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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 604

Walter Zamboni
Giovanni Petrone Editors

ELECTRIMACS
2019
Selected Papers - Volume 1
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 604

Series Editors
Leopoldo Angrisani, Department of Electrical and Information Technologies Engineering, University of Napoli
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Samarjit Chakraborty, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, TU München, Munich, Germany
Jiming Chen, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Shanben Chen, Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Tan Kay Chen, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Humanoids and Intelligent Systems Lab, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Karlsruhe,
Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China
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Alaa Khamis, German University in Egypt El Tagamoa El Khames, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Ferran Martin, Departament d’Enginyeria Electrònica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra,
Barcelona, Spain
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Walter Zamboni • Giovanni Petrone
Editors

ELECTRIMACS 2019
Selected Papers - Volume 1
Editors
Walter Zamboni Giovanni Petrone
DIEM DIEM
Università degli Studi di Salerno Università degli Studi di Salerno
Fisciano, Italy Fisciano, Italy

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
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Preface

ELECTRIMACS is the short and well-known name of the international conference

of the IMACS TC1 Committee. The conference is focussed on the theory and
application of modelling, simulation, analysis, design, optimisation, identification
and diagnostics in electrical power engineering. The conference is a meeting point
for researchers to share ideas and advances in the broad fields of electric machines
and electromagnetic devices, power electronics, transportation systems, smart grids,
electric and hybrid vehicles, renewable energy systems, energy storage, batteries,
supercapacitors and fuel cells.
ELECTRIMACS 2019 was held in Salerno, Italy, from 21st to 23rd May
2019. Three tutorial sessions, three plenary sessions with thought leaders from
academia and research centres, four technical tracks, two forums and nine special
sessions were included in the conference programme. The conference hosted 133
oral presentations of papers, selected among 169 submissions received. The review
process involved at least three reviewers per paper.
The main institutional sponsor of the conference is the Università degli studi di
Salerno—Dipartimento di ingegneria dell’Informazione ed Elettrica e Matematica
applicata (DIEM). The conference received also the technical co-sponsorship
from two important scientific societies: IMACS and IEEE Industrial Electronics
Society (IES), and a financial co-sponsorship from Institut Français—Italia and the
Ambassade de France en Italie in the framework of Programma CASSINI. Many
industries and private companies sponsored the event or took part in the industrial
exhibit.
This book collects a selection of 56 papers presented at ELECTRIMACS 2019
Salerno. These papers are particularly focussed on electrical engineering simulation
aspects and innovative applications.
The collection is organized in six thematic parts. The first three parts: Mod-
elling and simulation, Control and power management and Design, optimisation,
identification and diagnosis are dedicated to conference papers mainly selected
among technical tracks papers. The last three parts: Advances in photovoltaic
applications, Advances in power electronics for energy storage and hardware
emulation and Advances in batteries and supercapacitor technologies, graphene-

v
vi Preface

based devices, and safety issues in electrical engineering contain papers focussed
on new technologies for renewable energy, storage systems and electronic devices,
mainly selected from the special session papers.

Organising Committee

General Chairs
Giovanni Petrone, Università degli studi di Salerno, Italy
Walter Zamboni, Università degli studi di Salerno, Italy
Technical Program Chairs
Giovanni Spagnuolo, Università degli studi di Salerno, Italy
Éric Monmasson, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, France
Benoît Robyns, HEI Lille, France
Ramon Blasco-Gimenez, Universitat Politécnica de Valéncia, Spain
Track Chairs
Federico Baronti, Università di Pisa, Italy
Efstratios Batzelis, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
Pavle Boškoski, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Mario Cacciato, Università degli studi di Catania, Italy
Maria Carmela Di Piazza, ISSIA-CNR Palermo, Italy
Seiichiro Katsura, Keio University, Japan
Eftichios Koutroulis, Technical university of Crete, Greece
Marie-Cecile Pera, Université de Franche-Comté, France
Carlos Andres Ramos Paja, Universidad National de Colombia, Colombia
Bruno Sareni, ENSEEIHT, France
João Pedro Trovão, University of Sherbrooke, Canada
Dmitri Vinnikov, Tallinn University of Technology Estonia
Special Session Chair
Ilhem Slama-Belkodja, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
Local Organising Committee
Gina Scorziello
Raffaele Raimo
Andrea Contrada
Antonio Guarino
Rudy Alexis Guejia Burbano
Vittorio Mattei
Luigi Mattia
Brian Ospina Agudelo
Carmine Russomando
Preface vii

Scientific Committee
Yacine Amara, France
Federico Baronti, Italy
Efstratios Batzelis, United Kingdom
Ramon Blasco-Gimenez, Spain
Pavle Boskoski, Slovenia
Alain Bouscayrol, France
Mario Cacciato, Italy
Carlo Cecati, Italy
Chandan Chakraborty, India
Gerard Champenois, France
Bruno Dehez, Belgium
Louis-A. Dessaint, Canada
Maria Carmela Di Piazza, Italy
Christian Dufour, Canada
Maurice Fadel, France
Gabriel Garcerá, Spain
Leopoldo García Franquelo, Spain
Guillaume Gateau, France
Luis Gomes, Portugal
Gabriele Grandi, Italy
Francesco Grasso, Italy
Hamid Gualous, France
Lennart Harnefors, Sweden
Sergio Junco, Argentina
Ðani Juričić, Slovenia
Hadi Y. Kanaan, Lebanon
Seiichiro Katsura, Japan
Samir Kouro, Chile
Eftichios Koutroulis, Greece
Marco Liserre, Germany
Luc Loron, France
Óscar Lucía, Spain
Massimiliano Luna, Italy
Chengbin Ma, China
Jean Mahseredjian, Canada
Mariusz Malinowski, Poland
Patrizio Manganiello, Belgium
Sébastien Mariethoz, France
Fabrizio Marignetti, Italy
Bogdan Marinescu, France
Pascal Maussion, France
Tuomas Messo, Finland
Rosario Miceli, Italy
viii Preface

Eric Monmasson, France

Teresa Orlowska-Kowalska, Poland
Nicolas Patin, France
Ruben Peña, Chile
Marie-Cecile Pera, France
Giovanni Petrone, Italy
Serge Pierfederici, France
Mircea Radulescu, Romania
Carlos Andres Ramos-Paja, Colombia
Nicolas Retière, France
Xavier Roboam, France
Benoit Robyns, France
Francesco Roca, Italy
Georges Salloum, Lebanon
Bruno Sareni, France
Manuela Sechilariu, France
Ilhem Slama-Belkhodja, Tunisia
Giovanni Spagnuolo, Italy
João Pedro F. Trovão, Canada
Maria I. Valla, Argentina
Alex Van den Bossche, Belgium
Philippe Viarouge, Canada
Dmitri Vinnikov, Estonia
Walter Zamboni, Italy

