GMT 404: Principles of

Hydrogeology
Lecture #01: Introduction
GMT 404: Principles of Hydrogeology:
Course Contents
• Introduction ;
• Origin and Occurrence of Groundwater;
• Rock Properties affecting Groundwater;
• Distribution of Groundwater ;
• Geologic Formations as Aquifers;
• Types of Aquifers;
• Groundwater Movement - Darcy’s Law;
• Permeability; Transmissibility;
• Tracing of Groundwater Movement;
• Groundwater Flow Lines and Contours;
• Fundamentals of Well Hydraulics;
• Steady and Unsteady Flow;
• Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Equations;
• Well Losses;
• Well Interference.
• Groundwater Exploration-- Data Presentation and Interpretation;
• Pumping Test and Aquifer Characteristic Determination.
GHT 404: Principles of Hydrogeology: Lecture
Schedules
• Lecture #01: Introduction
• Lecture #02: Origin and Occurrence of Groundwater 01
• Lecture #03: Origin and Occurrence of Groundwater 02
• Lecture #04: Origin and Occurrence of Groundwater 03
• Lecture #05: Geologic Formations as Aquifers 01
• Lecture #06: Geologic Formations as Aquifers 02
• Lecture #07: Groundwater Movement- Darcy’s Law
• Lecture #08: Groundwater Exploration 01
• Lecture #09: Groundwater Exploration 02
• Lecture #10: Groundwater Exploration 03
• Lecture #11: Groundwater Exploration 04
• Lecture #12: Pumping Test 01
• Lecture #13: Pumping Test 02
• Lecture #14: Hydrogeological Report Writing
• Lecture #15: Review
GHT 404: Principles of Hydrogeology: Reference Books

• Groundwater Hydrology- Raghunath, H.M. (1990)

• Groundwater Hydrology - Todd, D.K. (1980)
• Groundwater – Freeze & Cherry
• Applied Hydrogeology – Fetter
Planet Earth or Planet Water
Ancient Atmosphere
Consisted Primarily of
Methane
Ammonia
Water vapor
Hydrogen

This was a reducing

environment
– no oxygen
Evolution of Atmosphere and Water
 Source of Earth's Water

2 Primary Sources:
1. Outgassing - gases released from volcanic vents -
remained as water vapour to create clouds, eventually rain
2. Comets - primarily tiny ice comets (~ meters in
diameter) collided with earth
By 4.0 bya the earths surface cooled enough for water to exist primarily
as a liquid.
Atmosphere:
4.5 to 3.5 bya - primary constituents of the atmosphere: nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, water vapor, plus some methane, ammonia.
Chemical weathering: carbon dioxide combines with water to form
carbonic acid
H 2O + CO 2 to H 2 CO 3

Acid dissolves rocks releasing minerals (nutrients) needed for life.

 What is water?
2 Hydrogen atoms + 1 Oxygen atom = H2O
Water is a compound that is held together by chemical bonds
These "covalent" bonds arise because electrons are shared between hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O)
Structure of the Water Molecule
Water is a polar molecule:
- Positively charged (+) protons are clustered on one side of the
molecule
- Negatively charged (-) electrons are clustered on the other.
 The Hydrologic Cycle
CONDENSATION
from clouds

PRECIPITATION

EVAPORATION EVAPORATION
from surface water and from oceans
plant transpiration

SURFACE RUNOFF
to oceans

INFILTRATION
from surface
to groundwater
system
 Importance
1. Part of the Hydrologic Cycle
2. 25% of all the fresh water on Earth
3. Geological Agent
4. Important Environmental Issues
5. Source of Geothermal Energy
Ground Water As Part of the
Hydrologic Cycle
Ground Water
The Unseen Part of the Water Cycle

Aquifer

Salt Groundwater
 Percent of Percent of
Volume
Total Fresh
(1000 km3)
Water Water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 1,338,000 96.5 -
Ice caps, Glaciers, &
24,064 1.74 68.7
Permanent Snow
Groundwater 23,400 1.7 -
Fresh (10,530) (0.76) 30.1
Saline (12,870) (0.94) -
One estimate Soil Moisture 16.5 0.001 0.05
Ground Ice & Permafrost 300 0.022 0.86
of global Lakes 176.4 0.013 -
Fresh (91.0) (0.007) 0.26
water Saline (85.4) (0.006) -

distribution Atmosphere
12.9 0.001 0.04

Swamp Water 11.47 0.0008 0.03

Rivers 2.12 0.0002 0.006
Biological Water 1.12 0.0001 0.003
Total 1,385,984 100.0 100.0
Source: Gleick, P. H., 1996: Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate
and Weather, ed. by S. H. Schneider, Oxford University Press, New York,
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Water/ vol. 2, pp.817-823.
Distribution of World’s Water
Where is our water on Earth?
▪ Surprisingly, less than ▪ Of this supply of
1% of the earth’s total drinking water,
supply of water is 98% of it is found in
readily suitable for
drinking.
underground
aquifers.
• This water source is
called groundwater.
Groundwater as a Geologic Agent

➢ Volcanic Processes:
⚫ Igneous Rocks: Groundwater
controls water content of
magmas
⚫ Metamorphic Rocks:
Groundwater injected by
magmas can metamorphose
country rocks
⚫ Volcanism: Geysers are an
example of volcanic activity
interacting with groundwater
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition

• Rainwater reacts with CO2 in the atmosphere to form a weak acid

(carbonic acid).

• As soon as rainwater infiltrates the ground, it will begin reacting with

rocks and minerals, causing chemical weathering.

• In areas with easily-dissolved rocks (evaporites and especially

limestone) groundwater can be a major factor in evolution of the
landscape.
Groundwater as a Geologic Agent

• Karst Landforms
Formation of Caves
Stalagmites
Stalagtites
“Soda straws”
Columns
Drip curtains
Travertine terraces
Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy: energy
harnessed from steam and hot water
in the crust.
• Non-polluting, semi-renewable.
• But not common and expensive to
develop in most places.
 Environmental Impacts of GW
Extraction

• Lowering of the water table

• Reversing the flow direction of
groundwater
• Saltwater intrusion
• Land subsidence
Water Table
Cone of Depression
Lowering of the Water Table
All Waters are Connected
Lowering of the Water Table
Reversal of Groundwater Flow Direction
Environmental Issues
• Saltwater incursion: results from excessive pumping
of groundwater in coastal areas or in areas where
fresh groundwater is near brine (salty water).

• If the freshwater is pumped out at a rate faster than

the recharge rate, the space left behind will be filled
by saltwater, contaminating wells.
Saltwater Intrusion

Before
development

After
development
Environmental Issues
• Subsidence: if excessive amounts of subsurface
fluids are removed, the hydrostatic pressure will be
reduced and the weight of overlying material will
cause the ground to sink.

