter in the history of Tamil
Nadu. After defeating the Kalabhras, Pailavas established their rule in the
Tamil country. Their rule had extended from Sixth century A.D. to Ninth
century A.D. The core of the Pallava kingdom was known as Thondai
Mandalam. It extended from the river Krishna in the North to the river
Palar in the South.

The Paliava rule was significant in many respects. There was religious
revival as well as literary growth. An excellent administrative structure had
existed under the Pallava rule. The Pallavas had also effected important
changes in the sphere of art and architecture.

Origin of the Pallavas

Kanchipuram one of the seven best cities of India, was the capital of
Pallavas. Kanchi was under pallavas rule from 3rd to 9th century AD.
Vincent Arthur Smith opined in 1st edition of ’History of India’, that
Pallavas were the Pahlava of Persian origin and in the third edition of his
book, he concluded they were South Indians.

There are many theories regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some
scholars consider that the Pallavas were foreigners. According to this
theory, the Pallavas were the descendents of the Persians who invaded
North India. But many scholars do not accept this theory.
The theory that the Tamil country had been the original home of the
Pallavas is based on the story of Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan. He was
considered to be a descendent of the Chola-Naga tribes. However, the
Tamil origin for the Pallavas has been ruled out on many counts.

It is generally considered that the Pallavas had migrated to the Tamil

country from North India. While in North India, they served under the
Mauryas. After the decline of the Mauryas, the Pallavas migrated to the
Andhra region. Before coming to the Tamil Country, they stayed in the
Andhra region for some time and served under the Satavahanas.
Subsequently, they established the Pallava kingdom in Thondaimandalam
by overthrowing the Kalabhras.

They were the descendants of Thondaiman Elanthiraiyan. However let us

also examine the views of other historians. A researcher by name rice
said that Pallavas were the descendants of Pahlavas who migrated to and
lived in the North Western India.

Suvisahan Pahlavan a minister of the Andhra Emperor Rudradaman ruled

during 150AD and his descendants took over the southern part of Andhra
Empire at its decline. Virakurchavarman who married the daughter of a
Naga, the ruler of South-Western states of Andhra Empire. The copper
plates of Pallava described him as the first Pallava king.

Dr.Venkaiyar is of the view that the West Persian word “Panthiyas”

changed to Pahlava and then as Pallava.

A painting of Nandhivarman II wearing a crown with the shape of an

elephant head is found in Kanchi Vaigunta Perumal temple. The same
type of crown is engraved in the coin of Indo-Bactrian King Demetria’s.
Hence Venkata Subbaiyar felt that Pallavas were Pahlavas only.

The Nasik inscriptions of Andhra Queen Gautami Bala Sri while telling the
victory of her son Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni, recorded the defeat of
Sakas, Pallavas and Yavanas who fled the battle field. Pallavas who
came towards south could have been prevented by Gautamiputra Sri
Satakarni the Andhra King who conquered them.

Pallavas being the feudatories of the empire of Andhra for some time,
they might have created an independent Kingdom after the fall of the
Andhra Empire.

The word ‘Pahlava’ does not find place in the inscriptions of Pallavas.
Inasmuch as the state of Scythian Warrior is found in Nagarjunakonda,
Iksha Vahus are not treated as Scythians. Rajasekaran lived during the
10th century AD wrote in his book Bhuvanagosha that the Pahlavas lived
beyond the river Indus and the Pallavas of South India belonged to
different and distinct tribes.

A Sri Lankan researcher Rajanayagam tells us that the Manipallavam

near Sri Lanka is the places of origin of Pallavas. The Chola king
Killivalavan referred to in ‘Manimekalai’, that he married Peelivalai,
daughter of Naga King Valaivanan of Manipallavam. Their son was
Elanthiraiyan. Elanthiraiyan who livd at Manipallavam with his mother
sailed to Tahmizhagam to meet his father in a ship which sank in the sea
and he reached the shore floating on the waves. A creeper called
Thondai was found encircled in his leg, hence he was called Thondaiman
Elanthiraiyan. His descendants were named Pallavas as they came from
Manipallavam Island.

Pallavas belonged to Thondaimandalam, who were subjects of

Satavahanas Rule doing service to them (Thondu) and hence called
Thondaiyar. That name later was Sanskritised as Pahlava.
Krishnaswamy Iyer stated that the Thalavanur inscriptions indicated the
wearing of the garland made of Thondai by Mahenravarma Pallavan.

K.P. Jayaswal opined that Pallavas were a sect amongst Vakatakas.

Even in early inscriptions there is no mention of North Indian connection
and hence not acceptable point.

Pallavas of later period were the descendants of the Kurumbar Tribes.

Kurumbar means shepherds and cowherds and ‘Pal avar’ (milk-man)
might have changed as Pallavar.

Manimekalai refers to Athonda Chakravarthi who defeated Kurumbar and

conquered their land, named it as “Thonda Mandalam”.

The ancestors of Marathas were of Aryan origin and for Pallava too and
hence usage of Maratha’s Prakrit language by Pallavas – C.V. Vairya.

D.C. Sirayan opines that even though letter Pallavas were treated as
Kshatriyas, they might have been of Brahminicial origin earlier.

H.Krishna Sastri says that the first Pallava was born to Asvathama son of
Dhrona a Brahmin and Naga Kannigai, a Dravidian for who a bed was
made of creeper, (Padarkodi) and hence he was called Pallavan.

K.A. Neelakanta Sastri is of the view that Pallavam in Prakrit and Sanskrit
meant “Thondaikodi” and hence they got this tittle as Pallava.
As per Mahavamsa of Srilanka Pallavas hailed from Pallavabogam to
Thamizhagam; Pallavabogam may pertain to parts of Andhra. According
to A.M. Paramasivanandam, early Pallava inscriptions were found in
Andhra.