Guest Editors
Fisciano, Italy Giovanni Petrone
Walter Zamboni
Contents

Part I Modelling and Simulation

Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation . 3
Harshavardhan Palahalli, Yujia Huo, and Giambattista Gruosso
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular
Converters and Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Christian Dufour, Karthik Palaniappan, and Brian J. Seibel
Concept and Implementation of a Rotor Position Detection Method
for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines Based on Linear Halls. . . . 31
Yuchen Wang, Kai Liu, Wei Hua, Xiaofeng Zhu, and Baoan Wang
A Discrete-Time Robust MRAC Applied on Grid-Side Current
Control of a Grid-Connected Three-Phase Converter with LCL Filter . . . 45
Paulo Jefferson Dias de Oliveira Evald, Rodrigo Varella Tambara,
and Hilton Abílio Gründling
Electrothermal Characterization of Double-Sided Cooling Si Power
Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Sébastien Sanchez, C. Nguyen, Claudia Cadile, Jean-Pierre Fradin,
Patrick Tounsi, and Jean-Michel Reynes
Integrated Design Process and Sensitivity Analysis of a Hybrid
Electric Propulsion System for Future Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Matthieu Pettes-Duler, Xavier Roboam, and Bruno Sareni
Direct Torque Control Applied to DFIG Supplied via a Three-Level
Inverter Under Random Behavior Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Salah Tamalouzt, Nabil Benyahia, Mariama Said Mohamed,
Angel Scipioni, and Bernard Davat
Sensorless Control Strategy for Switched Reluctance Traction
Drive Based on High Frequency Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Pavel Sovicka, Giacomo Scelba, Pavol Rafajdus, and Vladimir Vavrus

ix
x Contents

Optimization of Offshore Wind Farms with HVAC and HVDC

Transmission Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Asma Dabbabi, Salvy Bourguet, Rodica Loisel, and Mohamed Machmoum
Low-Side MOSFET Current Sensing Technique for Automotive
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Patrik Varecha, Giacomo Scelba, Mario Cacciato, Pavol Makys,
and Matej Pacha
Input-State Feedback Linearization of a Boost DC/DC Converter . . . . . . . . . 139
Andrea Cervone and Gianluca Brando
2-D Analytical Model of Conventional Switched Reluctance Machines . . . 155
Walid Belguerras, Youcef Benmessaoud, Fréderic Dubas,
Kamel Boughrara, and Hilairet Mickael
Effects of Synchronous Motors Parameters Variations on Efficiency
Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Amina Bensalah, Habibou Lawali Ali, Abed Al Kader Al Asmar,
Yacine Amara, and Georges Barakat
Structural Analysis and Modular Control Law for Modular
Multilevel Converter (MMC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Pierre-Baptiste Steckler, Jean-Yves Gauthier, Xuefang Lin-Shi,
and François Wallart
Simulation of an Islanded DC Microgrid Using Instantaneous
and Average Modeling Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Elie Hleihel, Maurice Fadel, and Hadi Y. Kanaan

Part II Control and Power Management

Digital Control of an FFC NMR Relaxometer Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Rúben J. A. Lopes, Pedro J. Sebastião, Duarte M. Sousa, António Roque,
and Elmano Margato
Blended Antilock Braking System Control Method for All-Wheel
Drive Electric Sport Utility Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Andrei Aksjonov, Valery Vodovozov, Klaus Augsburg,
and Eduard Petlenkov
Voltage Boost by Neutral Point Supply of AC Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Jean-Yves Gauthier and Xuefang Lin-Shi
Performance Analysis of a Micro-Grid System Composed
of Renewable Energy Sources with Hybrid Energy Storage System . . . . . . . 257
S. Tamalouzt, N. Benyahia, A. Tounzi, and K. Idjdarene
Management and Control of Smart Transformer-Fed LV
Distribution Networks During Grid Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Rongwu Zhu, Giovanni De Carne, and Marco Liserre
Contents xi

Efficient Power Management Strategies for

High-Energy-Demanding Industrial Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Libero Paolucci, Mostafa Abdollahi, Francesco Grasso, Alberto Reatti,
and Fabio Corti
Droop Control Strategy for Voltage Source Converters Containing
Renewable Power Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Iván Andrade, Rubén Peña, Ramón Blasco-Gimenez, Javier Riedemann,
and Cristian Pesce

Part III Design, Optimisation, Identification and Diagnosis

ISO26262-Compliant Development of a High Dependable
Automotive Powertrain Item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Jacopo Sini, Massimo Violante, and Riccardo Dessi
A Fault Localization Method for Single-Phase to Ground Faults
in LV Smart Distribution Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Bertrand Raison, and Nuno Silva
Smart Sensors in Smart Cities Collaborate for Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . 339
Paolo Baronti, Paolo Barsocchi, Erina Ferro, Fabio Mavilia,
Massimo Piotto, and Lucanos Strambini
A Low-Cost Monitoring and Fault Detection System for
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems Using IoT Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Adel Mellit, Amor Hamied, Vanni Lughi, and Alessandro Massi Pavan
A New Approach for Effective Position/Speed Sensor Fault
Detection in PMSM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Saïda Ben Slimen, Manef Bourogaoui, and Houda Ben Attia Sethom
Fractional Order System Identification Method for Online
Monitoring of Humidity of Electrochemical Hydrogen Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Gjorgji Nusev, Pavle Boškoski, and Gregor Dolanc
Report on Lithium-Ion Battery Ageing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Rocco Morello, Roberto Di Rienzo, Roberto Roncella, Roberto Saletti,
and Federico Baronti
Electrochemical Impedance Parameter Extraction for Online
Control of Reformed Methanol High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells . . . . . . . 395
Sobi Thomas, Samuel Simon Araya, Simon Lennart Sahlin,
and Søren Knudsen Kær
Multi-objective Optimization of a DC-DC Boost Converter
Including Control Strategy and Stability Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Davide Dell’Isola, Matthieu Urbain, Serge Pierfederici,
and Farid Meibody-Tabar
xii Contents

Performance Testing of a Piezoelectric Device for Extracting

Energy from Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Giorgia Leonardi, Fabio Passacantilli, Carmen Galassi, and Daniele Dessi
Hybrid DC-DC Converters with Topology Morphing Control and
Post-fault Operation Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Dmitri Vinnikov, Andrii Chub, Oleksandr Korkh, Andrei Blinov,
and Elizaveta Liivik
Generator Topologies for Horizontal Axis Tidal Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Mohammad Rafiei, Francesco Salvatore, and Fabio Giulii Capponi