• Can cause land to be flood-prone, structural

damage, etc.
Land Subsidence
Overexploitation of Groundwater: Land
Subsidence
Overexploitation of Groundwater:
Land Subsidence
Environmental Issues
• Groundwater contamination: addition (accidental or
otherwise) of pollutants to groundwater supplies.
• Toxins may seep into the groundwater from landfills,
agriculture, underground storage tanks, waste
disposal sites, septic tanks, etc.
• Once in the groundwater, the pollutants will spread.
Difficult to contain.
• Difficult to clean up, especially since fluids move so
slowly in the groundwater system.
Sources of Groundwater Pollution
What causes groundwater contamination?
Lecture #02: Introduction to
Hydrogeology
What hydrology is ?
❖ The study of the water of the Earth
❖ Water in solid, liquid and vapour forms
❖ Water’s origins and destinations
❖ Availability, distribution, utilisation of water
❖ Chemical and physical properties
❖ Interaction with the physical, biological and
human environment
Why is Hydrology Important?
• Provision of drinking water supply of adequate quantity and quality
• Water for agriculture and crop irrigation
• Protection against flooding, and drainage
• Power generation and navigation
• Conservation of wetland and other habitats
• Anticipating effects of changes to the use of land
• Completes understanding of Earth System including climate
Salient Quotes
• “We shall not finally defeat AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, or any of the
other infectious diseases that plague the developing world until we
have also won the battle for safe drinking water, sanitation and basic
health care.”
• Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General
• “The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe,
acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal
and domestic uses”
• General Comment No. 15 (2002): The Right to Water.
Water and Millennium Development Goals
• After focusing objectives on economic growth during the UN
Development Decades of the 1960’s, ’70’s and ’80s, the Human
Development Report issued in 2000, advocated in favor of
goals placing human well-being and poverty reduction at the
centre of global development objectives.
• In September 2000, the world’s leaders gathered at the UN
Millennium Summit, and 147 heads-of-state and governments
and 189 nations in total adopted the United Nations
Millennium Declaration of 2000.
• The 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set 18 clear
numerical time-bound targets for making concrete progress
before 2015, by tackling the most pressing issues faced by
developing countries.
Millennium Development Goals

• By including water supply, sanitation and hygiene in the MDGs, the world
community has acknowledged the importance of their promotion as
development interventions and has set a series of goals and targets.
• Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
• Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
program and reverse the loss of environmental resources.
• Target 10: Halve by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation.
• Integrate sanitation into water resources management strategies.
• Target 11: Have achieved by 2020, a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100
million slum dwellers.
Access to water supply as of 2002
• In 2002, 1.1 billion people lacked access to improved water
sources, which represented 17% of the global population.
• Over half of the world’s population has access to improved
water through household connections or yard tap.
• Of the 1.1 billion without improved water sources, nearly two
thirds live in Asia.
• In sub-Saharan Africa, 42% of the population is still without
improved water.
• In order to meet the water supply MDG target, an additional
260 000 people per day up to 2015 should gain access to
improved water sources.
• Between 2002 and 2015, the world’s population is expected to
increase every year by 74.8 million people.
Global Population without Access to Improved
Water Supply
Global Population with Access to Water Supply
Global Population without Access to Improved
Sanitation
Global Population with Sanitation Coverage
Asia: Water Supply and Sanitation
Global Groundwater Regions
History of Hydrology: Early Ideas
• 5000-6000 yr B.P.: Hydraulic engineers build
canals, levees, dams, water conduits, and wells
along the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris and
Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Hwang Ho in
China, and Nile in Egypt.
• 3800: Hydrological cycle recognition as early as
3000 B.P.
• 2400 B.P.: Much of the early understanding was
based on Greek philosophers musings which were
a little off the marks, especially for underground
mechanisms
Early civilization to the ‘Age of Enlightenment’

• Iconography of water as a sacred entity, associated with purity,

virginity and life.
• Aristotle (384-322 BC) explained the mechanics of precipitation.
• Vitruvius (3rd Century AD) believed in the pluvial origins of springs.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) understood the principles governing
the flow of water in open channels.
• PaIissy (1510-1590) stated that rainfall was the only source of springs
and rivers.
History of Hydrology: Beginning of Scientific
Thinking

• 1500-1550 AD: Leonardo Da Vinci and Bernard Palissy both

assert that water in rivers comes from precipitation -
initiation of modern scientific approach to the hydrologic
cycle
• ~1750 AD: Use of the word “hydrology” in approximately its
current meaning began
• pre-1800- 1856: Up to this time, little recognition of ground
water flow. Henry Darcy establishes the basic law of flow
through a porous material
The ‘Age of Enlightenment’ and the
‘Scientific Revolution’
Edmund Halley (C l7th)

Calculated that the total quantity of water running into the Mediterranean was approximately equal to
the amount of water falling as rain and snow on the basin.

Also noted that the total flow of rivers and springs could be accounted for by evaporation from the
oceans.

The ‘Water Balance’ principle:-

Q= P—Et

where Q = discharge
P = total precipitation
Et = evapotranspiration
The ‘Scientific Revolution’ (cont)

• Pierre Perrault and Edme Mariotte (C17th)

• Noted that the flow of the River Seine was only one-sixth of the total quantity of water delivered
to the river basin as precipitation
• Concluded that the remainder was lost en route through evaporation and interception.
• Setting the scene for the concept of the ‘Hydrological Cycle’

• John Dalton (C18th)

• Developed an atomic theory of evaporation and used it to form a Global water balance
• Considered by many to be the true “father of modern hydrology”
Modern Hydrology: Modern Concepts

• 1922: Section of Scientific Hydrology established in the International Union of

Geodesy and Geophysics
• 1930: Development of modern hydrology

• 1960’s
• Leopold, Wolman and Miller (1964) -Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology
• Generated much research interest into hillslope and river channel forms.
• 1965 Start of the ‘International Hydrological Decade’
Modern Hydrology

• 1970’s
• Gregory and WaIling (1973) - Drainage Basin, Form and Process, &
• Kirkby (1978) Hillslope Hydrology
• Both supported and demonstrated the importance of Hydrology in
landscape evolution and geomorphology, already a core element of
geography

• Later
• Growing interest in applications of hydrology to environmental problems
such as soil erosion, flood control, pollution, water supply and water
resource development led to the inclusion of hydrology as a core subject
area in geography and Environmental Sciences degrees

• Future: Hydrology/hydrogeology will become very important as population

grows and demand for water increases
Early Ideas About Groundwater

• Ideas of Early Natural Philosophers:

• Underground water occurs in vast lakes in caverns, flowing from one lake to
another along underground rivers nourished directly by ocean. Water diviner
or dowser used to predict the location of these postulated subterranean
water courses, and so for a borehole location where water will be struck.
• However, tow problems can’t be explained by early Philosophers:
• How did ocean lose its salt?
• How did ocean water rise from the level of the sea to springs high in the
mountains?
Early Ideas About Groundwater

• Thales: Water driven into the rocks by the wind and it was forced to
the surface by rock pressure where it emerged as springs.
• Aristotle: Groundwater occurred in an intricate sponge like system of
underground openings and that water was discharged from these
openings into springs.
• Marcus Vitruvius (15 BC): Water from melting snow seeped into the
ground in mountainous areas and appeared again at lower elevations
as springs.
Early Ideas About Groundwater

• The early ideas missed the facts:

• The earth does not contain a network of large interconnected oceans;
• Although suction of the wind, capillary attraction, the forces of the waves and
other natural mechanisms are in sufficient to lift vast quantities of water of in
the Earth’s interior;
• Sea water does not loose all its salt by infiltrating though soil;
• Rainfall is sufficient to account for all river and spring discharge;
• Rainfall infiltrates into the ground in large quantities.
Foundation of Modern Ideas about Groundwater

• Pierre Perrault & Edne Mariotte; Found the true source of river
discharge (1608-84). Studied evaporation and capillary rise; observed
infiltration and concluded that springs were fed by rain water which
infiltrated into the ground.
• Henry Darcy (1803-58): Sate clearly the mathematical law that
governs the flow of groundwater.
Hydrogeology: the Science of Groundwater

• A branch of Geology devoted to the study of underground water.

