BIOLOGY 2

STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

RECOMBINANT DNA (rDNA) -​ (ex.) EcoR1 cuts GAATTC

-​ Recombinant DNA or DNA recombination is the sequence, and BamH1 cuts
process of exchange between two DNA GGATCC sequence.
segments. This is a common occurrence within b.​ Plasmids: These are small, circular DNA
the same species. But by artificial means, molecules found in bacteria. They serve
when a gene of one species is transferred to as vectors, carrying the desired gene
another living organism, it is called into the host cell for replication.
recombinant DNA technology. c.​ DNA Ligase: This enzyme acts like
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) molecular glue, joining DNA fragments
-​ An Organic Chemical that usually contains together by catalyzing the formation of
genetic information and codes for protein phosphodiester bonds.
synthesis and it is found in most cells. d.​ Host Cells: These are the recipients of
Biotechnology the recombinant DNA, often bacteria,
-​ The method by which a living organism or its but other cell types can also be used.
parts are used to change or to incorporate a They provide the machinery for
particular character to another living replication and expression of the
organism. introduced gene.
Recombinant DNA technology
-​ The process of joining together DNA molecules
from two different species. The recombinant
DNA molecule is inserted into a host organism,
such as bacteria, to produce new genetic
combinations.

​ Steps in rDNA Technology:

a.​ DNA Isolation: The DNA of interest is
extracted from the source organism.

Key Players in rDNA Technology:

a.​ Restriction Enzymes (Endonuclease)
-​ These are bacterial enzymes that
act like molecular scissors. They
precisely cut DNA at specific
recognition sites, creating
fragments with either sticky or
blunt ends.
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

b.​ Fragmentation: Restriction enzymes are

used to cut the DNA into fragments.

c.​ Joining: The desired DNA fragment is

joined with a vector using DNA ligase,
​ Other Steps:
forming the recombinant DNA molecule.
a.​ DNA Ligation (aka Joining)
-​ The process of joining two DNA
fragments together using the
enzyme DNA ligase.
-​ The purified DNA and the vector
of interest are cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
-​ This gives us the cut fragment of
DNA and the cut vector that is
now open.
-​ The process of joining these two
pieces together using the
enzyme 'DNA ligase' is 'ligation'.
-​ The resulting DNA is 'recombinant
DNA'.

b.​ Insertion of Recombinant DNA into

d.​ Amplification: The recombinant DNA is Host
introduced into a host cell, where it -​ The recombinant DNA is
replicates, producing many copies of introduced into a recipient host
the desired gene. cell.
-​ This process is 'Transformation'.
-​ Bacterial cells do not accept
foreign DNA easily.
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

-​ Therefore, they are treated to

make them 'competent' to
accept new DNA.

​ Technology and Tool for rDNA:

a.​ Gel electrophoresis: A technique used d.​ Southern blotting: A technique used to
to separate DNA fragments based on detect specific DNA sequences within a
their size. sample.

Transformation, Vectorless Gene Transfer,

and Transduction:
a.​ Transformation
-​ The process of inserting a
plasmid into a bacterial cell.
b.​ DNA sequencing: A technique used to -​ The plasmid contains the desired
determine the precise order of gene, which can then be
nucleotides in a DNA molecule. expressed by the bacteria.
-​ This is a common method for
producing proteins, such as
insulin and human growth
hormone.

b.​ Vectorless Gene Transfer

-​ A method of gene transfer that
does not use a vector, such as a
c.​ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): used plasmid or virus, instead utilizes
to amplify specific DNA sequences. microinjection, and particle gun.
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

-​ This can be done by injecting c.​ Transduction

DNA directly into the cell or by -​ The process of transferring DNA
using other methods, such as from one bacterium to another
electroporation or biolistics. using a bacteriophage (a virus
-​ Vectorless gene transfer can be that infects bacteria).
used to deliver larger pieces of -​ This can be used to introduce
DNA than vectors. new genes into bacteria, such
as antibiotic resistance genes.
-​ Transduction can also be used to
create new strains of bacteria
with desired properties.