Mythology mixed up with history on royal tradition might not be correct to

conclude that Pallavas belong to Aryan race.

Pallavas, feudatories of Satavahanas, became independent after the fall

of Satavahanas. Prakrit language copper plates confirm their rule from
Kanchi to Krishna in the north. Prof R. Sathiyanathaiyar tells us that their
association with Satavahanas made them the patrons of Prakrit-sanskrit
languages.

Rawlinson feels that after their rise in the estuaries of Krishna and
Gothavari, Pallavas invaded Tamil Nadu and established their rule
(350AD) conquering Kanchi, with the help of Kallar, Maravar and
Kurumber.

Rajasimhan’s Vayalur inscriptions describe the lineage of Pallava next to

Asvathama and earlier to Ashoka while fixing Ashoka’s ancestry. Hence
Pallava dynasty existed prior to Ashoka and a family from cross marriage
who were subjects of Andhra Empire became independent. Under this
influence they adopted Prakrit language and accepted the local language
later. – V.Ponnusami Pillai

The inscriptions after 8th century AD contain different names like,

Kadavan, Kadavarkon and Kaduvetti as the Pallavas developed the
country reclaiming to forests.

The origin of the Pallavas could not be ascertained as Puranic stories

were mixed in the history. In spite of the researches with conclusions
made, some are of the view that their origin was from North

Pallava Dynasty and Kingdom

Early Pallavas (250-340 AD)

Those who released copper plates in Prakrit language were called Early
Pallavas.
 Bappadevan (250-275AD)

Bappadevan was the leader of Brahmins. Stiff opposition from farmers

and the public arose against the Bappadevan rule as he Patronised
Brahmins, Vedhas and Prakrit. A story on the war between Emperor
Thondaiman and his cousin Viswavesu was referred to by Col. Mckenzy
and he might be the first Pallava king Bappadevan.

Prakrit copper plate described that Bappadevan donated 1 lac ploughs etc
to please the people and establish peace. During Bapadevan period the
Pallava country’s southern border was upto Palar River.

Sivaskandavarman (275-300AD)

The Maidavelou plate released at Kanji by him when he was the crown
prince sent to his leader at Dhanyakataka. The donation of a village
Viriparam to two Brahmins was inscribed in the plate. The Hiragathgalli
plate was released after his ascending the throne as emperor. He was
called, Maharajathirarjan, Dharmarajan and he performed as Asvamedha
Yaga. Sivaskandevaran waged a war on Kalabhras and conquered
Kanchi Establishing the border upto Pennar River on the South; utpo
River Krishna on the north; extending the Pallava Kingdom.

Sivaskanda Varma’s father could not be identified. He might be Bappa

devan. N. Subramanian considers Simhavarman who created Manji
inscriptions, like his father.

Others

Gunabadeya plate was released by Charudevi, wife of Buddhavarma.

The donations she gave to Perumal temple was inscribed on it. We also
come to know that they had a son by name Puthyangran. We do not know
whether he was the son of Sivaskandavarman. From their names,
Buddhavarman and Buthyangran, it is understood that they were the
followers of Buddhism.

Medieval Pallavas (340 to 575AD)

As the Medieval Pallava plates were in Sanskrit, it was considered that

they had no connections with early Pallavas. Rajasimhan in his Vayalur
inscriptions referred to his ancestor as Medieval Pallava Kings. Prakrit
language was improved and developed as Sanskrit. During 4th century
AD, Sanskrit became the language used for the propagation of Vaidika
Philosophy.
Medieval Pallavas did not appear to have released to copper plates from
Kanchi. They were excavated from the Telugu towns like,
Dhasanapuram, Menmadura, Royakotta, Santhalur, Udhayendram and
Uruvappalli. The experts in Sanskrit verified the copper plates and
assessed their period as 340 – 575BC.

Kumaravishnu (340-350AD)

The Harisena inscriptions at Allahabad tells us, during the middle of 4th
century AD Samudhragupta invaded the south and defeated 12kings. In
the defeated list of the kings, the names of Kanji Vishnugopan and
Palakada Ukrasena were found. As Kalabarthri was described as
‘Kudumba Thalaimani’ and ‘Lakshmipathi’ in the copper plates, Krishna
Sastri considers that he was having the name Kumaravishnu.

Buddhyangran was the last king of early Pallava dynasty and Kalabarthri
or Kumaravishnu was the great king among the Middle Pallava. The
period of Kumaravishnu’s reign and that of the invasion of
Sumudraragupta were same. Therefore Dr. Rajamanickam, says that the
names, Kumaravishnu and Vishnugopan found in Allahabad inscriptions
refer to the same king.

Samudragupt fought Vishnugopan at a place outside north of Kanchi but

not entered Kanchi. Ukrasenan was a feudatory under Vishnugopan –
K.A. Neelakanta Sastri. Vishnugopan and the Later Pallava Kings
released their copper plates from the Telugu Towns as their northern
border was up to Krishna.

In this Thalagunta inscriptions, Kadamba king Kaguthavarman mentioned

the establishment of Kadamba kingdom by Mayurasarman, after the
defeat of Vishnugopan by Samudragupta.

Shandhashya (Skandhavarman) (350-375D)

Velurpalayam plates released by Skandavarman III mention the marriage

of the great Pallava King Virakurchavarman with the daughter of
Skandanagan, the king of Nagas and he got Kundala country as gift.

The same plate also recorded the retrieval of Kadika (Kanchi) by

Skandashya, son of Virakurcha from the King Sathyasenan. He also
donated lands to Thirukazhukundram temple. Prithvisenan I of Vakataka
dynasty attacked Pallava and occupied Kanchi Making have retrieved
Kanchi from Sathyasenan who ruled it and beyond its north for some time.
 Kumaravishnu (375-425AD)

Velur Palayam plate describe that Kumaravishnu who became a king after
Skandashya retrieved Kanchi, but it was not mentioned from whom he
retrieved. He might he retrieved from Vakataka. But K.K. Pillai contends
that he retrieved from Cholas only as Kanchi was with the Cholas after the
invasion of Samudragupta. This contention was refuted by some, as the
prince, Vishnugopavarman, son of Kumaravishnu ruled having
Palakadava as his capital. Dr. Circar holds that Uruvapalli plates were
released from there.

