BS (Electronics) 2024

LAB 2: Error Analysis and Graph Drawing

Objective:
To draw graphs and perform error analysis in measurement.

Equipment Required:
1. DMM
2. Breadboard
3. Resistors:
4. Connecting wires etc.
5. Graph paper

Theoretical Description:
The Uncertainty of Measurements

When we make a measurement, we generally assume that some exact or true value exists
based on how we define what is being measured. As we make measurements by different
methods, or even when making multiple measurements using the same method, we may
obtain slightly different results.

Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true or

accepted value. Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.

Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined (without reference to a

theoretical or true value). It is the degree of consistency and agreement among
independent measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or reproducibility
of the result.

Precision is often reported quantitatively by using relative or fractional uncertainty:

Accuracy is often reported quantitatively by using relative error:

Page 1 of 5
 BS (Electronics) 2024

Types of Errors

Measurement errors may be classified as either random or systematic, depending on

how the measurement was obtained (an instrument could cause a random error in one
situation and a systematic error in another).

Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data
due to the precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors can be
evaluated through statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large
number of observations (see standard error).

Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same
direction. These errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically. If a
systematic error is identified when calibrating against a standard, the bias can be
reduced by applying a correction or correction factor to compensate for the effect.
Unlike random errors, systematic errors cannot be detected or reduced by increasing
the number of observations.

Environmental factors (systematic or random) - Be aware of errors introduced by your

immediate working environment. You may need to take account for or protect your
experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, electronic noise or other effects
from nearby apparatus.

Instrument resolution (random) - All instruments have finite precision that limits the ability
to resolve small measurement differences. For instance, a meter stick cannot distinguish
distances to a precision much better than about half of its smallest scale division (0.5 mm in
this case). One of the best ways to obtain more precise measurements is to use a null
difference method instead of measuring a quantity directly. Null or balance methods involve
using instrumentation to measure the difference between two similar quantities, one of which
is known very accurately and is adjustable. The adjustable reference quantity is varied until
the difference is reduced to zero. The two quantities are then balanced and the magnitude of
the unknown quantity can be found by comparison with the reference sample. With this
method, problems of source instability are eliminated, and the measuring instrument can be
very sensitive and does not even need a scale.

Failure to calibrate or check zero of instrument (systematic) - Whenever possible, the

calibration of an instrument should be checked before taking data. If a calibration standard is
not available, the accuracy of the instrument should be checked by comparing with another
instrument that is at least as precise, or by consulting the technical data provided by the
manufacturer. When making a measurement with a micro meter, electronic balance, or an
electrical meter, always check the zero reading first. Re-zero the instrument if possible, or
measure the displacement of the zero reading from the true zero and correct any
measurements accordingly. It is a good idea to check the zero reading throughout the
experiment.

Page 2 of 5
 BS (Electronics) 2024

Parallax (systematic or random) - This error can occur whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a measurement. If the observer's
eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer and scale, the reading may be too high or low
(some analogue meters have mirrors to help with this alignment).

Instrument drift (systematic) - Most electronic instruments have readings that drift over
time. The amount of drift is generally not a concern, but occasionally this source of error can
be significant and should be considered.

Lag time and hysteresis (systematic) - Some measuring devices require time to reach
equilibrium, and taking a measurement before the instrument is stable will result in a
measurement that is generally too low. The most common example is taking temperature
readings with a thermometer that has not reached thermal equilibrium with its environment. A
similar effect is hysteresis where the instrument readings lag behind and appear to have a
"memory" effect as data are taken sequentially moving up or down through a range of values.
Hysteresis is most commonly associated with materials that become magnetized when a
changing magnetic field is applied.

Personal errors come from carelessness, poor technique, or bias on the part of the
experimenter. The experimenter may measure incorrectly, or may use poor technique
in taking a measurement, or may introduce a bias into measurements by expecting
(and inadvertently forcing) the results to agree with the expected outcome.

Estimating Uncertainty in Repeated Measurements

Here are the results of 5 measurements, in seconds:

0.46, 0.44, 0.45, 0.44, 0.41

The best estimate of the period is the average or mean of these 5 independent measurements:

One way to express the variation among the measurements is to use the average deviation.
This statistic tells us on average (with 50% confidence) how much the individual
measurements vary from the mean.