​ Applications of rDNA:
a.​ Agriculture
Transgenic plants, also known as
Microinjection genetically modified (GM)
plants, are plants that have had
their DNA modified through
genetic engineering. This allows
them to express new traits that
do not occur naturally.
-​ Examples:
1.​ Pseudomonas syringae –
The recombinant variant
of this bacterium is called
the ice-minus bacterium,
Particle Gun (p.104 in the book) which lacks the gene
responsible for ice
formation. The ice-minus
bacteria prevent frost
crystals from forming on
plants.
2.​ Pseudomonas
fluorescens - This is a
nonpathogenic
bacterium that has the
ability to produce
proteins rapidly. This
characteristic is
advantageous in
developing
biotherapeutics and
vaccines.
3.​ Agrobacterium
tumefaciens - In its
natural state, this
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

bacterium has a transforming diabetes

tumor-inducing (Ti) management.
plasmid that causes 2.​ Hepatitis B Vaccine - The
crown gall disease in gene encoding the
plants. The said Ti plasmid hepatitis B surface
in the bacterium can be antigen (HBsAg) is
removed and replaced inserted into yeast cell.
with a recombinant The yeast produces
plasmid. This enables the HBsAg, which is then
now-modified bacterium purified and used as a
to introduce beneficial vaccine. This eliminates
genes to plants. the risk of contamination
and provides a reliable
source of vaccine.
3.​ Hemophilia - It is the
deficiency in blood
clotting factors. rDNA
technology allows for the
production of
recombinant clotting
factors, such as factor VIII
and factor IX. These
recombinant factors are
produced in cell
cultures, eliminating the
risk of transmitting
bloodborne diseases.
This has significantly
improved the safety and
quality of life for
individuals with
hemophilia.
EVOLUTION

-​ Study of the different forms of life, their

characteristics, and the changes over several
b.​ Medicine generations.
-​ Recombinant DNA (rDNA) -​ Scientific theory used by biologists to study the
technology has revolutionized genetic variation in population.
medicine, enabling the -​ The idea that all species are correlated and
production of vital therapeutic progressively vary with time.
proteins. Origin of Life
-​ Examples: -​ Theory of special creation; Religion, Mythology,
1.​ Insulin Production - rDNA Philosophy
technology allows for the
insertion of the human Cosmozoic or Interplanetary (Ritcher, 1865)
insulin gene into bacteria -​ Life originated from outer planets in the
(like E. coli) or yeast form of a cosmozoa.
(Saccharomyces Abiogenesis (spontaneous generation)
cerevisiae). These -​ Life originated without apparent cause
microorganisms then act -​ Living organisms originated in sea lime
as "factories," producing Renowned Individuals Under Abiogenesis:
large quantities of a.​ Thales: “oceanic water was the mother
human insulin. This from which all living forms originated”.
recombinant insulin is b.​ Empedocles: life originated by itself;
highly pure, safe, and imperfect forms were replaced by
widely available, perfect forms.
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

c.​ Aristotle: living forms are animated observed in his travel with his H.M.S. (His
forms of non-living matter. Majesty Ship) Beagle.
Biogenesis Survival of the Fittest (Natural Selection)
-​ Every living thing is the offspring of other living -​ limited resources fuel "survival of the
things. fittest," driving natural selection, leading
-​ “Life comes from life” law of biogenesis. to evolutionary change and new species
Renowned Individuals Under Biogenesis: Genetics
❖​ Louis Pasteur: was the first to prove this -​ Mendel's pea plant experiments revealed
theory that organisms that are not that Mendel's pea plant experiments
visible to the naked eye are present in revealed
the air. Making Sense
-​ Pasteur’s Experiment -​ Early 20th-century scientists, combining
Mendel's genetics with Darwin's theory,
demonstrated that fermentation
developed the Modern Synthesis,
is caused by the growth of
explaining how environmental pressures
microorganisms and that
drive evolutionary change in populations.
emergent growth of bacteria is
not due to spontaneous ❖​ Julian Huxley called it “Modern
generation. Synthesis”
❖​ Anton van Leeuwenhoek: believed that All in the Genes
microorganisms arose from pre-existing -​ Genotype is the genetic make-up of an
organisms. organism
❖​ Francisco Redi: opposed abiogenesis -​ Phenotype (observable traits) results
-​ Proposed that life could only from the interaction of genotype and
arise through pre-existing living environment
things. DNA
-​ Redi’s Experiment showed that -​ The double-helix structure of DNA was
discovered in 1953
maggots did not spontaneously
-​ Shows how genetic information is
generated.
transferred from one cell to another
Evolution
almost without error
Transmutation
Mutation
❖​ Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
-​ Mutations are rare and often have
-​ Traits acquired during an
damaging effects. Consequently
organism's life could be passed
organisms have special enzymes whose
to offspring
job is to repair faulty DNA
-​ Lamarckism (3 principles):
-​ occasional mutations (copying errors)
1.​ Organisms constantly try to
can and do occur when DNA is replicated
improve themselves.
-​ Mutations may be caused by radiation,
2.​ Most used body structures
viruses, or carcinogens
develop, unused waste away.
Variation
3.​ A structure is modified by use or
-​ Some mutations will persist and increase
disuse, the modification is
genetic variation within a population
inherited by the offspring.
Fossils and Strata -​ Alleles are variants of a particular gene
❖​ William Smith and other geologists Natural Selection
showed that different species existed in -​ Mutant alleles spread through a
the past compared with today population by sexual reproduction
Determining Ages of Fossils -​ Harmful alleles reduce reproduction and
a. Relative dating - looks at the layers of the are likely eliminated from a population.
earth where they are found and observes as the -​ Mutants with favorable effects are
deeper the layer, the older the fossils preferentially passed on
b. Radioactive dating - determined by Natural Selection 5 main points
remaining radioactive isotopes the fossil a.​ There is variation within a
contains population
Darwin’s Voyage b.​ Some variations are favorable
❖​ Charles Darwin: Proposed a hypothesis c.​ Not all young produced in each
generation survive
about how life changes over time as he
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