Skandavarman – II (425 – 475AD)

West Ganga King Madhavan – II in his Penukonda plates stated that he

and his father Harivarman ascended the throne with the help of
Skandavarman, son of Simhavarman. Kadamba King Kaguthavarman
might have prevented Harivarman from ascending the throne.

Kadamba King Mirugesavarman (Grandson of Kagusthavarman) a

comtemporary of Gangan King Madhava – II invaded him. Halis plates
stated that he defeated Gangan king and Pallavas were afraid of him.
Madhavan II was again made king by Skandavarman son of
Simhavarman – I by defeating Kandamba King.

Buddhavarman (475 -500 AD)

Velur Palayam plates stated that Buddhavarman was like a fire for
Chola’s vast army. He defeated and drove Kalabhras and Cholas when
they invaded Kanji.

VishnuGopavarman (500 -525AD)

Ravivarman, son of Mirugesvarman defeated the king of Kanchi, says

Halsi plates. Vishnugopavarman was the king of Kanchi during the reign
of Ravivarman.

Nandhivarman (525-550AD)

Velur Palayam Plates proves that with the blessings of Lord Shiva he
defeated King of Nagas. The Naga king defeated by Nandhivarman might
be Chalukya King Jayasimhan or Ranadeera.
 Simha Varman III (500 – 575)

Vellur palaya plates say that Simha Varman III was son of Simha
Varman. Simhavarman III became King after Nandhivarman I. Gangas
copper plate tells us the donation of lands to Samanars (Jains) by his
wife. He was the worshipper of Shiva. He was Iyyadigal Kadavarkon and
wrote poem on the sacred place.

The Medieval Pallava period was calculated on the basis of Jain book by
name Loga Vipaha written in the principle of the formation of the
Universe.

Simhavishnu

Mahendravarman I

Narasimhavarman I

Simhavishnu (A.D. 575-610)

Simha Vishnu was the founder of Pallava Dynasty. He was very Brave
and conquered with lot of kings and extended with Pallava Dynasty. He
extended his kingdom to a dynasty.

Information on Simhavishnu was scanty prior to the publication of the

history of Kanchi Pallavas by Professor Gopalan. If we examine and
analysis the Plates of Kasakudi, Velurpalayam and Kuram, it became
clear that Simhavishnu was the son of Simha Varman III who was the last
king of Medieval Pallavas and that he had a younger brother Beema
Varman by name.

It is learnt from Avanti Sundarikatha that Durvineethan the King of Ganga,

Vishnu Vardhanan, the Eastern Chalukya, Pulikesi II of Western Chalukya
and Manavarnamn Avani Choolamani the Pandiya King, were his
contemporaries. Hence the reign of Simhavishnu was A.D. 575-610.

Simhavishnu was a great soldier. He had the title Avani Simhan.

Mehandravarman, his son eulogized him as a mountain that supported
the world of Pallava Dynasty; one who had all the luxurious items; one
had conquered many countries; an equal to Lord Indira in Valour; an
equal to Lord Kubera in wealth and as a King of Kings in his treatise
Mathavilasa Prakasanam.
The plate of Velur Palayam says that he captured the Cholanadu. The
plate of Kasakudi says that Simhavishnu appeared in the world like a lion
and conquered Kalabhras, Mazhavar, Cholar and Pandiyar. The plate of
Kanjanur near Kumbakonam has the name Simhavishnu Saturvati
Mangalam.

The cave temple of Sithannavasal near Pudukottai belongs to

Mahendravarman I and there is no evidence of his wars in South India.
Hence his father Simhavishnu during his reign must have won the
Cholanadu upto Pudukottai.

Avanthi Sundarikatha and the plates of Kasakudi say that he removed the
final enmity from Katravar koottam which according to Rajamanickam was
only Kanjipuram (the History of Pallavas). Since Simhavishnu was a
valiant king, he and his descendants were called the great Pallavas.

Simhavishnu was a pious king. His name indicates that he was a

Vaishnavite. The plate of Udayendram refers to him as “Bakthi Araditha
Vishnu”. (One who worshipped Vishnu)

Avanthi Sundari Katha says that Baravi, the great epic poet who rendered
the epic Krartharjuniam was under the patronage of Simhavishnu at
Kanchipuram for some time.

Mahendravarman I- A.D. 600-630

Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I. In the
beginning of his life, Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism, Later,
he embraced Saivism due to the influence of the Saivaite Saint
Tirunavukkarasar, who is also known as Appar. This is testified by
Periyapuranam.

This is confirmed by the inscriptions of Trichy Rockfort temple. It is learnt

from Mathavilasa Prakasanam, a treatise by Mahendravarman that
religions such as Buddhisam, Kapalikas and Pasupatham wer followed
during his reign. He destroyed the Samana Palli (Jain School) at
Tirupathiripuliyur and expelled Samanas (Jains) from his country.

Mahendravarman revied Saivism (worshippers of Siva). He introduced

the innovation of cave temples carved out of rocks. He was a master of
arts in its various forms. He beautified his country and fostered the
culture of the Tamils.
 Wars

The Paliava-Chaiukya conflict had begun during the period of

Mahendravarman I. The Chalukyan king Pulakesin II marched against the
Pallavas and defeated Mahendravarman, Subsequently, Mahendravarma
I chased his enemy and defeated the Chalukyan army at Pullalur. He had
also defeated the Western Ganga ruler Durvinitha.