Part IV Advances in Photovoltaic Applications

Real-Time Procedure to Detect Losses in Photovoltaic Generators
Using the Instantaneous and the Translated Performance Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Francisco J. Sánchez-Pacheco, Llanos Mora-López, Michel Piliougine,
Juan Ramón Heredia-Larrubia, and Mariano Sidrach-de-Cardona
Matlab/Simulink Interface Design and Implementation for PV
Arrays Reconfiguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Mariana Durango Florez, Luz Adriana Trejos Grisales, and
Daniel Gonzalez Montoya
Experimental Verification of a Method to Model the Operation
of PV Modules During Irradiance Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Kari Lappalainen and Seppo Valkealahti
Optimal Power Dispatching in the DC Microgrid with Clear Sky
Irradiance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Hongwei Wu, Wenshuai Bai, Fabrice Locment, and Manuela Sechilariu
Centralized Control in Photovoltaic Distributed Maximum Power
Point Tracking Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Ramón López-Erauskin, Ander González, Johan Gyselinck,
Giovanni Petrone, and Giovanni Spagnuolo
Optimal PV Panel Reconfiguration Using Wireless Irradiance
Distributed Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Antonino Laudani, Gabriele Maria Lozito, Martina Radicioni,
Francesco Riganti Fulginei, and Alessandro Salvini
Unity Efficiency and Low-Cost MPPT Method for Single-Stage
Grid-Connected PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Yacine Triki, Ali Bechouche, Hamid Seddiki, and Djaffar Ould Abdeslam
Contents xiii

Distributed Converters in Large PV Plants: Performance Analysis

Supported by Behavioral Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Giovanni Nobile, Mario Cacciato, Giuseppe Scarcella, Giacomo Scelba,
Ester Vasta, Agnese Giuseppa Federica Di Stefano, Giuseppe Leotta,
Paola Maria Pugliatti, and Fabrizio Bizzarri
Diagnose Algorithm and Fault Characterization for Photovoltaic
Arrays: A Simulation Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Luis D. Murillo-Soto and Carlos Meza
Computation of the Lambert W Function in Photovoltaic Modeling . . . . . . 583
Efstratios I. Batzelis, Georgios Anagnostou, Chandan Chakraborty,
and Bikash C. Pal

Part V Advances in Power Electronics for Energy Storage

and Hardware Emulation
Lithium-Ion Capacitors: Characterization and Modeling at Both
High and Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Zeineb Chabrak Payet, Alexandre De Bernardinis, Pascal Venet,
and Richard Lallemand
Theoretical Comparison Analysis of Six-Phase Interleaved Boost
Converter Based on SiC Semiconductor and Inverse Coupled
Inductor for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Hanqing Wang, Arnaud Gaillard, and Daniel Hissel
Spatial and Temporal Temperature Homogenization
in an Automotive Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell Battery Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Markus Gepp, Vincent Lorentz, Martin März, Fanny Geffray, Elsa Guyon,
and Fabrice Chopard
A Two-Level Fuzzy Logic Machine-Based Control Algorithm
for Resilient Microgrids in ICT Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Giovanni Brunaccini, Marco Ferraro, Davide Aloisio, Giorgio Dispenza,
Nico Randazzo, Francesco Sergi, and Vincenzo Antonucci
Luenberger Observer for Lithium Battery State-of-Charge Estimation . . 655
Stefano Barsali, Massimo Ceraolo, Jiajing Li, Giovanni Lutzemberger,
and Claudio Scarpelli
Coordinated Control of Supercapacitor-Battery Tandem by Smart
Converters in Microgrid Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Giovanna Adinolfi, Roberto Ciavarella, Giorgio Graditi, Angelo Merola,
and Maria Valenti
xiv Contents

Part VI Advances in Batteries and Supercapacitor Technologies,

Graphene-Based Devices, and Safety Issues in Electrical
Engineering
Comparison and Modeling of Commercial Supercapacitors via
Standardized Potentiostatic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy . . . 681
Filippo Gherdovich, Giuseppe Taddia, Sandro Maria Tenconi,
Miguel Pretelli, Alessandro Lampasi, Francesca Soavi,
and Maria Luisa Di Vona
Economic Analysis of a Hybrid Storage System Associated to PV
Sources and Supervised by Fuzzy Logic Power Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Xingyu Yan, Dhaker Abbes, Antoine Labrunie, Youssef Krim,
and Benoit Robyns
Development of High-Capacity Lithium Sulfur Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Mariasole Di Carli, Margherita Moreno, Gabriele Tarquini, Alfonso Pozio,
Annalisa Aurora, Livia Della Seta, and Pier Paolo Prosini
An Impedance-Based Life-Monitoring Technique for a Graphene
Water Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Stefano Bellucci, Antonino Cataldo, Luigi Ferrigno, Samuele Giovannetti,
and Antonio Maffucci
Multicast Routing Protocol for LoRa Mesh Networks in Safety
Critical Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Roberto Di Stefano and Fabrizio Marignetti
Investigation on the Fire Hazards of Li-Ion Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Paola Russo, Maria Luisa Mele, Giovanni Longobardo, Michele Mazzaro,
and Cinzia Di Bari
About the Editors

Walter Zamboni received the PhD degree in Electrical Engineering from the Uni-
versità degli studi di Napoli Federico II, Italy, in 2004. From 2016 he is Associate
Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Università degli studi di Salerno, Italy,
where he served as assistant professor from 2008 to 2016. He is a member of IEEE
and IMACS. At present, his main scientific interests include battery modelling and
SoC–SoH estimation, identification and diagnostics of batteries and fuel cells, and
energy and power management in systems with energy storage. He co-authored
more than 80 papers published in international journals and conference proceedings,
and one patent.
Giovanni Petrone is Associate Professor of Circuit Theory at the University of
Salerno, Italy. His research areas include analysis and design of power electronics
and controls for photovoltaic, fuel cell and wind systems, tolerance analysis
of electronic circuits, non-linear control techniques, wireless power transfer and
identification and diagnosis of renewable sources and storage systems. He is
Associate Editor of IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics and of IET Power Electronics.
He is member of the editorial board of MPDI Applied Sciences journal. Since 2017,
he is a senior member of IEEE. Prof. Petrone is co-author of more than 150 papers
published in international journals and conference proceedings. He is also co-author
of two books, two IEEE e-Learning library courses and five patents in the field of
power electronics for photovoltaic applications.

xv
 Part I
Modelling and Simulation
Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for
Real-Time Hardware Simulation

Harshavardhan Palahalli, Yujia Huo, and Giambattista Gruosso

Abstract The real-time simulation is a valid help to test electrical systems when
a physical device is not available. This is significantly evident when used in
hardware and software co-simulation environment, where it is possible to connect
the emulator to a real subsystem to test or validate it. In this paper, a model of
the photovoltaic system is presented that can be implemented within a hardware
simulator to be able to interface it with a real circuit, the hardware simulator used is
the National Instruments RIO system.