d.​ Individuals that survive and a.​ Allopatric Speciation: Physical

reproduce are those with barriers like mountains or habitat
favorable variations changes can isolate populations,
e.​ Descent with modification preventing gene flow and
Natural Selection on Polygenic Traits potentially leading to the
-​ Natural selection can affect the formation of new species
distributions of phenotypes in 3 ways. b.​ Sympatric Speciation: the
1.​ Directional selection process through which new
-​ Favors one extreme trait, shifting species evolve from a single
the population towards that ancestral species while
direction over time inhabiting the same geographic
2.​ Disruptive selection region
-​ Favors both extreme traits, ​
pushing a population towards
opposite ends of the spectrum
3.​ Stabilizing selection Types of Evolution
-​ Favors the average trait, getting a.​ Divergent Evolution: Isolated
rid of extremes
populations evolve independently into
Mechanisms of Evolution
new species due to geographic
a.​ Microevolution
separation.
1.​ Migration (gene flow)
b.​ Convergent Evolution: unrelated
2.​ Genetic drift
3.​ Natural selection species develop similar traits due to
similar environments
b.​ Macroevolution: Long-term isolation of
populations leads to genetic differences
Pieces of Evidence of Evolution
that can result in new species, as seen
a.​ Biochemistry: The basic similarity of all
in Darwin's Galapagos finches
Descent living things suggests that they evolved
from a single common ancestor
a.​ Descent with Modification - Organisms
b.​ Similar Genes: Genetic similarity reflects
evolve over time, inheriting modified
traits from their ancestors evolutionary closeness: chimps are
closer to humans than mice.
b.​ Common Descent - derived from
c.​ Comparative Anatomy: Similar
common ancestors
Genetic Drift comparisons can be made based on
-​ Random change in allele frequencies in a anatomical evidence
population d.​ Homology
-​ More variation makes it easier to survive 1.​ Homologous Structures -
because they can adopt better Structures that have different
➔​ Bottlenecking - genetic drift mature forms in different
occurs after a random organisms, but develop from the
population-reducing event same embryonic tissue
Founder Effect 2.​ Vestigial Structures - are
-​ When a small group establishes a new remnants of ancestral features
population, it leads to reduced genetic that lost their original function
diversity and a potentially different through evolution.
genetic makeup compared to the e.​ Fossil Record - reveals a progression of
original population life forms over time, demonstrating
Speciation evolutionary change.
-​ Evolution of one or more species from a f.​ Geography - The distribution of species
single ancestor species across different geographic regions
-​ Can occur when members of a reflects their evolutionary history and
population become isolated from each how they have adapted to various
other environments
-​ Once two populations are reproductively g.​ Antibiotic Resistance - Shows how
isolated, they are considered separate populations change over time in
species response to environmental pressures.
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

BIODIVERSITY AND TAXONOMY not have a nucleus or other organelles.