• The term Hydrogeology was first used in 1802 by French Naturalist
Lamarck and defined as: study of the phenomena of degradation and
deposition by aqueous agencies.
• Lucas in 1879 was probably the first one to use the term
Hydrogeology for the Geologic study of Underground water.
• Mead in 1919 defined Hydrogeology as the study of the laws of the
occurrence and movement of subterranean water.
Hydrogeology: Modern Definitions
• Hydrogeology can be defined as the study of ground water with
particular emphasis given to its chemistry, mode of migration, and
relation to the geological environment (Davies & DeWiest, 1967).
• The study of the interrelationships of geologic materials and
processes with water, especially groundwater (Fetter, 1988)
Hydrology vs Hydrogeology
• Hydrology is the study of the occurrence, distribution,
movement and chemistry of all waters of the Earth.
• Hydrogeology: Study of Groundwater only!
• Geohydrology: Engineering field dealing with fluids
aspects of groundwater.
• Hydrogeology provides answer to questions:
• How does underground water occur?
• How wide spread it is?
• How reliable it is as a source of supply?
• How can it be protected?
• How it can be best utilised for the benefit of people?
Modern Hydrogeology

• Groundwater is the water occupying all the voids within a geologic

stratum.
• Development during the past century have been along three more or
less separate lines:
• Elaboration of the relation between geology and groundwater occurrence
• Development of mathematical equations to describe the movement of water
though rocks and unconsolidated sediments
• The study of chemistry of groundwater or hydro-geochemsitry
Use of Groundwater
• Potable (drinking)
• Municipal water supply
• Irrigation
• Industrial
• Aesthetic
• Environmental
Global Water Use
Why Groundwater?
• Seven reasons for utilisation of groundwater more
desirably over surface water:
• Free from pathogenic organisms
• Temperature is constant
• Turbidity and colour are generally absent
• Chemical composition is commonly constant
• Groundwater storage is larger than surface water storage
• Radiochemical and biological contamination of
groundwater is difficult
• Is available in areas which do not have dependable sources
of surface water
Lecture #03: Occurrence of
Groundwater_01
Origin of Groundwater
&
Porosity and Permeability of Rocks and
Sediments
200409
Outline
• Introduction
• Origin of Groundwater
• Porosity
• Types of Porosity
• Factors Controlling Porosity
• Permeability
• Factors Controlling Permeability
Ground Water
The Unseen Part of the Water Cycle

Aquifer

Salt Groundwater
Use of Groundwater
• Potable (drinking)
• Municipal water supply
• Irrigation
• Industrial
• Aesthetic
• Environmental
Global Water Use
Why Groundwater?
• Seven reasons for utilisation of groundwater
more desirably over surface water:
• Free from pathogenic organisms
• Temperature is constant
• Turbidity and colour are generally absent
• Chemical composition is commonly constant
• Groundwater storage is larger than surface water
storage
• Radiochemical and biological contamination of
groundwater is difficult
• Is available in areas which do not have dependable
sources of surface water
 History of Groundwater Utilization
• Groundwater utilization dates from ancient times
(Indus Civilization)
• Drilling of wells began in the Middle East
• Kannats (infiltration galleries) probably first used more
than 2500 years ago in Iran
• Discovery of flowing artesian well in Europe (1100 AD)
• Development of deep drilling technology around 1860
• Perfection of deep-well pumps during the period 1910-
30
• Development of analytical techniques for low
temperature geochemistry around 1960-90
• Development of Groundwater modelling during the
later part of the last century
Hydrogeology: Interrelations with other
Sciences
• To study precipitation - climatology and
meteorology
• To study infiltration - soil science
• To study groundwater – geology, geophysics
• To study surface runoff - geomorphology
• To study stream flow – Physics (fluid mechanics),
mathematics
• To study chemistry - Chemistry, microbiology
• To protect groundwater – environment,
economics, law
• Ground water and
the Water cycle
• Infiltration
• Infiltration capacity
• Overland flow
• Ground water
recharge
• GW flow
• GW discharge
 Origin and Classification of
Groundwater
• Groundwater, irrespective of its occurrence is an integral
part of hydrologic cycle.
• For the origin of groundwater there are two theories.
• Condensation theory - support the origin of groundwater resulting
from condensation of water vapor present in the host rock at the
time of their formation.
• Infiltration theory- Groundwater results from infiltration of
atmospheric water into the ground.
• Depending upon the source and mechanism of its genesis
groundwater can be:
• 'connate water'- filled in interstices of sedimentary rock,
• ' juvenile groundwater'- which is of cosmic origin resulting from
volcanic / magmatic eruption,
• 'meteoric water'- - which is contributed by rainfall and ‘
• rejuvenated water'- which results from compaction of loosely
packed sediments
Origin of Groundwater
• Meteoric/Atmospheric Origin:
• Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces
and fractures in rock and sediment beneath the
Earth's surface.
• It originates as rainfall or snow, and then moves
through the soil into the Groundwater system, where it
eventually makes its way back to surface streams,
lakes, or oceans.
• It is naturally replenished from above, as surface
water from precipitation, streams, and rivers infiltrates
into the ground.
Origin of Groundwater
Other Origins of Groundwater:
• Connate Water:
• Interstitial water that was buried with a rock and has
been out of contact with the atmosphere for an
appreciable part of geological period.

• Juvenile Water:
• Water formed by the condensation of volcanic gases
• Water entering the hydrologic cycle for the first time
• Ground water and
the Water cycle
• Infiltration
• Infiltration
capacity
• Overland flow
• Ground water
recharge
• GW flow
• GW discharge
 Porosity
• Groundwater occurs in the pore
space
void spaces of earth
materials: soils,
unconsolidated sediments,
and rock.
• Even rock that was formed
as a solid mass will fracture
as it is brought towards the
surface. These fractures
provide space for the
storage and movement of
groundwater.
•
Porosity
Porosity is defined as the percentage of a volume of rock (the all purpose term hydrologists use for ‘earth materials’) that is empty space.

• void volume
Effective porosity: void spaces that are too small to admit water molecules are of little interest to hydrologists. The amount of voidspace available for fluid flow is the effective porosity.

n = ------------------ * 100
total volume
 Porosity
• Fortunately, studies have shown that even fine clays have
pore throats that are larger than water molecules, so that,
at least in sediments, effective porosity is equal to total
porosity.
• Total porosity can be computed from measurements of
density:

• p bulk is the density of the bulk aquifer material

• p pd is the density of the particles that make up the aquifer
material
• For most rock and soil, the particle density is about 2.65 g/cm3,
roughly the density of quartz and clay minerals.
Porosity
• Hence, the porosity of geologic material determines how much
water can be stored in a unit volume of that material.
• Porosity is expressed as a fraction or percent of the total
volume of the material.
 Primary vs secondary porosity

• Primary porosity is the

porosity that exists
between individual
grains in the rock.
• Secondary porosity is
the porosity that
results from fracturing,
dissolution, and
separation of the rock
after its formation.
Porosity Basics
V pores
• Porosity n (or f)
n=
• Volume of pores is also Vtotal
the total volume – the
solids volume

Vtotal − Vsolids
n=
Vtotal
Porosity Basics
Vtotal − Vsolids
• Can re-write that as: n=
Vtotal
• Then incorporate: Vsolids
• Solid density: rs n = 1−
= Msolids/Vsolids Vtotal
• Bulk density: rb
= Msolids/Vtotal b
• rb/rs = Vsolids/Vtotal n = 1−
s
Cubic Packing and Porosity

Simple Cubic Body-Centered Cubic Face-Centered Cubic

n = 0.48 n = 0. 26 n = 0.26
Effective
Porosity
Effective
Porosity
Porosity Basics

• Volumetric water Vwater

content (q)
• Equals porosity for
=
saturated system Vtotal
 Types of Porous Media

n = VV / VT = Vol Voids / Total Vol

Freeze and Cherry, 1979.