1 Introduction

Real-time simulation (RT) is one of the frontiers of electrical system analysis. Its
task is to control or react to events that occur in the real world, with the same speed
as the real world clock. With the aim of having systems that can be interfaced with
other software or real systems in order to simulate increasingly complex systems
and on a large scale, also taking communication infrastructure into account, as in
the case of smart grids [1–4].
It is necessary to be aware of the execution time of the simulation system
to ensure that it is shorter or equivalent to the selected time step especially in
simulating scenarios that cannot normally be performed, for example, to model
the high switching characteristics of the converters, a fast processor is required to
reach the minimum step size of up to microseconds [5, 6]. To simulate very quick
phenomena in the order of microseconds, it is necessary to think of architectures
with more than one processor, and based on FPGAs, that allow high sampling rates,
a faster and parallel computing capacity [7]. As the penetration of PV generation
increases, its impact on stability and security of the power system will become
more and more significant, due to the characteristic of randomness and volatility

H. Palahalli · Y. Huo · G. Gruosso ()

Politecnico di Milano - DEIB, Milano, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

W. Zamboni, G. Petrone (eds.), ELECTRIMACS 2019, Lecture Notes
in Electrical Engineering 604, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37161-6_1
4 H. Palahalli et al.

[8]. Modeling and simulation are the basic technologies to study the impact on the
power grid in which, large-scale PV generation systems are integrated. Simulations
in the usual platform may give good results, but they are not able to deliver the
results for dynamic change in input as present in real world in run time, the model
may not respond for such a change. When we try to simulate to know the long-
term performance of a system, the normal simulation requires a very long time to
deliver the results and the accuracy of the results may also get compromised. While
simulating the complex model like PV system interaction with the grid in real-time,
we may encounter many problems. The important ones to mention are,
1. The need for a PV mathematical model that can deliver results faster to keep the
real-time simulation properties during execution. Solving the algebraic loop in
the PV model is an important task, as algebraic loops are not supported in the
real-time hardware.
2. There is a need of cost-effective test bench/platform for simulating PV systems
in real-time that can be used for control validation, studies of the storage system,
and integration of PV system to the power drive train or grid.
3. Model-based design of process and systems is very popular, there are tools
available, for automatic code generation for the developed model, it is required
to use these tools, that can deliver C code from the model, which can be used for
the cost-effective target hardware.
4. The memory of the real-time digital simulator (RTDS) is the main constraint
while simulating a complex model, like the grid, this memory is used for storing
and executing the compiled C code in real-time. It may be necessary to split the
model into two or more separate systems and bridge them using an appropriate
interface.
5. Interfacing the two models using respective interfacing algorithm introduces
some errors in the execution, that results in, instability of the system during
run time and also the accuracy of the results varies according to the interfacing
algorithm used.
The main objective of this work is to conduct the real-time simulation of the
PV considering as hardware under test (HUT), with the MPPT (Maximum Power
Tracking Point) system, storage and the load connected to DC bus acting as a rest of
the system (ROS) of hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation methodology. The idea
is that the photovoltaic system and the rest of the system are executed in parallel in
real-time and the maximum power is monitored for irradiation variation in the real
world and the extracted power is supplied to the DC bus to which storage element
and the fixed load resistance are connected. The modeling of these systems is done
in Simulink [9]. The modeled systems are compiled and deployed in NI myRIO’s
FPGA [10] for real-time simulation.
The rest of this article is organized as follows: Sect. 2 deals with the modeling
of photovoltaic and MPPT systems, Sect. 3 explains the real-time simulation
architecture used in this work, Sect. 4 tells the real-time simulation with the results
and conclusions are drawn in Sect. 5.
Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation 5

2 PV System Modelling

The mathematical model of the PV system is drawn accordingly with [11, 12]. The
equivalent described in Fig. 1 consists of a current source in parallel with the diode
and Rsh and Rs are the intrinsic shunt and series resistances of the cell, respectively.
The I –V characteristic of the cell is determined by the diode. PV cells are grouped
into larger units to form PV modules, these modules are connected in series or
parallel to create a PV array to obtain required electrical power.
 
Iph = Isc + Ki (Tcell − Tref ) λ (1)
Isc
Irs =     (2)
exp NcellqV oc
KnTcell − 1
 3
Tcell qEg 1 1
Io = Irs exp − (3)
Tref nK Tref Tcell
KTcell
Vt = (4)
q
N
Vpv NcellpNs + Ipv Rs
Ish = (5)
Rsh
⎡ ⎛ Vpv Ipv Rs
⎞ ⎤
Ncell Ns + Np
Ipv = Np Iph − Np Io ⎣exp ⎝ ⎠ − 1⎦ − Ish (6)
nVt

where
Ipv Cell current
Vpv Array terminal voltage
Iph Photo current
Isc Short-circuit current at 25 ◦ C and 1 kW/m2
Ki Short-circuit current temperature coefficient
Tcell , Tref PV cell and reference temperature in K

Fig. 1 PV cell equivalent

circuit
6 H. Palahalli et al.

λ Ratio of solar irradiation to reference 1 kW/m2

Irs Module reverse saturation current
q Charge on electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Ncell Number series cells in a module
n Diode ideal factor
k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.3805 × 10−23 J/K
Io Module saturation current
Eg Energy band gap of semiconductor material
Vt Diode thermal voltage
Ish Shunt current
Ns Number of series modules connected in string
Np Number of parallel string connected in array
Voc Open circuit voltage
Rs ,Rsh Series and shunt resistance
The method to find the resistances of PV cell can be found in [13], the above
mentioned Eq. (6) is solved using Newton Raphson method with the error tolerance
of 10−5 for better accuracy. In this work Mitsubishi Electric PV-UD180MF5 PV
module is selected as reference, the parameters of the module are given in Table 1.
The I V curve of the modeled PV array for different irradiation is given in Fig. 2,
later the same model is used for PV real-time simulation, fixed step discrete solver
with the sample time of 1 ms is used in both normal and real-time simulation.
The PV panels are connected to the load using a DC/DC converter governed by
an MPPT controller, based on perturb and observe (P &O) method. The choice of a
DC–DC converter is based on many factors such as load resistance, resistance at the
maximum power point, DC output voltage [14]. Figure 3 shows the block diagram
of PV with MPPT system.