The inscription of Aihole says that Pulikesi II attacked the Pallava king,
captured Vengi and made his brother Vishnuvardan, the king of Vengi
who had been already ruling with Nsik (Asalapuram) as his capital.

The same inscription says that when the forces of Pulikesi II invaded Kanji
from the north, the king did not face the enemy and hid himself inside the
fort of Kanji like a coward. But the Kasakdi plate of the Pallavas says that
Mahendran destroyed his enemies at Pullalur.

It is the custom of kings to hide their defeats but to record and highlight
their victories only. Durvinedan, the Ganga King, refers to the war of
Pullalur in his inscriptions. It is understood so that Durvinedan joined
Pullikesi II and fought against Mahendravarman. Though Mahendran lost
his northern part, he continued to rule as an emperor. His empire had
spread form Venkata hills in in the north to the Cauvery in the south.
There were many feudatories under him.

Titles

Mahendravarman I had 26 titles. The titles Sathrumallan and

Kalagapriyan show his military genius. His generosity was known from the
title Gunabhara. Other titles such as Avanipajanan, Lalithanguran,
Purushothaman, Sathyasanthan, Vichithra chithra, Narendran, Sethakari,
Potharaiyan, Mahapidugu, Nayaparan, Vikraman, Mathavilasan,
Anithyaragan, Sangeeranasathi, Alupthakaman and Nirabeshan are the
some of them.

Art and Literature

Mahendravarman I had evinced much interest in art and architecture. He

introduced a new technique in the temple architecture. He carved out
temples from huge rocks without using bricks, wood and mortar. It is
considered to be an innovation in the field of South Indian art and
architecture. Therefore, he was called as Vichitrachitha. These temples
are known as rock-cut temples or cave temples. His rock-cut temples are
found in several places in South India including Mandagapattu,
Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Vallam, Pallavaram, Thirukkazhukunram and
Tiruchi.
We can find the Pallava paintings at Chittannavasai. The music inscription
at Kudumiyanmalai reveals Mahendravarman’s skill in music. He was an
expert in playing Veena known as Parivathini. Mahendravarman I was
also a great scholar in the Sanskrit language. He wrote the satirical drama
Mattavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit.

The cave temple at Mandagapattu was the first of its kind in rock
architecture. The inscriptions of Mandagapattu temple in South Arcot
says that Mahendravarman, built an ‘everlasting temple for the everlasting
God’ sans stone, wood, metal and lime. He carved cave temples out of
rocks for Thirumal at Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Singavaram and
Namakkal.

He built cave temples for lord Siva at Seeyamangalam, Pallavarma,

Vaooam, Dalavanur, Thiruvathigai, Thirukazhukundram and
Tiruchirappalli. A cave temple for trinity of the Hindu Gods at
Mandagappattu and a temple for the Samanas (Jains) at Annavasal. The
cave temples at Vijayawada, Mogalrajapuram, Undavalli, Bairavakonda,
Keezh Mavilangai and Melacheri are his creations only.

Mahendravarman built the Aadhivaragar temple at Mamallapuram. On

the northern side of the temple, in the Pallava Grantha letters “Sri
Simhavishnu Bothathi Rajan” is inscribed. At the bottom of the inscription
the figure of Simhavishnu and those of his two wives are seen.

Just opposite, the figure of Mahendravarman and those of his wives are
seen and also inscribed the name “Sri Mahendra Bothathi Rajan”.
Mahendravarman who erected many cave temples, erected Dharmaraja
Mandapam and Kodikal Mandapam at Mamallapuram, Since he built
many temples, the got the title “Sethakari” i.e., builder of temples.

He created places like Mahendravadi in his name. He created lakes at

Mahendravadi, Mamadur and Dalavanur and developed agriculture.

Mahendravarman was interested in painting and sculpture. We could

understand his ability in painting from his title ‘Sithrakara Puli’ i.e., a tiger
of paintings. The painting of the cave temple of Sithanna Vasal is of his
period.

He invented thalam a musical instrument and the raga Sangeerana Sathi.

The inscription of Kudumiyanmalai explained the music of his time.
Mahendravarman wrote in Sanskrit Mathavilasa Prakasanam, a satire and
a drama Bhagavatha Joogiyam. He was hailed as Vichithra Sitthan as he
patronized music, dance, sculpture, painting and drama.

Narasimhavarman I (A.D 630 -668)

Narasimhavarman I was the son and successor of Mahendravarman I. He
had surpassed his father in all respects. His military achievements as well
as his contribution to the art and architecture are commendable.

Narasimhavarman I Wars

The copper plate of Kooram say that he defeated often Chera, Chola,
Pandiya and the Kalabharas. He fought many wars and he wrote the
word, “Victory” on the back of Pulikesi as the fled from the battles of
Pariyalam, Manimangalam and Sooramaram.

Vaathapi Kondan

The Pailava-Chalukya conflict had continued during this period

Narasimhavarman I had defeated the Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II at
Manimangalam. Then, he marched with his army towards the Chalukyan
kingdom. The commander in chief of the Pallava army was Paranjothi.
Pulakesin II was defeated and killed in the battle. The Chalukyan capital
Vaathapi was set to fire and destroyed. After this victory,
Narasimhavarman I had assumed the title Vaathapi Kondan.

The copper plates of Udayendram and Velur Palayam speak of his victory
of Badami in A.D. 642. The inscription of Thirukazhukundram celebrates
him as the one who captured Badami. Periyapuranam says that
Paranjothi, the army chief of Narasimhan, captured and destroyed
Badami.