Taxonomy Archaea are often found in extreme
-​ the branch of science concerned with environments, such as hot springs, salt
classification, especially of organisms. lakes, and deep-sea vents.
-​ deals with classifying and naming organisms. Common Archaeas
-​ and has Carl Linnaeus (Carolus Linnaeus) as its 1.​ Methanogens: These archaea
father. produce methane as a byproduct
Systematics of their metabolism. They are
-​ deal with the evolutionary relationships found in a variety of
between organisms. environments, including the gut
of animals, sewage treatment
Geological Time Scale plants, and wetlands.
2.​ Halophiles: These archaea live in
environments with high salt
concentrations, such as the
Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake.
3.​ Thermophiles: These archaea
live in very hot environments,
such as hot springs and
deep-sea vents.

Hierarchy of Biological Classification

b.​ Bacteria
-​ The bacteria are a large group of
single-celled organisms that are
prokaryotic. They are found in a variety
of environments, including soil, water,
and the human gut.
Ways to Classify Bacteria:
1.​ Need of Oxygen:
Anaerobic bacteria: does not
require oxygen for respiration.
Aerobic bacteria: require oxygen
for respiration.
2.​ Locomotion: use cilia and/or
flagella
3.​ Nutrition:
Three Biological Domains Autotrophic: are able to
a.​ Archaea synthesize their own food.
-​ The archaea are a group of single-celled ➢​ Phototrophic bacteria and
organisms that are considered to be chemosynthetic bacteria
one of the three domains of life. They Heterotrophic: are unable to
are prokaryotic, meaning that they do synthesize their own food, hence
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

they depend on other organic and include all plants, animals, fungi, and
materials. protists.
➢​ saprophytic bacteria
Symbiotic: have a mutual benefit Kingdoms of Eukarya
from other organisms A.​ Kingdom Protista
➢​ nitrogen-fixing bacteria -​ This is the simplest form of eukarya, and
(or) rhizobium. this classification is also known as the
Parasitic: are present in plants, ‘junk kingdom’ as eukaryotes that do not
animals and human beings fit the criteria of other kingdoms fall to
4.​ Reproduction: binary fission; this kingdom.
budding -​ Most are unicellular, some colonial,
5.​ Gram staining: some multicellular
Gram-positive bacteria: Those -​ Most live in water, some in moist soil,
bacteria when they are stained in others parasitic
gram stain results in purple color. -​ Mitochondria for cellular respiration and
Gram-negative bacteria: Those some have chloroplasts for
bacteria when they are stained in photosynthesis
gram stains result in pink color. -​ Locomotion: flagella or cilia; nonmotile
-​ Nutrition: heterotrophic; autotrophic
-​ Reproduction - sexual; others asexual
Classification of Prostista
a.​ Algae (Plant-like)
1.​ Chlorophyta (Green
algae)
- mostly fresh water
- unicellular; multicellular
- contains chlorophyll

6.​ Shapes:
Rod shaped bacteria called as
bacilli
Spherical shaped bacteria called
as cocci
Curved shaped bacteria called 2.​ Rhodophyta (Red algae)
as spirilla - mostly large and
multicellular
- chlorophyll, carotene,
xantophyll

3.​ Phaeophyta (Brown

algae)
- multicellular
c.​ Eukarya
- xantophyll and
-​ The domain Eukarya is characterized by
fucoxanthin
cells with a nucleus. They are the most
complex of the three domains of life,
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

4.​ Chrysophyta (Golden 3.​ Ciliophora

algae) - move using cilia
- marine; freshwater - (ex.) Paramecium
- chlorophyll, carotene,
fucoxanthin
- (ex.) diatoms (class
Bacillariophyta),
golden-brown algae
(class Chrysophyceae),
yellow-green algae (class
Xanthophyceae)
4.​ Sporozoa
- spore-producing
protozoa
- (ex.) Plasmodium

5.​ Pyrrophyta (Fire algae)

- unicellular
- chlorophyll, peridinin
- (ex.) dinoflagellates
(causes red tide) c.​ Fungus-like
1.​ Slime molds
- saprophytic protists.
- very bright in
appearance.
- live in moist soil,
decaying plants and trees

b.​ Protozoa
1.​ Sarcodina
- move using pseudopod
- (ex.) Amoeba

​ ​ Importance of Protista
-​ Source of food
-​ Source of commercial products
-​ Primary producer of aquatic
ecosystem
-​ Source of medicines
2.​ Mastigophora
-​ Source of mineral
- move using flagella
-​ Biological research
- (ex.) trypanosomes
B.​ Kingdom Fungi
-​ Non-vascular
-​ Reproduce by means of spores
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