Table 1 Mitsubishi electric Parameter Value

PV-UD180MF5 PV Module
details and parameters for Open circuit voltage (Voc ) 30.4 V
100 kW array Short-circuit current (Isc ) 8.03 A
Maximum power rating (P max) 180 W
Voltage @ maximum power 24.2 V
Current @ maximum power 7.45 A
Number of series connected cells in 50
module (Ncell )
Diode ideal factor (n) 1.7
Band Energy Gap (Eg ) 1.121 eV
Isc temperature co-efficient ki 0.0032 K −1
Shunt resistance (Rsh ) 3.767 
Series resistance (Rs ) 0.00019 
Number of series modules used Ns 11
Number of parallel strings used Np 51
Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation 7

450

400

350
PV array current [A]

300

250

200

150

100
Ir = 1kW/sq.m
Ir = 800W/sq.m
50 Ir = 500W/sq.m
Ir = 300W/sq.m
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage [V]

Fig. 2 I V curve of the 100 kW array for different irradiation

Fig. 3 Block diagram of PV

system with MPPT

3 Real-Time Simulation Architecture

In this section the test benches created for conducting HIL experiment will be
presented. The mathematical model will be simulated in myRIO in real-time.
FPGA IO’s are used to integrate the model in-ports and out-ports to the real world
measurement systems (Fig. 4).
The model will be implemented in MATLAB-Simulink [9] and translated in into
C code with its internal C code generating tool using the NI VeriStand compilers
which adds on to the MATLAB and it can generate the file “.SO” which defines our
model with the libraries. NI VeriStand Engine has to be deployed in the RT target
to make it compatible to run with the host computer. .lvbitx file defines the custom
FPGA personality used for the simulation in the RT target. The main operation
is shown in Fig. 5. National Instruments myRIO-1900 is a Linux based device, it
8 H. Palahalli et al.

Fig. 4 PV with MPPT system in myRIO

Fig. 5 Functional scheme of the procedure

Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation 9

comes with built-in Xilinx Z-7010 FPGA [10] and it also allows us to build custom
FPGA applications with real-time capabilities. In this study, the real-time simulation
of PV system is done in myRIO using NI VeriStand [10], it is a configuration-based
testing software, specifically designed to run the real-time testing application, thus
allowing us to develop and test control system using hardware I/O and simulation
models.

4 Simulation and Results

This test bench consists of a 100 kW PV array model as HUT, whose interaction
with the ROS for the change in temperature and the irradiation is studied. The
ROS consists of MPPT, DC–DC converter, DC bus is created where the load
and the storage are connected with the breaker and the bi-directional intelligent
converter, respectively. The temperature and the irradiation data are measured using
a temperature sensor and a small 5 W PV cell, respectively. The model used to
simulate using this test bench is shown in Fig. 6.
The power rating and other parameters of the proposed RT simulated system
are given in Table 2, the voltage of DC bus is maintained at 250 V all the time
with the help of storage and the bi-directional DC-DC converter, which allows the
power flow in both the directions. PID control is used for the voltage control of the
converter. When the power required by the load is more than the generation, DC bus
voltage drops. Power will be compensated by the energy stored and the voltage is
brought regulated. When the power generated is more than the load requirement, the
DC bus voltage increases, and the controller takes action to bring back the voltage
to the set reference of 250 V. In this experiment, the fixed resistive load of 1  is
connected to the DC bus at 5th s, the outputs are driven to the real world using FPGA
IO and read using the digital oscilloscope, the test bench setup is shown in Fig. 7.
The irradiation and the temperature measured in real-time are given in Fig. 8.
They both are measured by myRIO and fed to the model during run time.
The load is connected to the DC bus at 5th s, the DC bus voltage and its variations
during run time is given in Fig. 9. It can be observed that the controller is able to
maintain the bus voltage constant even after connecting load at 5th s.
To ensure the simulation running in real-time the bus voltage is also measured
using a digital oscilloscope as shown in Fig. 10. The real-time simulation started
at −9 s, this corresponds to 0th s of the model time, the load is configured to get
connected to the DC bus at 5th s of the model time, and in the oscilloscope the
voltage variation due to load application is recorded at −4th s, this proves that the
simulation is running in real-time, just the voltage is scaled down by 100 V as 1 V
to drive output through DAC, finally the simulation is stopped at 1.6 s as seen in
oscilloscope.
The maximum power delivered by PV and the power consumed by the load after
connecting it to the DC bus is shown in Fig. 11. The power delivered by PV before
connecting the load is used to charge the storage system of 10 Ah. The state of
10 H. Palahalli et al.

MPPT

L1 Boost Converter
+ DC bus
–
Vpv Ipv

pulse
C1
Rload

100kW PV array
Bi-directional DC-DC Converter

Storage Rint L2
C2

ic

Not
gate
Vref
+ ∫ kp +
-

kd – Pulse
Generator

ki –

Vbus

Fig. 6 Block diagram of the simulated model

charge measured in the storage system and the current flowing to the batteries are
given in Fig. 12. Initial SOC is about 50% and raised rapidly till connecting the load
to the DC bus, later the slope of SOC decreases since the flow of current is decreased
to the storage system. The voltage seen across the storage system throughout the
simulation is given in Fig. 13.
Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation 11

Table 2 Parameters of Parameter Value

electric system
L1 11 mH
C1 10 mF
MPPT switching frequency (fs1 ) 1 kHz
Rint 0.14 
L2 15 mH
C2 10 mF
Controller gains, kp 0.055
ki 0.001
kd 0.0003
Bi-directional converter (fs2 ) 5 kHz
Nominal voltage of battery 140 V
Initial SOC of battery 50%
DC Bus voltage Vbus 250 V
Rload 1
Sample time used in RT simulation 1 ms

Fig. 7 Test bench used for HIL simulation

799
Irradiance (W/sq.m)

798

797

796
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)

24.945
Tempperatue (C)

24.94

24.935

24.93

24.925
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)

Fig. 8 Irradiation and temperature measured in real-time

12 H. Palahalli et al.

300

250

200
Voltage (V)

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)

Fig. 9 Voltage measured across DC bus in real-time

Fig. 10 Voltage measured across DC bus using oscilloscope

5 Conclusion

This article presents a methodology for real-time simulation, based on a model

created in Simulink environment and then downloaded to the hardware of National
Instruments. The step is done through VeriStand tool, to demonstrate that, it is
possible to create small real-time simulators for laboratory or educational use. In
the article, the methodology is illustrated in detail and accompanied by the results.
Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems for Real-Time Hardware Simulation 13

104
8

6
Power (W)
4

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)
104
8

6
Power (W)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)

Fig. 11 Power delivered by PV and consumed by load

55
SOC (%)

50

45
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
time (s)

400

200
Current (A)

-200

-400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
time (s)

Fig. 12 SOC and the battery current

14 H. Palahalli et al.

250

200

150
Voltage (V)

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
time (s)