Expeditions to Ceylon

Narasimhavarman I had sent two expeditions to Ceylon and helped his

friend Manavarman to get back his kingdom. Mahavamsa of Sri Lanka,
says that Manavarman, the Prince of Sri Lanka, was driven away by his
foe Attathathan and Manavarman took refuge under Narashimhavarman
and helped him in the war of Badami. It adds that Narasimhavarman sent
his forces to Sri Lanka and conquered Attathathan for the second time
and coroneted Manavarman. The copper plate of Kasakudi compared the
Sri Lanka victory of narasimhan to that of Rama in Sri Lanka.
Vikramadithan, the son of Pulikesi II says in his Kurnool copper plate that
he was defeated by his tree foes i.e., Narasimhan, a close kin and the
king of North Pallavandau, Manavarman, and Hiranyavarman. The statue
of Badami Ganapathy was brought by Narasimhan after defeating
Badami. The victory inscription of Narasimhan is on the rear wall of the
temple of Mallikarjuna Devar at Badami which is in a dilapidated
condition.

The copper plate of Chinnamanur says that Nedumaran, the Pandiya

King, defeated narasimhavarman, the Pallava King at a place called
Sankaramangai. But the Kooram plates claim that king Narasimhan
conquered the Pandiya King. It is possible that when the Pallava forces
invaded Badami, the Pandiya King defeated the border forces of Pallava
King at Sankaramangai. But Narasimhan sent Paranjothi, his army chief
to Badami and he with a huge force must have conquered the Pandiya
King Nedumaran and his allies.

There was a battle for power between Adhithavarman and Vikiramadithan

the sons of Pulikesi II, the latter sought the help of his maternal
grandfather, Durivnedhan, the king of Ganga. It seems Adhithavarman
beseeched the help of Narasimhavarman who might have sent his force
and Durvinedah defeated that force. The inscription of Nagari says that
Durvinedhan defeated Kuduvetti of Kanji, who was feared as the Ravanan
of Kanji and crowned Jayasimhavarman his grandson by his daughter as
the king of Chalukya country.

Periyapuranam says that Paranjothi, Narasimhavarman’s army chief,

gave up warfare and became a saivite saint and was called Siruthondar.
Nilakanta Sastri and T.V. Mahalingam say that Siruthondar was
contemporary of Paramesvaravarman but this view is not acceptable.

Visit of Hiuen Tsang

During the reign of Narasimhavarman I. the Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang

visited the Pallava capital Kanchi in 640 A.D. He had stayed there for
some time and studied in the Buddhist Kadigai. He had given detailed
information regarding the greatness of Kanchi in his travelogue. Hiuen
Tsang has praised Kanji in his treatise Siyuki Kanchi that the city had
spread out 20 miles towards the sea. He also noted that many ships
sailed to Sri Lanka.

Appar and Sambandar refer to the famine of Pallavanadu. According to

Huan-Tsuang, Narasimhan was tolerant and all regions equally. He
further stated that both Buddhist and Samana (Jain) monasteries existed
at Kanchipuram but Buddhism was in Shambles and on its decline in
Pandiyanadu. Narasimhavarman carved cave temples for Lord Siva and
Thirumal.

Narasimhavarman I had assumed many titles such as Mamallan,

Sribharan, Srimehan, Srinithi and Vadhya Vidyatharan.

Art and Architecture

Narasimhavarman I had continued and improved the work of his father in

the sphere of art and architecture. His monolithic temples, rock-cut
mandapas and portrait sculptures at Mamallapuram speak the glory of the
Pallava art and architecture.

Narasimhavarman, like his father Mahendravarman carved cave temples.

The temples he built are more beautiful than his father’s. The cave
temple at Kudumiyamalai and the Perumal temple at Thirumaiyam near
Pudukottai were carved by him.

Narasimhan had the title Mamallan. Since he beautified Kadalmallai it

came to be known as Mamallapuram. The Mahishasura Mandabam and
the hall for the trinity Gods was built at Mamallapuram by him. The
temples he carved out on separate rocks later came to be called the cars
of Pandavas. He carved the puranic stories on the rocks. The story of
Kannan holding Govardhanagiri as an umbrella and the scene of the
Ganga with the penance of Arjuna are the excellent among the
sculptures.

Among the forts of Narasimhavarman, the one at Pallavaram near Lalgudi

and the other at Kanji were the best ones. He was conferred with the
titles such as Mamallan, Sriparan, Srimohan, Srinidhi, Ranajayan,
Adhyanthakaman, Ameyamayan and the conqueror of Badami (Badami
Kodan). Pulikesi II, Vikkramadityan, Durvinedhan, the king of Ganga and
Nedumaran were his contemporaries.

Narasimhan ruled approximately for 40 years successfully and efficiently.

He continued his father’s services to all the temple though he followed
Saivism, as he was tolerant to other religions as well.

End of the Pallava Rule

Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II,

Parameshwaravarman I, Narasimhavarman ii (Rajasimha) and others.
Later, the Beemavarman line of the Pallavas had ruled Kanchi. The most
important of them were Nandhivarman, Daudhivarman, Nirupathungan
and Aparajithan.
 THE PALLAVA ADMINISTRATION
A well-organized administration had existed in the Pallava kingdom. We
get a lot of information from the literature and inscriptions to know the
various aspects of the Pallava administration. The Pallava kings had
introduced several administrative institutions in the Tamil country. Mostly,
they had adopted the Mauryan system of administration and suitably
modified it. It can be said that generally there was peace and order in the
Pallava kingdom due to their efficient administrative system.

Administrative Divisions

The Pallavas had a vast empire. It had extended up to the Nellore district
in the North and up to the river South Pennar in the South. On the west, it
had extended up to the Western Ghats and on the east up to the Bay of
Bengal. It was very difficult to have administrative control over such a vast
empire. Therefore, the Pallavas had divided the empire into several
administrative units. They were called as Mandalam, Kottam, Nadu and
Ur. These administrative divisions may be compared with the modern
administrative units, namely province, district, taluk and village.