Page 3 of 5
 BS (Electronics) 2024

Graphing Techniques

The construction of graphs is a very important technique in experimental physics.

Graphs provide a compact and efficient way of displaying the functional relationship
between two experimental parameters and of summarizing experimental results. Some
graphs early in this lab course should be hand-drawn to make sure you understand all
that goes into making an effective scientific graph. You will also learn how to use a
computer to graph your data. When graphs are required in laboratory exercises in this
manual, you will be instructed to “plot A vs. B” (where A, and B are variables). By
convention, A (the dependent variable) should be plotted along the vertical axis
(ordinate) and, B (the independent variable), should be along the horizontal axis
(abscissa).

Graph Paper: Graphs that are intended to provide numerical information should
always be drawn on squared or cross-section graph paper, 1cm ×1cm with 10
subdivisions per cm. Use a sharp pencil (not a pen) to draw graphs, in order that the
inevitable mistakes may be corrected.

Title: Every graph should have a title that clearly states which variables appear on the
plot. Also write your name and the date on the plot as well, for convenient reference.

Axis labels: Each coordinate axis of a graph should be labeled with the word or
symbol for the variable plotted along that axis and the units (in parentheses) in which
the variable is plotted.

Choice of Scale: Scales should be chosen in such a way that data are easy to plot and
easy to read. On coordinate paper, every 5th and/or 10th line is slightly heavier than
other lines; such a major division-line should always represent a decimal multiple of
1, 2, or 5 (e.g., 0, l, 2, 0.05, 20, 500, etc.). Other choices (e.g., 0.3) make plotting and
reading data very difficult. Scales should be made no finer than the smallest increment
on the measuring instrument from which data were obtained. For example, data from
a meter stick (which has l mm graduations) should be plotted on a scale no finer than l
division = l mm. A scale finer than 1 div/mm would provide no additional plotting
accuracy, since the data from the meter stick are only accurate to about 0.5 mm.
Frequently the scale must be considerably coarser than this limit, in order to fit the
entire plot onto a single sheet of graph paper. In the illustration, scales have been
chosen to give the graph a roughly square boundary; you should avoid choices of
scale that make the axes very different in length. Note in this connection that it is not
always necessary to include the origin (‘zero’) on a graph axis; in many cases, only
the portion of the scale that covers the data need be plotted.

Data Points: Enter data points on a graph by placing a small dot at the coordinates of
the point and then drawing a small circle around the point. If more than one set of data
is to be shown on a single graph, use other symbols (e.g. θ, ∆) to distinguish the data
sets. A drafting template is useful for this purpose.

Page 4 of 5
 BS (Electronics) 2024

Curves: Draw a simple smooth curve through the data points. The curve will not necessarily
pass through all the points, but should pass as close as possible to each point, with about half
the points on each side of the curve; this curve is intended to guide the eye along the data
points and to indicate the trend of the data. A French curve is useful for drawing curved line
segments. Do not connect the data points by straight-line segments in a dot-to-dot fashion.
This curve now indicates the average trend of the data, and any predicted values should be
read from this curve rather than reverting back to the original data points.

Straight-line: Graphs In many of the exercises in this manual, you will be asked to graph
your experimental results in such a way that there is a linear relationship between graphed
quantities. In these situations, you will be asked to fit a straight line to the data points and to
determine the slope and y-intercept from the graph. Place a transparent ruler or drafting
triangle on your graph and adjust its position so that the edge is as close as possible to all the
data points. The best adjustment will bring about one-half of the data points beneath the ruler,
evenly distributed along the line. Draw a line along the ruler edge that extends to the nearest
coordinate axis at one end and somewhat beyond the last data point at the other end. The
degree to which the data are consistent with the equation is shown by how close the data
points are to the fitted line. The construction of this straight line performs a smoothing of the
raw experimental data, and thus may be a more reliable indication of the outcome of the
experiment than any one pair of data points.

Conclusion:
Different techniques for graph drawing and error analysis are discussed and studied.

Page 5 of 5