Primary Porosity
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity
 Porosity - not good indicator of flow

Bedient et al., 1999.,

Porosity of Different Geological Materials
Porosity and Permeability of
Sediments and Rocks
 Factors affecting porosity
• Grain size: In and of itself, grain size has no effect on
porosity. Well rounded sediments that are packed into the
same arrangement generally have porosities from 26% to
48% depending on the packing.

• Grain shape: Irregularly shaped particles tend not to pack

as neatly as rounded particles, resulting in higher
proportions of voidspace.

• Clay and organic content: Organic particles tend to be

irregularly shaped and can increase voidspace. Clay
particles tend to electrostatically repel one-another along
the surface of the particles. This results in a relatively large
proportion of voidspace.
 Factors affecting porosity
• Sorting: Well sorted sediments generally have higher
porosities than poorly sorted sediments for the simple
reason that if a sediment is a range of particle sizes then
the smaller particles may fill in the voids between the
larger particles.
• Sorting is measured as a ratio of the larger to smaller
particle sizes in the sediment. This measure is called a
uniformity coefficient.

• d60 the grain size below which 60% of the sediment is finer
• d10 the grain size below which 10% of the sediment is finer
 Permeability
• Permeability describes of how easily water is able to move
through rock. Permeability is related to the connectedness of
the void spaces and to the grain size of the rock.
• Obviously, a rock could be extremely porous, but if each pore
was isolated from the others, the rock would be impermeable
and thus make a lousy aquifer. Often volcanic rocks will have
many vesicles, but the vesicles will be isolated, rendering the
rock impermeable.
• Grain size affects permeability in a manner similar to the way
that it effects specific yield.
• The thin film of water that clings to the surface of particles is
tenacious. If void spaces are large, then additional water can
easily move past the water coated particle surfaces.
 Permeability
• However, if void spaces are small, then the surface film of
water can actually choke the movement of additional water
through the small spaces.
• This explains why clays are so impermeable, even though
their porosities can be as high as 50%. The void spaces in
clay are small and clogged with pendular water.
• So from the above discussion, we can see why sands
make the best aquifers and clays make the worst (clays
are not referred to as aquifers at all, rather they are called
aquicludes).
 Permeability
• Permeability describes of how easily water is able to move
through rock. Permeability is related to the
connectedness of the void spaces and to the grain size
of the rock.

• General rules of permeability:

• As the median grain size increases, so does permeability.

• Poorly sorted sediments are less permeable than well sorted

sediments.

• The decrease in permeability associated with poor sorting is more

severe in coarse sediments than it is in fine sediments.
 Porosity and Permeability

Porous and
Permeable
Reduced
Porosity and
Permeability

Porous but not

Permeable
Aquifer properties: porosity and permeability

Coarse, well- Fine-grained

sorted sand is shale (clay-rich
highly porous rock) has
and permeable variable porosity,
but very low
permeability
Partly
consolidated Fractures
sand (cemented) increase the
is less porous porosity and
and permeable permeability of
rocks.

Poorly-sorted In limestones,
sand with dissolution can
irregularly lead to increased
shaped particles permeability over
is less porous time.
and permeable
Lecture#04: Occurrences of
Groundwater_01
21/01/2019
Menu (Lecture 4 & 5)
• Vertical Distribution of Groundwater
• Types of Aquifers
• Springs
 Where the water is?

• Groundwater resides in pore space of

bedrock or unconsolidated deposits.

• When rain falls or snow melts, water

infiltrates the ground.

• Pulled by gravity, it moves down until it

reaches an impermeable layer.
How does the geology control the existence
of ground water?

• An aquifer is a permeable, water containing unit.

- Water enters from recharge.
- Temporarily stored.
- Leaves by flow to streams (baseflow) or
springs, or to wells
Hydrostratigraphy
• Porosity – the volume of open spaces in rock or
soil.
• Permeability – a measure of a material’s ability
to transmit water.
• Hydrostratigraphic units:
• Aquifer: groundwater transmitted freely
• Aquitard: retards flow
• Aquiclude: excludes flow
 Where the Groundwater is?

Groundwater resides in pore space

of bedrock or unconsolidated
deposits. When rain falls or snow
melts, water infiltrates the ground.
Pulled by gravity, it moves down
until it reaches an impermeable
water layer.
table

Water moves down through the

zone of aeration (or vadose
zone), and accumulates above
the impermeable layer in the
zone of saturation.

The water table is the top of the

zone of saturation.
 Vertical Distribution of Groundwater

• Zone of aeration: zone where percolating groundwater adheres

to the subsurface material and stops flowing downward. This
water is suspended water. Pore spaces here contain
suspended water and air.

• Zone of saturation: zone below the zone of aeration where all

the pore spaces are full of groundwater. Extends down until the
pore spaces are closed by pressure or there is a aquiclude.
 Vertical Distribution of Groundwater
• Capillary fringe: thin (cm to m) boundary
between the zones of aeration and saturation. In
here, water moves upward because of surface
tension.
• Water table: the surface below the capillary
fringe that is the top of the zone of saturation.
Mimics the surface topography.
The Water Table

boundary between
the unsaturated
(vadose) zone and
saturated zone of
an aquifer
 porosity

Charbeneau, 2000.
Pressure Situations in Saturated and
Unsaturated Zones
Outside Forces Acting on Ground Water

• Gravity –pulls ground water downward

• External pressure:
• Atmospheric pressure above the zone of saturation
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Molecular attraction:
• Cause water to adhere to solid surfaces
• Creates surface tension in water when the water is
exposed to air
• This is the cause of the capillary phenomenon
• Resistance to Flow:
• Advective friction
• Fluid viscosity
 Water Table
• The position of the water table depends on:
– Rainfall
– Porosity
– Permeability
– Geology

• In dry times and/or arid regions, the water

table tends to be flat and deep (water is not
being replenished).

• When/where rainfall is high, the water table

rises, especially beneath hills (water can’t
flow fast enough to adjacent valleys).
The Water Table
 Water Table
Recharge
Recharge

Discharge
Groundwater Surface Water Interactions
Effluent
Stream
Gains
water

Influent
Stream
Losses
water
Water Table at Hotel
Abakash, St. Martin’s
Island

• Ground Surface
• Soil Water

• Intermediate
(unsaturated) Zone

• Capillary Zone
• Water Table
 Discharge to and Recharge from Streams
Water bodies such as streams and lakes are
often surface expression of the water table (i.e.,
ground below is saturated, or part of the
saturation zone).

In moderate to highly humid areas, groundwater

gaining stream discharges to streams, replenishing them.
These are gaining streams. Groundwater
discharge can account for a large fraction of
flow in such streams.

In dry areas, the water table is usually deep,

well below streambeds, so that streams are dry
most of the time. During rain storms, water runs
off to the streams, and from there, infiltrates the
ground, leading to groundwater recharge.

Such streams are called losing streams, and

are usually short-lived. Soon after rain ceases,
all the water infiltrates the ground and the
losing streams stream dries up.
Water Table and Gaining Streams in Wet and Dry Spells
During periods of abundant
precipitation, infiltration leads to
groundwater recharge. Streams
are high due to contributions from
both surface runoff and
groundwater discharge.

In dry spells, groundwater

discharge accounts for most or all
of the water flow in the streams.
Groundwater discharge to streams
leads to lowering of the water
table. This may lead to drying of
shallow wells. Over time,
groundwater output to stream
decreases and stream level
decreases.
What is a cone of depression?

• Steepens local hydraulic gradient, increases

flow rate.
• Created by drawing down water table by
pumping a well.
• Overdraft occurs where pumping is too rapid,
well goes dry.
Lecture # 05: Occurrences of
Groundwater_02
28/01/2019
What is a cone of depression?