Mandalam

The biggest unit of the Pallava Empire was Mandalam or Rashtra. It had
remained almost an autonomous unit. The Pallava king had appointed a
prince or Yuvaraja as the governor of a Mandalam. This was done to have
direct central control over the provinces.

Kottam

Each Mandalam was divided into several Kottams or Vishayas. The

number of Kottams varied according to the size of the Mandalam. For
example, the Thondai Mandalam was divided into twenty-four Kottams.
Officials were appointed by the king to administer each Kottam.

Nadu

The next administrative unit was called Nadu. It was bigger than Oor or
Village. There were several villages in each Nadu. A council called
Naattar was in charge of the administration of Nadu.
 Oor

The Oor or village was the smallest unit of the Pallava administration. It
was also under the control of the village committees called Sabhas, The
village Sabha remained almost autonomous in looking after the day-to-
day administration of the village.

Central Government in Pallava

Monarchy

The Pallavas had followed the system of monarchy. The king was the
head of the kingdom. Hereditary succession to the throne had been in
practice. Normally, the eldest son would be the next ruler. The Paliava
kings had considered themselves as the representatives of God. They
had assumed many titles like Maharaja, Maharajathi Raja and Dharma
Rajathiraja. These titles indicate the imperial power of the Pallava kings.
The Pallava kings had also claimed a divine origin.

Council of Ministers

There was an efficient Council of Ministers in the Pallava kingdom. The

Ministers were known as Amatyas. They were given titles such as
Uthamaseelan, Brahmarajan and Peraraiyan. The Minister carried out the
orders of the king. They had also rendered their co-operation and service
to the king in all matters of administration. Besides the Council of
Ministers, there were many officials to look after each department of the
Pallava administration.

Judiciary

There were three types of courts in the Pallava kingdom. The highest
judicial organization was called Dharmasena. The king acted as its head.
The courts in the towns were known as Adikarnas. The village courts
were called as Karnas. The village Sabhas also acted as courts in settling
the civil disputes in the villages. Punishments were not cruel and harsh.
Fines were also imposed along with punishment.

Army

The Pallavas had possessed a strong and big army. There were four
divisions in the army. They were infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots.
The cavalry played a vital role in the wars. The Pallavas also had a Navy.
We have already noted that Narasimhavarman I had sent two naval
expeditions to Sri Lanka.

Revenue

Land tax was the main source of income to the government. There were
also other taxes. The copperplates and inscriptions of the Pallavas
mention eighteen kinds of taxes. The number of lakes, tanks, wells, rivers
and trees were counted for the purposes of taxation. Taxes were known
by different names such as Kaanam, Irai, Paatam, and Poochi. For
example, the term Kusakaanam refers to the tax on potters and Than Irai
to the tax on weavers. Taxes were also levied on oil-pressers, toddy-
tapers, washer men, goldsmiths and cattle-breeders.
The chief items of expenditure of the government were the royal court,
public works and temple grants. An officer called as Kumaranpandaram
managed the royal palace.

Local administration

The existence and the functioning of the local bodies constitute an

important aspect of the Pallava administration. Already mention is made
about the administrative units called Nadu and Oor. The respective
committees had administered these divisions. The committee of Nadu
was known as Naattar. They carried out the king’s orders and looked after
the administration of Nadu.

The Sabha or Committee in each Oor or Village was in charge of the

village administration. The members of Oor Sabha were known as
Perumakkal. Each Sabha was divided into separate committees called
Vaariyams. Each Vaariyams had looked after the administration of
temple, irrigation tanks and village gardens. Thus, the village
administration was well organized during the Pallava rule. It can be said
that the Pallavas had laid the foundation for the future expansion of village
administration during the Later Cholas.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN PALLAVAS

The Pallava rule had witnessed a drastic change in the social and
economic life of the people. The emergence of the Bakthi Movement had
significantly changed their way of life. It was further stimulated by the
temple-building activity of the Pallava kings. There was also a remarkable
growth of economy during this period. In general, there was a tremendous
change in the society and culture during the Pallava rule.

Social Structure

The society under the Pailavas was chiefly divided into four, namely,
Brahmins, Kshatryas, Vaisyas and Sudras. Besides the four-fold division,
there were also other sub castes in the society based on their occupation.

The Brahmins occupied the first place in the society. They were the
learned and the most respected in the society. They had lived in a
separate place called Agraharam. They had recited Vedas and performed
pooja in the temples. The Pallava kings had made extensive land grants
to them. These land grants were known as Brahmadeyas. The Brahmins
helped the kings in performing sacrifices. They had also enjoyed higher
position in the government.

The Kshatryas had remained in the next position in the social hierarchy.
Generally, they belonged to the ruling class. They had also become
warriors. They also gave liberal donations to the temples and Brahmins.

Those who indulged in agriculture and trade were called as Vaisyas. They
had contributed to the development of society by establishing Mutts and
choultries. They also fed the poor and committed to public welfare and
social progress.

The Sudras had occupied the last place in the social structure. They
remained low-grade servants. The literature of the Pallava period refers to
them as pulayar and chandalas. However, a few of them had become
religious saints due to their devotion to God.

Status of women

The women from royal and rich families had enjoyed high status in the
society. They were also given property rights. They remained pious and
religious and granted liberal donations to the temples and Brahmins.
Chastity was their noble virtue. However, other women in the middle and
lower strata of the society had to work hard to earn their livelihood. They
indulged in spinning, weaving and other similar works. There were also
separate dancing girls in the society. They were employed in the temples
because of their talent in music and dance.
 Food, Dress and Ornaments

Rice was the staple food of the people during the Pallava period. They
had also consumed milk, ghee, and curd. Generally, people wore simple
dress made of cotton. The rich people were fond of wearing silk garments.
The sculptures of this period indicate several types of ornaments used by
the people. They include earrings, bangles, necklaces and anklets.