-​ Typically non-motile
-​ Exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of
generation
-​ Cell wall are composed of chitin
-​ Heterotrophs, Decomposers
-​ Saprophytes, or parasites or symbionts
-​ Sexual and asexual
Structures of Fungi:
a.​ Hyphae: threadlike filaments that
make up the mycelium c.​ Division Zygomycota: Zygote
b.​ Mycelium: the vegetative part of forming Fungi
a fungus, consisting of a mass of -​ spores are produced in
branching, thread-like hyphae round-shaped case called
c.​ Spores: tiny, lightweight sporangium
reproductive cells of fungi -​ (ex.) Mucor, Rhizopus
d.​ Fruiting body: the stolonifer (the bread
spore-producing structure of a mold) and Albugo
fungus

d.​ Division Deuteromycota:

Classifications of Fungi: Imperfect Fungi
a.​ Division Ascomycota: Sac Fungi -​ lack sexual reproduction
-​ produce spores in small -​ reproduce by asexual
cup-shaped sacs called spores known as conidia
asci -​ (ex.) Alternaria,
-​ mature sac fungi spores Colletotrichum and
are known as ascospores Trichoderma
-​ asexual (budding)
-​ (ex.) Aspergillus,
Claviceps, Neurospora

Some Members of the Fungi Kingdom

a.​ Mycorrhizae: A symbiotic
association between fungi and
b.​ Division Basidiomycota: Club the roots of a plant.
Fungi -​ The fungus colonizes the
-​ spores are borne on a host plant's roots, either
club-shaped spore case intracellularly
called basidium (endomycorrhizae) or
-​ (ex.) Agaricus extracellularly
(mushroom), Ustilago (ectomycorrhizae).
(smut), Puccinia (rust -​ It is present in about 80%
fungus) of terrestrial plants and
plays a crucial role in
plant nutrition, soil
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

biology, and ecosystem

ecology.

C.​ Plantae
-​ Multicellular and autotrophic
Two Types: -​ Cell walls composed of cellulose
1.​ Ectomycorrhizae: -​ Have both organs and organ systems
The fungus forms a -​ Reproduce both by sexual and asexual
sheath around the -​ Lack motility
root, but does not Classification of Kingdom Plantae:
penetrate the root a.​ Division Bryophyta: non-vascular,
cells. small, grows close to the ground,
2.​ Endomycorrhizae: and reproduction process is
The fungus carried in their spores. It plays a
penetrates the vital role in preventing soil
root cells, forming erosion.
arbuscules (ex.) Mosses, Liverworts and
(branched, Hornworts.
tree-like
structures) inside
the cells.

b.​ Division Pteridophytae

(Pteridophyta): seedless
vascular plants, involved in
transportation of fluids,
reproduction process is carried
by spores. (ex.) horsetails, ferns
b.​ Lichens: A symbiotic association and club mosses.
between a fungus and an alga or
cyanobacterium.
-​ The fungus provides the
alga or cyanobacterium
with water and minerals,
while the alga or
cyanobacterium provides
the fungus with food.
-​ Lichens can grow on a
variety of surfaces,
including rocks, trees, and
soil. c.​ Division Angiospermae
-​ They are important in the (Angiosperm): flowering plants,
environment as soil develops the seeds within a
formers and food for protective structure, leaf
animals. consists of a single, branched,
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

main vein, which originates from a.​ Phylum Chordata

the base of the leaf blade. (ex.) 1.​ Class Reptilia
trees, shrubs, vines and flowers. 2.​ Class Amphibia
3.​ Class Mammalia
4.​ Class Pisces
5.​ Class Aves
Subkingdom Invertebrata
A.​ Phylum Porifera (sponges)
-​ Sessile, Porous, Two cell layers,
Marine/freshwaterRespiration and
digestion: absorbed by inner cells
-​ Circulation: flagellum creates water
current, no blood.
-​ Soft bodies with network of spikes
d.​ Division Gymnospermae (spicules)
(Gymnosperm): non-flowering -​ Reproduce asexually (budding) and
plants with undeveloped seeds, sexually (larvae stage)
main veins of their leaves are
usually parallel and unbranched,
plays an important role in
providing us with our primary
sources of nutrition, which
includes grains, fruits, etc.
(ex.) palms, carpet lawns.