• Steepens local hydraulic gradient, increases

flow rate.
• Created by drawing down water table by
pumping a well.
• Overdraft occurs where pumping is too rapid,
well goes dry.
Aquifer Definitions

Aquifer: A formation, group of formations, or part

of a formation that contains sufficient saturated,
permeable material to yield significant quantities
of water to wells and springs.
USGS
Aquifer: Geologic unit that can store and
transmit significant quantities of water.
 Aquifers
• Aquifers are geologic units that can store and
transmit significant quantities of water:
• Continental Deposits
• Marine Deposits
• Volcanics
• Aquifer characteristics derive from both
primary depositional features and secondary
modification by geologic processes:
• Burial & Diagenesis
• Uplift & Erosion
• Tectonism & Fracturing
 Aquifers
❖ An aquifer is a geological unit that is capable of producing
a useful quantity of water.
❖ Such a geological unit must have sufficient water storage
capacity (porosity) and must allow for the movement of
that water (permeability or transmissivity).

unconfined aquifer impermeable

layer

confined aquifer
 Types of Aquifers

❖ Unconfined (or water table) aquifer; lower

bound is an impermeable layer, upper bound is
top of the saturated zone; water in well rises to
the water table.
❖ Confined aquifer; lower and upper bounds are
impermeable layers; water in well rises above
top of aquifer layer (i.e., top impermeable layer
keeps water under pressure).
 Aquifer Types
1. Unconfined – shallow aquifers at Earth’s surface, usually made
of sand and gravel, no capping impermeable layer.

2. Confined – deep bedrock aquifer (sandstone, limestone)

“sandwiched” between two impermeable layers (shales).
Unconfined Aquifer
Unconfined
Aquifer
Perched Aquifer in an Unconfined System
 Aquifer Types
1. Unconfined – shallow aquifers at Earth’s surface, usually made
of sand and gravel, no capping impermeable layer.

2. Confined – deep bedrock aquifer (sandstone, limestone)

“sandwiched” between two impermeable layers (shales).
Piezometric Surface
• In a confined aquifer, water is held under pressure by the top
confining layer, so that water in a well (or piezometer) rises
above the top of the aquifer.

• The water level in the well is the hydraulic head, which defines
the hydraulic head surface (or potentiometric surface). Water
flows from areas of high hydraulic head to low hydraulic head.
Piezometric Surface
 Flowing Artesian Wells
groundwater in confined system is under enough pressure
that no well pumping is needed!!!
Confined (artesian) aquifer
What is an unconfined
aquifer?
• They are not sealed off at any point.
• Water table is the top.
• Recharge can occur anywhere.
• Water at water table under
atmospheric pressure.
• Must pump.
What is a confined (or artesian)
aquifer?

• Sealed off (is overlain by a confining layer)

• Transmits water down from Recharge Area.
• Water confined in aquifer unless drilled.
• Water under hydrostatic pressure.
• Water rises; well may flow.
 Artesian System

• Artesian systems: any system where

groundwater is confined and high pressure
builds up. The water can rise up above the
water table if a well is drilled and the
pressure is allowed to release.

• Requires three things:

1. Water must be confined above and below
2. Aquifer is allowed to recharge from the surface
3. Recharge is sufficient for the aquifer to remain
full
Artesian Well
 Springs
• Springs: place where groundwater naturally
flows or seeps out of the ground.

• Form when percolating water reaches the

water table or an aquiclude and must stop
going down and start going horizontally.

• If the horizontal flow intersects the surface,

the groundwater will discharge as a spring.
 Springs
Artesian springs occur where the ground surface is lower than the
hydraulic head surface.
How do springs occur?

• Lateral diversion of flow

• Perching
• Fracture zones
Springs
SPRINGS
SPRINGS
SPRINGS
Maheskhali Analogy
 Lecture #06: Geological Formations
as Aquifers_01
04/02/2019

04/02/2019 197
Contents
• Introduction
• Concept of Hydrostratigraphy
• Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers (UNSA)
• Sedimentary Rock Aquifers
• Karst Aquifers
• Basement Aquifers

04/02/2019 198
 Groundwater in Geological Formations
• The nature and distribution of aquifers and aquitards in a
geologic system are controlled by the lithology,
stratigraphy, and structure of the geologic deposits and
formations.
• Lithology: Physical makeup, including the mineral composition,
grain size and grain packing of the sediments or rocks that make
up the geologic system.
• Stratigraphy: Describes the geometrical and age relations
between the various lenses, beds, and formations in geologic
systems of sedimentary origin.

04/02/2019 199
 Groundwater in Geological Formations
• Structural Features: Include cleavage, fractures, folds, faults,
unconformities (an interval of time during which deposition
does not take place – typically rock is very weathered and
eroded) these are the geometrical properties of the geologic
systems produced by deformation after deposition or
crystallization.
• In unconsolidated deposits, the lithology and stratigraphy
constitute the most important controls. In most regions
knowledge of the lithology, stratigraphy and structures
lead directly to an understanding of the distribution of
aquifer and confining layers.

04/02/2019 200
Definition
Hydrostratigraphy is the identification of mappable-units on the basis
of hydraulic properties (aquifer / aquitard) that have considerable
lateral extent and that also form a geologic framework for a
reasonably distinct hydrogeologic system.

04/02/2019 201
Hydrostratigraphy
Stratigraphic Lithologic Hydrostratigraphic

Surficial Deposits Clay Surficial Aquitard

Sand Floral Aquifer

Floral Fm
Till Floral Aquitard

Empress Gp Empress Aquifer

Sand & Gravel

Bearpaw Fm Shale / Mudstone Bedrock Aquitard

04/02/2019 202
Regional Hydrogeology
• The starting point for any regional hydrogeological characterization study is to
establish the hydrostratigraphy by identifying mappable flow units and
intervening aquitards.
• This is done using standard subsurface and surface mapping techniques based of
the principles of sequence or genetic-unit stratigraphy.
• Emphasis is placed on the characterization of hydraulic properties of lithofacies
within each genetic-unit on various scales using data from a wide range of
sources including thin-sections, core studies, slug tests, DSTs and pump tests.

04/02/2019 203
Aquifers and HSUs
• Hydrogeologists have long noted that ground water flow often
does not conform to the boundaries of recognized stratigraphic
units.
• Two terms, “aquifer” and “hydrostratigraphic unit,” are
commonly employed to subdivide the subsurface into units
more relevant to groundwater hydrology.
• The term “aquifer” is commonly defined for water supply usage
in economic terms. In many areas, “aquifer” is defined by local
laws and regulations which makes it difficult to use as a technical
term.
• The term “hydrostratigraphic unit” (HSU) has been defined in a
variety of ways in the literature, and does not currently have a
formal definition

04/02/2019 204
Maxey
• The term hydrostratigraphic unit was first proposed by Maxey (1964)
for “bodies of rock with considerable lateral extent that compose a
geologic framework for a reasonably distinct hydrologic system.”
• Maxey (1964) identified the need to define ground water units that
are based not solely on specific lithologic characteristics but also
included parameters “that apply especially to water movement,
occurrence, and storage.”

04/02/2019 205
Seaber
• Seaber (1982; 1986; 1988) proposed a definition of
hydrostratigraphic unit as “a body of rock distinguished by
its porosity and permeability,” which he considered more
consistent with established stratigraphic nomenclature.
• With this definition, Seaber intended to accommodate the
observation that a “hydrostratigraphic unit may occur in
one or more lithostratigraphic units.”
• Seaber (1988) attempted to define a hydrostratigraphic
unit that applied to all geological environments by focusing
on the material properties of the rock or sediment.