Education

Much importance was given to the Sanskrit education during the Paliava
period. The Mutts had remained as important educational centers. The
kings and nobles made land grants to them. The temples had also
functioned as educational centers. The Buddhist Kadigai in Kanchipuram
was a famous educational centre. The Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang
stayed there and studied. Another Buddhist scholar Dharmapala was also
an alumnus of the Kanchi Kadigai. The Jain pallis had also been
functioning in Kanchi. Literature, Grammar, Astrology, Medicine and
Painting were some of the important subjects taught in these institutions.

Economic Life In Pallavas

Agriculture

The Pallava rule had witnessed a drastic change in the social and
economic life of the people. The emergence of the Bakthi Movement had
significantly changed their way of life. It was further stimulated by the
temple-building activity of the Pallava kings. There was also a remarkable
growth of economy during this period. In general, there was a tremendous
change in the society and culture during the Pallava rule.

The creation of the Brahmadeya villages had started during the Pallava
period. The Brahmins began to settle in these villages and they were
exempted from paying taxes. The lands denoted to the temples were
called as Devadhan. The number of villages had increased during the
Pallava rule. Arid lands were reclaimed and cultivated. The Pallava kings
had cut several irrigation tanks. For example, Mahendravarman I cut the
Mamandur tank. It was called Chithra Mega Tadakam. A number of such
tanks were constructed during the Pallava period and they facilitated to
the growth of agriculture. In turn, the economy flourished.
 Crafts

The crafts of the Pallava period include weaving, stone cutting, pottery,
carpentry, ivory works, etc. Cotton clothes were exported to China,
Babylonia and Egypt. Kanchipuram had remained an important centre for
silk weaving.

Internal Trade

The increase in production and the expanding economy under the

Pallavas led to the growth of trade and commerce. Both internal and
external trade flourished during this period.
There was a remarkable growth in the internal trade. The regular markets
had gradually become urban centers. Various commodities were brought
from villages to these markets for sale. There were excellent highways to
transport goods from one place to another. The capital city, Kanchipurarn
had remained an important trading centre.
The merchants of the Pallava period had to obtain license to keep shops
and they were also asked to pay taxes. The barter system of trade was
generally prevalent. Later, the Pallavas had issued gold and silver coins,
which had resulted in the expansion of commerce. The merchants had
also formed their own organizations called Manigramam.

Foreign Trade

We have already studied about the overseas commerce between South

India and the West during the Sangam period. It had declined after the
Sangam Age. During the Pallava rule trade with foreign countries had
been revived. Spices, cotton textiles, precious stones and medicinal
plants were exported to the countries like Java, Sumatra, Kadaram,
Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China and Burma. The foreign merchants were
known as Nanadesi. Mamallapuram, Vasavasamudram and Mylapore
were the important seaports of the Pallavas.

Weights and Measures

Lands were measured with the units called Uzhavu, Nivarthanam or

Pattiga. The term Hala also refers to a unit of land. Plough was used for
measuring the land.

Paddy and rice were measured by Chudunazhhi. The other units such as
Videl, Vidugu and Uzhakku were also used for measurement. Pidi was the
smallest unit. The units such as Aazhakku, Uzhakku, Uri and Nazhi were
used to measure items like milk, ghee and oil. Gold was measured by the
units called Kazhanju and Manjaadi.
 Religion Under the Pallavas
We have studied that during the post-Sangam period, Buddhism and
Jainism began to spread into the Tamil country. They became popular
during the Kalabhra rule. After the establishment of the Pallava rule, both
Saivism and Vaishnavism had been revived. The Pallava kings had
patronized both these religions. They had built temples and made land
grants to them. Hence both these religions flourished during the Pallava
period. The spread of the Bakthi Movement had provided further stimulus
to them.

Bakthi Movement

The Bakthi Movement, which had spread in South India during Sixth and
Seventh centuries A.D., made a tremendous impact in the social and
cultural life of the people. The term, Bakthi means Devotion to God. True
Bakthi was considered as more valuable than mere rites and rituals.
During the Pallava period Alwars and Nayanmars preached the cult of
Bakthi among the people. There was no caste disparity in the Bakthi
Movement. Even those who belonged to low-caste had also become
Bakthi Saints. For example, Nandhanaar, Kaalathi Nayanar
Thiruppaanazhalvar belonged to lower caste. Yet, they were treated and
respected as saints. Therefore, all castes and communities had equally
followed Bakthi or devotion to God.

There were two important aims for the Bakthi Movement. They were

1. To meet the challenges posed by Buddhism and Jainism and

2. To spread Saivism and Vaishnavism.

Saivism

The followers of Lord Siva were known as Saivaites. During the Pallava
period, the Saiva saints, Nayanmars had preached Saivism. There were
sixty-three Nayanmars. The most important among them were
Thirunavukkarasar, Thirugnanasambandar, Sundarar, and
Manickavasagar. The hymns composed by the first three were called
Thevaram, Manickavasagar composed Thiruvasagam. His hymns were
popular for devotional recitation. There were also women saints like
Karaikkal Ammaiyar. The other important sects of Saivism were
Kalamukhas and Pasupathas.
 Vaishnavism

The devotees of Lord Vishnu were called Vaishnavaites. Azhavars

preached Vaishnavism during the Pallava period. There were twelve
Azhavars. Those who lived in the Pallava kingdom were Poigai Azhavar,
Pey Azhavar, Bhudhathazhavar and Thirumangai Azhavar. The first three
had composed Nanmugan Thiruvanthathi. The other Azhavars like
Nammazhavar, Periazhavar and Thirumangai Azhavar also contributed to
the growth of Vaishnavism. The only woman among the twelve Azhavars
was Andal. She had composed Thiruppavai and Nachiyar Thirumozhi.
The hymns of Alwars have been compiled into Nalayira Divya
Prabandam.
Saivism and Vaishnavism had become popular among the people due to
the spread of the Bakthi Movement. Azhavars and Nayanmars had
composed their songs in Tamil and contributed to the growth of Tamil
literature.