Fig. 13 Battery terminal voltage

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Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation
of High-Power Modular Converters
and Drives

Christian Dufour, Karthik Palaniappan, and Brian J. Seibel

Abstract This paper explains several industrial cases involving the HIL simulation
of MW-range drives and inverters using CPU cores with FPGAs to compute model
equations. The use of HIL simulators is common today in the industry to accelerate
design cycles, mitigate financial and human risks and support software updates
throughout the product life cycle.
The first case presented is a 2-level inverter scheme in which increasing power
specifications are met by adding parallel IGBT-modules. The second case is a multi-
level motor drive with low harmonic injection on the AC-side. The third case is a
modular multi-level converter in a grid application. We also discuss a new T-type
inverter model that uses an industry PV-to-grid power converter.
In each case, all power system modelling was done using Simulink and Sim-
PowerSystems in conjunction with the SSN solver from the ARTEMiS blockset in
addition to code generation for CPU execution at time steps in the 20–50 μm range,
with an exception for MMC models on FPGA. In all cases the firing accuracy of
the IGBTs remains in the nanosecond range using time-stamping techniques and
an FPGA board. In the case of the parallel 2-level inverters, there is significant
difficulty regarding the small firing delays (typically <500 ns) between modules
that create circulating currents. These circulating currents are rendered correctly on
the HIL bench.
Also discussed in the paper are the various optimisations, solvers and methods
that enable these performances.

C. Dufour ()
Opal-RT Technologies, Montréal, QC, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Palaniappan · B. J. Seibel
Rockwell Automation Inc., Milwaukee, WI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 17

W. Zamboni, G. Petrone (eds.), ELECTRIMACS 2019, Lecture Notes
in Electrical Engineering 604, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37161-6_2
18 C. Dufour et al.

1 Introduction

Real-time simulation is an important part of power system and industrial drive

development as it enables engineers to test system controllers in the lab before
field commissioning. This helps to reduce overall costs by providing early detection
of issues during the design process. After deployment, the real-time simulator
continues to be used to test controller software updates before release in the
laboratory, at safe power levels, without the need to maintain a real drive.
This paper presents some of the most challenging HIL simulation cases for drives
and converters undertaken by Opal-RT, as of 2019. HIL simulation of these drives
and converters is made possible through constant advancements in the field of multi-
core CPU and FPGA technologies combined with clever algorithms and simulation
methods.

2 Some Requirements for HIL Simulation of Drives

The main objective of the HIL test system is to verify the functionality of the real
system in controlled laboratory conditions and at low power levels, before actual
release, including software upgrades and commissioning.
In particular, the HIL test system must:
– Check the drive start-up and shutdown sequences. Models must be able to
output truly null currents before the starting sequence for this to be checked
correctly in HIL mode. Otherwise an error occurs and the controller goes into safe
mode.
– Check the circulating currents between IGBT inverter modules in parallel
configurations. Small circulating currents are normal in the real system and
are due to variations in firing caused by wiring and element tolerances. The
drive closely monitors these currents and shuts them down if they exceed a pre-
determined level, which is an indication of system malfunction.
– The HIL system must be able to adequately reproduce the PWM inverter
characteristics on a CPU-based simulator running the model within a 25–50 μs
range. This is achieved using the time-stamping technique [1] and special inverter
models called Time-Stamped Bridges or TSB. Direct connection of controller
PWM pulses to the HIL simulator is mandatory (i.e., use of averaged models is
not possible).
– These TSBs must be able to work correctly in natural rectifying mode; this is
especially important for drives with Active-Front-End rectifiers.
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular Converters and Drives 19

3 Some MW Converter Topologies Simulated in HIL

3.1 Two-Level Parallel IGBT Modular Motor Drive

and Active-Front-End Rectifier

This topology comes from the Rockwell PowerFlex 750-Series products for the
Low-Voltage market (from 160 to 6000 kW) and is depicted in Fig. 1 This topology
provides a scalable power level by using parallel 2-level IGBT modules up to 6 MW.
More details can be found in [2].1
An OPAL-RT Hardware-In-the-loop (HIL) system was chosen to perform a
wide variety of product software and hardware verification and validation during
the product design phase and will be used for regression testing over the life of
the product. As with any simulation, fidelity and accuracy of the simulation must
adequately match the product itself to guarantee usefulness and confidence in any
testing and verification. This section shows the PowerFlex 755TM Common Bus
Inverter. The inverter PWM frequency is 1.33 kHz and the complete model runs at
50 μs in HIL mode. In HIL tests, close to 2000 I/Os were required in the simulator
to interface and test the actual controllers in the real-time simulated drive system,
with up to ten converters at any given time during operation.
IGBT modules are connected together through interphase reactance to smooth
out any small difference of voltage output between the parallel inverters.
The drive controller closely monitors this current difference between the same
phases of parallel inverters and puts the system in fault mode if it rises above a
certain threshold.

Fig. 1 Parallel 2-level IGBTs drive with AFE rectifier

1 The authors acknowledge the re-use of some of their own verbatim of this reference.
20 C. Dufour et al.

3.1.1 Modelling Techniques

This inverter topology poses several difficulties, such as the accurate computation
of inter module currents and the need for accurate current levels at low power.
Furthermore, the model must be decoupled in small parts, running on different cores
of the CPU to maintain the simulation time step within an acceptable range.
The system has a large DC-link, which makes the separation of the model into
separate parts easier. DC-bus voltages and currents can be transmitted between
separated parts with an inserted delay, with negligible errors.
The model uses modified interpolating inverter models (Time-Stamped Bridge,
TSB); these inverter models are able to incorporate I/O gating signal time-stamps
and to interpolate voltage outputs, resulting in very accurate simulation, mainly
limited by the simulator FPGA sampling rate (in this instance, 5 ns).
Of special interest is the treatment of cases in which dead-time occurs near zero-
crossing. In this case, the standard TSB model may actually output opposite voltages
on different modules of the same phase.
For example, for a DC voltage of 640 V and an interphase inductance of 25 μH,
the circulating current rises at the rate of 640/(2 × 25e−6) × τ (for two parallel
IGBT inverters), where τ is the firing delay between parallel IGBTs. For a 500 ns
delay, the current would rise to about 7 A, within the controller’s tolerance level.
As a simple test, we ran the model offline at 50 μs, in a simple motor start-up
sequence with two parallel IGBT modules, with a high-resolution PWM modulator
and variable inserted delay between the parallel IGBTs. The result is depicted in
Fig. 2 and is consistent with the theory.
The requirement for null current during blocked modes, as well as accurate
natural rectification modes, led us to model the diode as binary switches. This in
turn caused the total number of connected diodes to be very high (60 diodes for
ten parallel modules), dramatically increasing the total number of possible electric
modes and permutations of state-space equations (possibly 260 ). By using SSN, each
TSB module, containing six binary diodes each, was set into a different SSN group,
solving this potential issue for real-time calculation.
Finally, the induction motor model used was an SSN, meaning that no minimum
load or stabilisation snubber was required to run the model stably, even at very low
power levels [3].