04/02/2019 206
Aquifers, aquitards and HSUs
• An aquifer can be composed of one or more HSUs.
• Thick aquitards or aquicludes may be defined as HSUs based on their
distinct groundwater flow characteristics.
• Thin aquitards or aquicludes that form significant, laterally continuous
layers that limit hydraulic communication may be used to define HSU
boundaries.

04/02/2019 207
Hydrostratigraphic Maps
• Hydrostratigraphic maps and sections superficially look very similar to
simple lithostratigraphic maps with two important differences:
• Amalgamated HSUs have properties controlled by the fabric of their
components (eg high K lenses and fractures rather than a simple bulk
average).
• Hydraulic anisotropies in otherwise similar materials may be classified as
different HSUs (fracturing or strong transverse anisotropy may define a
distinct unit).

04/02/2019 208
Hydrostratigraphic Units

Unit #1: Isotropic Aquitard

Unit #2a: Anisotropic Aquitard Kv>>Kh
Unit #2b: Isotropic Aquitard
Unit #3: Isotropic Aquifer
Unit #4: Isotropic Aquitard
Unit #5a: Fractured Bedrock Aquifer
Unit #5b: Unfractured Bedrock Aquifer

04/02/2019 209
 Hydrostratigraphic Unit Analysis
• Hydrostratigraphic Unit (HSU) analysis was developed and
implemented at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
(LLNL).
• HSU analysis integrates chemical, hydraulic, geologic,and
geophysical data to produce a comprehensive three-
dimensional model of the subsurface based on fluid flow
characteristics.
• It is the focus on fluid flow pathways that renders this
management tool so effective for characterization and
remediation activities.
• HSU analysis significantly enhances the basis of computer
models of fluid flow and transport at contaminated sites.

04/02/2019 210
HSU Analysis and Decisions
HSU assists decision making :
(1) locating and designing
characterization boreholes
and monitor wells,
(2) prioritizing the construction
and phased startup of
remediation systems,
(3) managing extraction of
subsurface contaminants,
(4) finding sources of past
contaminant releases,
(5) tracking the migration of
subsurface contaminants,
(6) evaluating the subsurface
effectiveness of the
remediation systems.
04/02/2019 211
 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers

• Fluvial or Alluvial deposits :

• Fluvial or alluvial deposits laid down by physical processes in
river channels or on floodplains.
• Non indurated (unconsolidated) deposits of gravel, sand, silt or clay
size particles may represent significant aquifers.
• Modern day meandering rivers and their associated floodplain
environments also have coarse and fine grained deposits.
• The deposits themselves will likely have less coarse material and more
silt and clay deposits.
• Cross-bedded sand which is commonly fine or medium grained sand
with minor amounts of silt and clay, are deposited on the levees and
floodplains.
• Coarse sand and gravel commonly form along point bars.

04/02/2019 212
 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers

• Fluvial or Alluvial deposits :

• The amount and characteristic of the material deposited is a
function of the nature of the sediments supplied to the river
from the watershed.
• Because of the extreme variability and sediment sources and
flow, delineation aquifer zones in fluvial environments using
borehole data are difficult.

04/02/2019 213
 Fluvial Systems

04/02/2019 214
 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers
• Aeolian Deposits:
• Materials transported by wind.
Generally consist of fine sand or
silt. Form sand dunes along coasts
and in inland areas where rainfall
is sparse and surface sand is
available for transportation and
deposition.
• Unconsolidated aeolian sand is
characterized by uniform grain
sizes (no silt or clay) by uniform
texture and by grains rounded by
abrasion. These deposits are
usually quite permeable and
porous (10-4 to 10-6 m/s; 30-
45%).

04/02/2019 215
Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers

• Glacial Deposits
• Low to high K-glacial till;
high K – glacial/fluvial;
(Maybe extensive or
channel deposits.) low K
glaciolacustrine (10-10 to
10-12) Depending on the
source rocks.

04/02/2019 216
 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers

• Pyroclastic deposits
• Can have significant
porosity and
permeability to form
aquifers

04/02/2019 217
 Unconsolidated
Sedimentary Aquifers
(UNSAs)

Courtesy:
Jeff Davies
British Geological Survey
04/02/2019 218
 Occurrence of UNSAs

04/02/2019 219
 What are Unconsolidated Sediments?

Unconsolidated sediments are typically composed of

granular rock fragments of Quaternary to Recent age.
Such deposits are defined by their:
• The debris source – controls the lithology of the
sediment particles
• The transport path – erosional processes experienced
– controls grain-size distributions
• Depositional processes – control geometry and extent
of beds, grain-size distributions, geotechnical
properties (porosity and permeability)
• Post-depositional processes – diagenesis, weathering.

04/02/2019 220
 Sands and Gravels - Sahara Desert, Egypt
• Debris source –
hot/cold and wet/dry
rock disintegration
• Transport path – gravel
and sand carried by
intermittent rainfall
runoff and wind
carried sand/silt
• Depositional processes
– surface flow and wind
• Post-depositional
processes - wind
erosion and silcrete or
calcrete cementation

04/02/2019 221
 Small Steep Ephemeral Streams - Mallorca

• Debris source – hot/cold

and wet/dry rock
disintegration
• Transport path –
boulders, mixed sands
and gravels carried by
intermittent rainfall
runoff
• Depositional processes –
surface river flow
• Post-depositional
processes -
karstification and
calcrete cementation

04/02/2019 222
 Ephemeral Sand Rivers – Southern Africa
• Debris source –
soil and
weathered
basement rocks
• Transport path –
gravel and sand
carried by
ephemeral rainfall
runoff and river
flow
• Depositional
processes – river
flow
• Post-depositional
processes - sand
reworking by river
flow
04/02/2019 223
 Perennial river, seasonal high flow - Fiji

• debris source – basalt and sedimentary rock disintegration

• transport path – boulders, gravel and sand carried by wet season
runoff
• Depositional processes – surface river flow
• Post-depositional processes - dry season weathering
04/02/2019 224
 Perennial River, Monsoon Flow - Bangladesh

• Debris source – Himalayan glacial

rock disintegration
• Transport path – boulders, gravel
and sand carried by monsoon
runoff
• Depositional processes – monsoon
river flow (from Borehole logs)
• Post-depositional processes - dry
season weathering
04/02/2019 225
Post-depositional processes
• Diagenesis – sediment compaction and
cementation
• Aerobic weathering processes that reduce
permeability
➢transformation of micas and feldspars to clays
➢Cementation of sand grains with iron oxide and/or
calcite cements

04/02/2019 226
 Organisation of Unconsolidated Sediments

Levels of sediment organisation (sequence

stratigraphy):
• Facies – a body of sediment with a distinctive
combination of properties
• Facies associations – sediment-landform
associations in a depositional environment
• Depositional system - a depositional environment
characterised by a combination of processes
• Systems tracts – highstand, lowstand or
transgressive

04/02/2019 227
 Why Make Use of Unconsolidated
Sediments as Aquifers?
• Why are they important?
• They form one of the main water sources for
rural and urban populations located along river
valleys and deltas worldwide.
• What is the distribution of unconsolidated
sedimentary aquifers? – they are widespread
throughout the world
• What are their hydrogeological characteristics?
• Simple to complex patterns of water occurrence,
high permeability, high yields, high storativity,
high recharge potential
04/02/2019 228
 How does water occur in Unconsolidated
Sediments?
• Field reconnaissance – how do towns and villages obtain
water from sediment aquifers - data from water
projects
• Make a base line survey of abstraction wells and
boreholes
• Locate extent of aquifers and note geomorphological
features – use aerial photography and satellite imagery –
Geophysical information from oil and gas surveys
• Define depths and units of sediment deposition – note
affects of diagenesis, weathering, subsidence and
regional tectonism on sediment accumulation and
earthquakes
• Locate borehole site, drill and test pump – record data