Culture and Literature under the Pallavas

The contribution of the Pallavas to the cultural development was
significant. They had also encouraged the growth of Tamil and Sanskrit
literature. The Pallavas had earned name and fame through their
magnificent art and architecture. We know that Mamallapuram finds a
prominent place in the tourist map of the world. Even today, their temples
and sculptures stand testimony to the cultural achievements of the
Pallavas.

Growth of Literature
The Pallavas had remained great patrons of both Sanskrit and Tamil
languages. Their capital Kanchi had remained a great centre for Sanskrit
learning. The Pallava monarch, Mahendravarman I himself wrote the
Maththavilasa Prakasanam and Bagavatha Ajikkiyam in Sanskrit. Dhandin
was a great Sanskrit scholar who lived during the Pallava rule. He wrote
Kavyadharsha. Another Sanskrit scholar Bharavi had visited Kanchipuram
during the Pallava period.

Tamil literature had also developed during this period. We have studied
that the Nayanmars and Alwars had composed their hymns in Tamil.
Their contribution to the growth of Tamil literature during the Pallava
period was significant. Their devotional songs constitute important
religious literature of the Pallava period. Another Tamil scholar,
Perundevanar wrote Bharathavenba during this period. Kalladanar had
composed a grammar hook called Kalladam. Another work
Nandikalambakam describes the rule of Nandivarman III but we do not
know its author. Thus, the Pallava rule had witnessed the growth of both
Sanskrit and Tamil literature.

Art and Architecture under the Pallavas

The glory of the Pallavas still remains in their contribution to the art and
architecture. They were the pioneers of South Indian art and architecture.
They had introduced the stone architecture in the Tamil country. Their
contributions are still extant because granite was used for building
temples and carving sculptures. The Pallava architecture had evolved
stage by stage from the period of Mahendravarman I.

We can broadly classify the Pallava architecture as

1. Rock-cut temples.
2. Monolithic Rathas and Sculptural Mandapas and
3. Structural temples.

Rock-cut temples

We call the Pallava rock-cut temples as Mahendravarman style. He

carved temples out of the rocks and thus they were known as rock cut
temples. It was really an innovation in the sphere of art because he did
not use any other building materials. Therefore, he was hailed s Vichitra
Chitta. In these rock cut temples, we find the sanctum sanctorum and on
the walls of it beautiful sculptures. The pillars are carved in such a way
that they stand on the heads of lions. The rock cut temples of
Mahendravarman I are found at various places of Tamil Nadu. The most
important among them are Pallavaram, Mamandur, Mahendravadi,
Vallam and Thalavanur.

Monolithic Rathas

The monolithic rathas and sculptural mandapas constitute the Mamalla

style of architecture. The Pallava king, Narasimhavarman I was known as
Mamalla. He had converted the port of Mamallapuram as a beautiful city
of art and architecture. The Monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram are now
called as Pancha Pandava Rathas. Each ratha or chariot was carved out
of single rock and hence the name monolithic. These rathas depict the
five different forms of temple architecture.
The mandapas or halls at Mamallapuram had also belonged to the
Mamallan period. Each mandapa was carved out of single rock. On the
side- walls of these mandapas, beautiful sculptures depicting Puranic
stories had been carved. The scene depicting the Goddess Durga’s attack
on Mahishasura is seen in the Mahishasura Mardhini Mandapa. Such
beautiful sculptures have also been carved in Thirumoorthi and Varaha
mandapas.
The most important among the Mamalla style of architecture is the Open
Art Gallery. Several miniature sculptures have been carved beautifully on
the wall of a big rock. The fall of the River Gange from the head of God
Siva and the Arjuna’s penance are notable among them. The images of
deer, monkey, cat, mouse and other animals are beautifully carved on this
huge rock.

Structural Temples

So far, we have studied about the rock-cut temples and sculptural

mandapas. From the reign of Rajasimha, the construction of structural
temples had started. These temple structures were built with the use of
granite slabs. Hence, they are known as structural temples.

We can broadly classify the Pallava structural temples into

1. Rajasimha Style and

2. Nandivarman Style

The earliest among the Pallava structural temples were the Kailasanatha
Temple at Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram. These
temples were built by using sandstones. The Vimana or tower of the
Kailasanatha temple is shaped like hilly comb. This temple is considered
as the Crown of Pallava architecture. This temple is also called as
Rajasimheswaram. We also find beautiful sculptures in this temple. The
sculptures depicting the scenes of the satirical drama Maththavilasa
Prakasanam have been engraved in this temple. The Shore temple at
Mamallapuram is also filled with numerous sculptures. This temple
attracts tourists from all over the world.

The successors of Rajasimha had also built several structural temples at

various places. Nandivarman II had built the Vaikunda Perumal Temple at
Kanchipuram. The temples built by the later Pallava rulers are found at
places like Kanchipuram, Panamalai, Kooram, Thiruthani and Gudimallam
 Fine Arts

The Pallava kings had also patronized fine arts. The Kudumianmalai and
Thirumayam music inscriptions show their interest in music. Yaazhi,
Mridhangam and Murasu were some of the musical instruments of the
Pallava period. Both Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I had
remained experts in music. The temple sculptures of the Pallava period
reveal that the art of dance was popular in those days. The paintings at
Chittannavasal illustrate the nature of Pallava painting Mahendravarman I
was known as Chittirakkarapuli. He had also composed the book,
Thatchina Chitram. We have already seen that he was the author of the
satirical drama Maththavilasam Prakasanam, Thus, music, dance,
paintings and drama were popular during the Pallava rule. In this way, the
Pallavas had contributed to the growth of culture.