3.2 Multi-level Motor Drive with Low Input Harmonic

The multi-level motor drive depicted in Fig. 3 is designed to provide low harmonic
AC-voltage to the load, as well as low input current harmonic to the feeding grid.
This is achieved by arranging the multiple diode rectifiers with zig-zag transformers
with varying phase shifts. The system runs in HIL with attached industrial controller
under test at a time step of 25 μs.
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular Converters and Drives 21

Fig. 2 Motor start-up with variable firing delay between two IGBT modules. Top: motor current;
bottom: current difference between the parallel inverters

Fig. 3 Multi-level motor drive with low input harmonic

22 C. Dufour et al.

3.2.1 Modelling Techniques

This inverter topology presents several difficulties for HIL simulation. One of these
is the common inductive connection of all zig-zag transformer primary windings;
the SSN solver makes it possible to break down this huge state-space system of
equations into several smaller ones, without delays. In one version of the model,
where the 3 × n 6-pulse rectifier (here n is the number of inverter stages) was
separated using SSN nodes, SSN was also required to decouple the 3 × n 6
pulse rectifiers. In the final implementation, stublines were used to provide a better
decoupling at the expense of slightly lower precision.
Also, the presence of a DC-bus at each 6-pulse rectifier allowed us to simulate
the rectifiers and the inverters in different cores of the simulator.
The SSN node location allows for the creation of three large SSN groups, one for
each phase of zig-zag transformers, which allowed us to compute these groups on
different cores.
Stublines are artificial one-time-step-delay transmission lines and are used to
completely decouple a circuit from one end of the stubline to the other. As they add
a little capacitance to the circuit, they are less precise than SSN, which does not
approximate or add delays to the simulated equations.

3.3 Multi-level Modular Converter (MMC)

Modular Multi-level Converter (MMC)-based High-Voltage Direct Current

(HVDC) is a rapidly emerging technology for DC current transport and high-
power converters in general. MMC, by its modular nature, has the advantage of
being very reliable, easily maintainable and scalable: the inverters can continue
to work correctly if a module fails, and the defective module can be replaced
without completely shutting down the converter. This is an important issue with
sites difficult to access, such as offshore windfarms. The converter described in
this section is a 271-level MMC system in a power grid, configured for STATCOM
operation, as specified for the factory acceptance test of an OPAL-RT client in the
Zhoushan region of China. The MMC-STATCOM is part of a multi-terminal HVDC
system and, in this case, its DC breaker is open, disconnecting the MMC station
from the other stations [4, 5]. In this configuration, depicted in Fig. 4, the MMC is
used as a STATCOM to stabilize the AC voltage level.

3.3.1 Modelling Techniques

To achieve HIL simulation of this MMC system with 3240 IGBTs and 1620
capacitors, the modelling approach is different from the previous cases: all IGBT
switching and capacitor voltage calculations are done directly on the FPGA, and a
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular Converters and Drives 23

Fig. 4 MMC converter in a power grid

Thevenin equivalent is sent to the CPU for the SSN solver updates with iterative
surge arresters. This model runs in HIL at a time step of 25 μs [6].

3.4 T-Type 3-Level Inverter for PV-to-Grid Converter

Among recent developments is the creation of a TSB-type model for the T-type 3-
level inverter in ARTEMiS-SSN. The topology is tested in this section for a 25 kW
industrial PV converter for grid, depicted in Fig. 5.
The converter’s PWM switching frequency is 20 kHz. This is typical for PV
inverters rated below 30 kW for residential and commercial PV applications where
audible noise is not acceptable.
24 C. Dufour et al.

S1 400V
600 W/m2 S4 S3
50Hz
400μH

Sample time: 15μs

S2 PWM frequency: 20kHz

Fig. 5 T-type 3-level inverter in PV-to-grid converter

The model was simulated in a multi-rate offline model as follows: the grid and
converter were simulated at 15 μs while the controller and PWM modulator were
simulated at 1 μs and interfaced with the electric system using time-stamping.
This time-stamping approach very closely imitates the HIL time-stamping method,
described in Sect. 4.1.
This test case is one where the converter delivers 25 kW of power to the grid.
Then at 0.25 s, the DC-link voltage reference is changed from 800 to 850 V. This
results in a small gap in the currents; while the solar panel charges up the DC link, it
does not deliver power to the grid; then at 0.26 s, the DC-link meets the commanded
values and power flow to the grid is restored. The simulation result is compared with
a reference model in which the entire model is run at 1 μs, depicted in Fig. 6.
The figure is zoomed in on the currents to show that the PWM component is
still present in the simulation but somehow attenuated. This is normal considering
the low ratio of simulation sampling frequency to PWM frequency. For Ts = 15 μs
and FPWM = 20 kHz, this ratio is only 3.33! Nevertheless, the current amplitudes
are very accurate and free of amplitude jitter, which is sufficient to fully test the
controller.
This also clears up some common confusion about TSBs: they are NOT averaged
models, because the PWM component is included in the simulation. Rather, TSBs
could be called ‘Per time step averaging models’, while standard averaged models
are, by definition, ‘Per fundamental period averaging models’.

4 Miscellaneous Topics

4.1 Time-Stamping Technique and Real-Time Simulators

Interpolating IGBT models are very important to obtain accurate simulation on

a CPU-based computational platform. Interpolating data for power inverters is
obtained by time-stamping the gate transitions on a high-frequency FPGA; logic
and transition time values are then used by the interpolating model (TSB) on the
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular Converters and Drives 25

Ts=15 us
50
Currents (A)

-50

Ts=1 us
50
Currents (A)

-50
0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3
Time (s)

Fig. 6 Comparison of simulation at 15 μs using time-stamping method (upper) vs. reference

model running at 1 μs (lower)

HIL simulator, as shown in Fig. 7 [7, 8]. A similar approach is done without I/Os by
calculating the intra-step zero-crossing of PWM modulators.
In certain cases, such as MMC, some parts of the model can be computed on the
FPGA.