04/02/2019 229
 Groundwater Abstraction Systems
What are the main methods used to abstract
groundwater ?
• Hand drilled shallow boreholes
• Large diameter shallow wells
• Collector wells
• Shallow medium yield boreholes
• Deep large capacity boreholes
Major concerns relate to borehole construction
and use – correct design, installation and use of
casings, screens, gravel packs, well development,
long term monitoring of borehole specific
capacities/performance, aquifer hydrochemistry
04/02/2019 230
 Hand drilled shallow boreholes

04/02/2019 231
 Large Diameter Shallow Wells

04/02/2019 232
 Collector Wells - Botswana

Completed collector
well at Masunga

Plan of collector well

showing laterals
emplaced into sand
river alluviums

04/02/2019 233
 Shallow Medium Yield Boreholes

Test pump on 25 m deep

irrigation borehole yielding
20 l/sec, Fiji

Borehole geology and construction data

04/02/2019 234
 Deep Large Capacity Boreholes

04/02/2019 2 cusec (55 l/sec) capacity deep tubewell, Bangladesh 235

 Conclusions
Unconsolidated Sedimentary Aquifers:
Are composed of near surface to fairly deep
unconsolidated sediments
Can be high yielding
Have high storage
Have high potential recharge
Can be vulnerable to pollution
Form very important sources of water worldwide
04/02/2019 236
 Bangladesh – Land of Rivers and Rice
Fields

Brahmaputra Distributary -
dry season low flow, large Deep tubewell yields 2 cusecs
bed forms and fish trap to irrigate 100 acres of rice
04/02/2019 237
 Brahmaputra River Bridge

Dry season river flow

04/02/2019
Early monsoon river flow 238
 Sediment Movement from Himalaya to Sea

04/02/2019 239
 Geological and
Construction
Logs for a
BADC Deep
Tubewell

04/02/2019 240
 W-E Geological Section Through Study Area

04/02/2019 241
 Geophysics - Deep Seismic Surveys

83 km 90 km
76 km
0.0

About 250m deep at seismic

Pliocene - Holocene
velocity of 1000 m/sec 0.5
Modern Delta
Flood plain
silts and clays

Two way travel time (seconds)

Sand filled stacked channels
1.0

1.5
About 1300 m deep at seismic 5 Ma
Erosion surface velocity of 1500 m/sec
2.0

Upper Miocene
2.5

3.0

10.5 Ma 3.5
04/02/2019 242
 Reverse Circulation Drilling Method

04/02/2019 243
 Reverse Circulation Drilling Method

Modified 27” diameter

Hydreq
drag bit
Minor
Drilling
Rig

Sykes
Slush Pump

10’ lengths
04/02/2019
flange coupled 4” 244
ID drill pipe
 Reverse Circulation Drilling Fluid Reservoirs

During drilling water flows Water top-up Water top-up reservoirs

from the reservoir into the reservoirs dug by hand filled with water during
top of the borehole via this – 4 per site drilling
04/02/2019 245
pipe
 Activities During Drilling

Drilling

Sample collection
Bit balled up
with clay

Grain-size
analysis of
04/02/2019 samples 246
Lithological samples
 Lecture#07: Geological
Formations as Aquifers_02

247
 Sedimentary Rock Aquifers
• Sandstones:
• Sandstones found in different environments - floodplains,
marine shoreline, deltas, aeolian and turbidity currents -
knowledge of depositional patterns of these modern
environments is therefore helpful to understand their
hydrologic characteristics.
• Because of consolidation, they have lower porosity than
nonindurated sand. (compaction & cementation). In extreme
cases, the porosity maybe less than 1% and K < 10-10 m/s. In
a single borehole – porosity will typically decrease with depth
and in general permeability will increase with increasing
porosity.
• Shale:
• laid down as mud or ocean floors, in gentle water areas of
deltas - conversion of clay to shale results in low primary
porosity 5-20%. commonly brittle and fractured but behaves
plasticized at depth with little fracture permeability typically
10-12.
05/06-May-19 248
Semi-consolidated Aquifers
• The varied depositional
environments of these sediments
have caused complex
interbedding of fine and coarse-
grained materials.
• Accordingly, some aquifers are
thin and local whereas others are
• Semi-consolidated aquifers thick and may extend over
consist of sand interbedded hundreds of square kilometres.
with silt, clay, and minor
carbonate. • The Ravenscrag Formation is a
Saskatchewan example of a semi-
• The aquifers are typically of
fluvial, deltaic, and shallow consolidated aquifer.
marine origin.
05/06-May-19 249
 Semi-consolidated Aquifer Properties
• Porosity is intergranular, and the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifers is moderate to high.
• The aquifers form thick extensive wedges of
sediment.
• Wedges tend to dip away from topographically
high erosional source areas.
• Aquifer thicknesses can reach several hundred
metres.

05/06-May-19 250
 Semi-consolidated Aquifer Flow Systems
• Numerous local aquifers can be grouped into a few regional
aquifer systems that contain groundwater flow systems of
local, intermediate, and regional scale.
• In topographically high recharge areas aquifers are
unconfined but become confined in the downdip direction.
• Discharge is by upward leakage to shallower aquifers or to
saltwater bodies in coastal areas.
• Because flow is sluggish near the ends of regional flow
paths, the aquifers commonly contain unflushed saline
water in their deeply buried, downdip extremities.

05/06-May-19 251
Sandstone Aquifers
• Sandstone retains only a small
part of the intergranular pore
space that was present before
the rock was consolidated.
• Compaction and cementation
greatly reduce the primary pore
space.
• Secondary openings, such as • The Mannville Formation is a
joints and fractures, along Saskatchewan example of a
with bedding planes, typically consolidated sandstone aquifer.
transmit most of the
groundwater in bedrock
sandstone aquifers.

05/06-May-19 252
 Sandstone Aquifer Properties
• The hydraulic conductivity of cemented sandstone
aquifers is low to moderate.
• Transmission is primarily through fractures
although primary porosity may continue to
contribute to storage.
• Because bedrock sandstones extend over large
areas, these aquifers can often provide large
amounts of water.

05/06-May-19 253
 Sandstone Aquifer Flow Systems
• Sandstone aquifers in the Prairies are horizontal to gently
dipping.
• Because they are commonly interbedded with siltstone or
shale, most of the water in these aquifers is under confined
conditions.
• Groundwater flow systems in relatively thin sandstone
aquifers are local to intermediate.
• Regional, intermediate, and local flow are present in the
sandstone aquifers western Canada.
• Many extensive sandstone aquifers contain highly
mineralized water at depths of only a few hundred metres.