B.​ Phylum Cnidaria (jellyfish)

-​ Carnivores with stinging cells,
Specialized tissues, no organs, Radial
symmetry, Two body types: polyp and
medusa
-​ Digestion: single opening, expel food
from mouth
-​ Reproduce asexually and sexually
-​ (ex.) jellyfish, sea anemones, coral

D.​ Animalia
-​ Multicellular, Heterotrophs (herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores)
-​ * Sexual; asexual
-​ * Motile
-​ * Symmetry (bilateral, radial)
Subkingdom Invertebrata
a.​ Phylum Porifera (sponges)
b.​ Phylum Cnidaria (jellyfish) C.​ Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
c.​ Phylum Platyhelminthes -​ Parasites or free-living, Can regenerate,
(flatworms) Respiration: oxygen absorbed through
d.​ Phylum Nemathelminthes skin
(roundworms) -​ Digestion: nutrients absorbed into skin,
e.​ Phylum Annelida (segmented single opening mouth
worms) -​ Circulation: nutrients/gas circulated by
f.​ Phylum Mollusca (clams, host
mussels, snails) -​ (ex.) tapeworm
g.​ Phylum Arthropoda (crabs,
lobster, insects, spiders)
h.​ Phylum Echinodermata (Sea
Urchin, Sand Dollars)
Subkingdom Vertebrata
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

D.​ Phylum Nemathelminthes (roundworms)

With shell Mollusks
-​ Many are parasites, some free-living,
(Gastropods/univalve/oneshell)
Respiration: oxygen absorbed through
skin
-​ Digestion: nutrients absorbed by inner
cell layer, complete system (two
openings)
-​ Circulation: food/gas absorbed through
cells
-​ (ex.) nematode

G.​ Phylum Arthropoda (crabs, lobster, insects,

spiders)
-​ Exoskeleton (outside), Jointed legs,
Segmented body, Circulation: open,
hearts for pumps, Respiration: vents and
spiracles (land), gills (aquatic)
-​ Digestion: complete with specialized
E.​ Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
organs
-​ Segmented body, Respiration: gas
Five Classes: Crustacea, Arachnida,
exchange through skin
Insecta, Chilopoda, Diplopoda
-​ Digestion: specialized organs, complete
system, nutrients absorbed through
inner cell layer
-​ Circulation: pairs of "hearts" circulate
blood
-​ (ex.) earthworms, leeches

H.​ Phylum Echinodermata (Sea Urchin, Sand

Dollars)
-​ Spiny skin, Radial design,
-​ (ex.) starfish

F.​ Phylum Mollusca (clams, mussels, snails)

-​ Mostly shell-builders, Mantle: fleshy
covering that secretes shell,
Well-developed sense organs,
Respiration: gills for gas exchange
-​ Digestion: complete with specialized
organs Subkingdom Vertebrata
-​ Circulation: hearts for pumping blood A.​ Phylum Chordata
-​ Mostly aquatic a.​ Class Cyclostomata (Jawless Fish)
-​ (ex.) octopus, squid, snails, clams -​ Cold-blooded, Cartilage skeleton,
Without shells Mollusks No true jaws.
(Cephalopods) -​ (ex.) lamprey
BIOLOGY 2
STEM Society Reviewer | 2nd Semester Mid Term

f.​ Class Aves (Birds)

b.​ Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous
-​ Warm-blooded, Four-chambered
FIsh)
heart, Streamlined body,
-​ Cold-blooded, Sharp teeth,
Feathers
Cartilage skeleton
-​ (ex.) sharks, rays, skates

g.​ Class Mammalia (Mammals)

-​ Warm-blooded, Hair, Live birth
c.​ Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish) (placentals), Mammary glands,
-​ Cold-blooded, Bone skeleton, Two pairs of limbs, High
Two-chambered heart, Scales functioning brain and sense
organs

d.​ Class Amphibia (Amphibians)

-​ Live in water and on land, Smooth
moist skin, Cold-blooded,
Breathe through gills as babies

e.​ Class Reptilia (Reptiles)

-​ Cold-blooded, Scales, Lay eggs
on land