05/06-May-19 254
 Spring Zones

Unprotected spring in
limestone channelled to
irrigated lands on valley side

Protected spring on
limestone/dolerite contact
used for domestic supply and
livestock watering
05/06-May-19 255
 Groundwater
Abstraction
Boreholes
Afridev pump with plastic
jerry can and traditional
clay pot (einera)

Borehole with electrical

submersible pump,
Mekele Wellfield

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 Montserrat – Eruption Effects

Pyroclastic flow from volcano

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Pyroclastic mudflow or lahar Ash fall on Plymouth 257
 Cross-
section
Through The Coarse grained
Volcanic
Finer grained
pyroclastic flows with
Fine grained ash-fall
deposits with

Andesitic
rock core coarse bases and interbedded fine
pyroclastics and interbedded ashes
agglomerates grained pyroclastics

Soufriere
Hills Volcano

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 Rainfall

Runoff Infiltration Ground-

water Flow
Groundwater flow lines

Spring and seepage zone Patterns in

Groundwater flow within alluvium the Centre
Hills
Present sea level Incised valley infilled with
alluvium and mudflows

Sea level at 20,000 BP

Low permeability High Low

fine-grained permeability permeability
pyroclastic flow coarse-grained volcanic rock
deposits pyroclastic core
05/06-May-19 rocks
259
 Hope Spring

Top spring system, rock matrix

fill collector to the left and
dried up spring box to right
05/06-May-19 Lowest valley side spring 260
 Jaffna Miocene
Age Limestones

Local quarry showing red

latersols upon karstic
weathered limestone surface

Weathered reddened
Miocene Limestone with
karstic tubules

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 Water
Abstraction Units

Small centrifugal pump

Hand Dug Well with Shaduff

Local windmills
05/06-May-19 262
 North West Dry Zone Project Drilling Rig

Direct circulation mud flush drilling rig

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 Carbonate Rock Aquifers (Karsts)

• Limestone/Dolomite/Chalk:
• Most dolomite is secondary in origin, forms by geochemical
alteration of calcite - causes an increase in porosity and
permeability because the crystal lattice of dolomite occupies
less space than that of calcite.
• Carbonate rocks may be blocky (low porosity – 20 %) and
coarse grained to fine grained chalk deposits (50% porosity).
• Primary permeability is low, typically <10-7 but are subject to
extensive second permeability as a result of fractures or
openings along bedded planes. These secondary openings may
be enlarged as a result of dissolution of groundwater.

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Carbonate Aquifers
• Most of the carbonate-rock
aquifers consist of limestone,
but dolomite and marble locally
yield water.
• Carbonate rocks originate as
sedimentary deposits in marine
environments.
• The ultimate properties of
carbonate rocks vary widely; • Compaction, cementation, and
some are considered to be dolomitization processes act on
confining units, whereas the deposits as they undergo
others are among the most lithification and greatly change
productive aquifers known. their porosity and permeability.

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 Carbonate Aquifer Properties
• The principal post-depositional change in carbonate rocks
is the dissolution of part of the rock by circulating, slightly
acidic groundwater.
• Solution openings in carbonate rocks range from small
tubes and widened joints to caverns that may be tens of
meters wide and hundreds to thousands of meters in
length.
• Where they are saturated, carbonate rocks with well-
connected networks of solution openings yield large
amounts of water to wells that penetrate the openings
• The undissolved rock between the large openings may be
almost impermeable.

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 Carbonate Aquifer Flow Systems
• Where carbonate rocks are
exposed at land surface, solution
creates karst topography,
characterized by little surface
drainage, sinkholes, blind
valleys, sinking streams, and
karst towers (mogotes).
• Because water enters the carbonate rocks rapidly through
sinkholes and other large openings, any contaminants in the
water can spread rapidly through the aquifers.
• Regional, intermediate, and local ground- water flow systems
are present in carbonate aquifers but most near-surface
carbonates tend to provide only local and intermediate systems.

267
05/06-May-19
 Karst Characteristics

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 Karst Landforms

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 Limestone caves of Japan

Abukumado at Fukushima
Narusawa Ice Cave 270
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Limestone cave, Bisbee, Arizona

Stalactite

Stalagmite

271
05/06-May-19
 Hydrology of Limestone

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 Karst Features

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 Hydrologic Cycle in Karst Terrain

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 Karst System
• Dissolution
cavities
• Caves
• Sink holes
• Sinking
streams

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What is Karst topography?
• Topography with features relating to
underground solution.
• Collapse may also be involved.
• Surface waters diverted underground.
• Features: sinkholes, sinking streams, rises,
caves.

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 Basement Aquifers
• Igneous and Metamorphic Rock
• Most igneous rock and metamorphic
rocks contain a crystalline structure in
which individual grains have grown
together. This results in porosities of less
than 2%.
• The inter-crystalline voids that make up
the porosity are extremely small and not
interconnected as a result primary
permeabilities as you might expect are
low (10-11 to 10-13 m/s)
• Fracture permeability however is quite
common in most plutonic igneous rocks
and crystalline metamorphic rocks within
a few hundred meters of the ground
surface.
• Fractures are caused by stress conditions
and although generally small can account
for significant yields to wells.
05/06-May-19 277
 Basement Aquifers
• There is a marked decrease in permeability with depth fractures
tend to close at depths although rocks maintain their brittle
character to depths of several kilometers.
• Volcanic rocks which form as a result of the solidification and
crystallization of magma are far different in a hydrogeologic
sense from other types of crystalline rocks. They often exhibit
an excellent primary permeability and porosity related to their
history of formation.
• When magma is extruded onto the ground surface and begins to
flow as lava rapid cooling and the escape of water occurs. Gases
causes cooling joints to form and pore spaces to develop caused
by the escape of gas. Flow of the underlying lava beneath a
cooled surface crust causes the crust to fracture producing a
blocky mass of rock above and denser rock, below.
• The permeability of basalt is very anisotropic. The centers of lava
flows are generally impermeable.
05/06-May-19 278
 Groundwater in
Precambrian Crystalline
Basement Rocks
Jeffrey Davies
British Geological Survey

05/06-May-19 279
 Dry Season Water Sources

Collecting dirty water from pools Carrying water from a water

infested with guinea worm source 5 km away at the end of
05/06-May-19 the dry season 280
 Unprotected Spring Zones

Spring issuing from river Spring issuing from sands above

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 Protected Well

05/06-May-19 282
 Hand Pumped
Boreholes
Operating an
Afridev handpump

Four women pumping a

deep set India Mark
II hand pump on a
low yielding borehole

05/06-May-19 283
 Why Make Use of Precambrian
Crystalline Basement Aquifers?

• Why are they important? – they are one of the main

water sources for rural peoples in drought affected
parts of sub-Saharan Africa.

• What is the distribution of Basement aquifers in sub-

Saharan Africa? – they occur throughout the sub-
continent

• What are their hydrogeological characteristics? –

Complex patterns of water occurrence dependent upon
rock type, fracture patterns and weathering
characteristics

05/06-May-19 284
 Precambrian Basement Aquifers
•Form in near-surface weathered rocks
•Form in fracture zones
•Are low yielding
•Have low storage
•Have limited potential recharge
•Are vulnerable to pollution
•Are important water sources in rural Africa
05/06-May-19 285
 Factors Influencing Groundwater
Occurrence
• Geomorphology - Landforms
• Climate – subtropical to semi-arid with occasional frosts
in deserts.
• Rock types – acid/basic igneous and metamorphic
• Weathering of minerals – feldspars and micas to clays,
release of Fe and Mn oxides,
• Depth of weathering - dependent upon recent/old
groundwater recharge and circulation patterns
• Rock fracturing – faulting, jointing and dykes/sills

05/06-May-19 286
 Victoria Falls, Zambezi River
Flood
1978

Drought
1992

05/06-May-19 287
 Seasonal Flow
Ephemeral Oju River
during dry season –,
puddles of water no flow

River during wet season

days after a heavy
storm. River level drops
quickly to a low flow
several weeks after the
storm
05/06-May-19 288
 Rock Weathering

05/06-May-19 289
 Weathered Granite

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From: Taylor and Eggleton2001. Regolith Geology and Geomorphology
 Weathered Basement Rock

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 Weathering and Groundwater Flow

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05/06-May-19 293