4.2 Machine Models and SSN

All the machine models used in these models were SSN machines; that is, machine
models developed using the nodal admittance method of SSN [3, 9, 10]. The
main reason for this choice was to ensure stability without any parasitic loads or
stabilisation snubbers at the machine terminals.
This was especially important for the Two-Level Parallel IGBT Modular Motor
Drive because of the inductive connection of the motor and the interface inductor
of the different modules. Standard SPS machine models use the current injection
technique, which is prone to numerical instability, and is actually unstable when
injected into such inductive node.
26 C. Dufour et al.

Fig. 7 RT-LAB simulator hardware structure and time-stamping

4.3 Decoupling for Power Circuits and Drives

Figure 8 summarizes the various techniques to decouple a power system or

electric drive. Long transmission lines (where the transport delay is larger than the
simulation time step) are the best way to decouple a power system into small parts;
however this technique relates more to power systems than drives.
More common in drives and converters, DC links are also an excellent choice to
decouple a drive with a delay between fractioned parts. Stublines are also a good
choice when substituted for large inductor or transformer leakage inductance. As
stublines are an approximation of the real circuit, this decoupling method should be
validated when used.
SSN is also an excellent choice to parallelise the calculation of a grid or
drive. In this case, the parallelisation is made during the calculation itself, similar
to computing a ‘parallel for’ loop in MATLAB. For example, SSN introduces
neither approximation nor delays into the calculation of the equations, but the
parallelisation effectiveness is less than full task decoupling created by DC link
delays and stublines.
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation of High-Power Modular Converters and Drives 27

Fig. 8 Comparison of accuracy vs. effectiveness of common decoupling techniques

4.4 CPU vs. FPGA Modelling

FPGA chips can be powerful enough to compute drive equations in HIL simulators.
Special advantages of FGPA include:
• Smaller time steps, which are typically under 1 μs.
• Lower input–output latency in HIL systems (considering that I/Os and models
are together on the FPGA).
• A natural way to sample high-frequency PWM drives.
Recent advances in the field of electric circuit simulation on FPGA [11, 12]
now enable the simulation of variable topology, variable parameter circuits, all
without the need for bitstream generation, which until recently has been a powerful
disincentive in FPGA technology since it can take hours to place and route (the
equivalent of compiling with a CPU). Today, FPGAs are still considered as a
specialist’s domain with several limitations, in particular the coding of complex
and flexible algorithms such as SSN. This is the main reason that CPU-based HIL
simulation is still preferred today.
The best approach here is to use both technologies in a pragmatic approach:
unless very low-latency (<5 μs) or PWM components are absolutely required in the
simulation (e.g., resonant converters), CPUs are preferable. When the model is run
on a CPU, there is a typical two-time step latency involved, caused by data transfer
to and from I/Os at each time step.
The case of the MMC is particularly interesting in its pragmatism: the MMC
topology is indeed better suited to FPGA simulation because of its extremely
high modularity and number of devices. FPGA makes it possible to simulate this
topology efficiently, using pipelining methods. It also allows for direct connectivity
of thousands of I/O points. The more complex model parts of the complete MMC
system, such as iterative surge arresters, are then computed on the simulator’s CPU
using the SSN solver.
28 C. Dufour et al.

4.5 The Case for CPU-Based High-PWM-Frequency Drives

It is worth noting that high PWM frequency is NOT always a good reason to run
a model on FPGA. With the time-stamping techniques described in this paper,
accuracy is excellent even at large simulation time steps. Even when the sampling
frequency is close to the PWM frequency, this technique still provides good
accuracy by filtering out the PWM component in the simulation. It happens that
most converters are designed so that PWM components are filtered out (with some
exceptions such as resonant converters); therefore this PWM filtering effect often
has no impact on tests. Also, the time-stamping method has an obvious advantage
over average models: in HIL mode, power electronic devices can be directly driven
by the controller firing pulses.
In this paper, we have shown a good example using a 3-level T-type inverter in
which the model sampling frequency was only 3.33 times higher than the PWM
frequency where accuracy remains high. PWM modulation is simply a way to
convert DC to AC and the PWM component is not normally tested (again, there
are exceptions, such as resonant converters). So, for control testing purposes, it is
often acceptable to have this PWM component damped.
The inverter used in the models of this paper are of a novel generation
(called TSB-RD), a kind of hybrid between interpolated switching-functions, for
the active mode (similar to older generation of TSB) and binary switches (in
SimPowerSystems, these are 2-state switches with very low resistance if ON or
very high resistance if OFF) for the natural rectification modes. It is worth noting
that older generations of TSB, in which the rectifying modes were simulated using
current-nulling feedback loops, can still be used because they are sometimes more
computationally efficient than using TSB-RD with SSN. That was actually the case
in the Multi-level Motor Drive with Low Input Harmonic (Sect. 3.2).

5 Conclusions

This paper discussed the different modelling techniques used to simulate several
large motor drives and converters. All these topologies have been successfully
commissioned at industrial client sites.
Here the motto of HIL simulation is ‘Make it work!’, and this motto is
additionally the reason for providing all these various models, options, decoupling
techniques and solvers in ARTEMiS: to meet all the demanding client objectives.

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multi-terminal MMC HVDC links using hardware-in-the-loop simulation, in IECON 2014 -
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ference on Compatibility, Power Electronics and Power Engineering (IEEE CPE-POWERENG
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a PC cluster, in 10th European Conference on Power Electronics EPE, Sep 2003
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simulation of a complete PMSM drive at 10 μs time step, in Proceedings of the 2005
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Concept and Implementation of a Rotor
Position Detection Method for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Machines Based
on Linear Halls

Yuchen Wang, Kai Liu, Wei Hua, Xiaofeng Zhu, and Baoan Wang

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to propose and implement a novel rotor
position detection method for permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs)
based on linear Halls, which are embedded inside of stator of PMSMs. A three-
phase 9-slots/8-poles PMSM is exampled to verify the method. Firstly, a special
point located in stator yoke (back-iron) is found by two-dimensional finite element
analysis (2D-FEA), where the open-circuit flux-density due to permanent magnets
versus rotor position (BPM ) shows a high amplitude and good linearity, while the
armature-reaction flux-density (Barmature ) due to armature currents exhibits a low
amplitude and good linearity versus armature currents. Then, an analytical model
is built and the analytical relationship between armature currents and the Barmature
is derived. Based on the analytical mode, BPM can be obtained by separating the
Barmature from the synthetic magnetic field (BSynthetic ). Thereafter, the resultant BPM
can be used to detect the rotor position information with differential-type piecewise-
linear analytical method. The feasibility of the proposed detection method is verified
by co-simulations and experiments. The simulation results show that the novel
linear Hall-based angle sensor can achieve the accuracy equivalent to 3000-line. The
experimental results indicate that compared with an encoder, the maximum error of
electric angle position at different speeds is less than 0.3%.

1 Introduction

Owing to the requirements of high-power density, high-power efficiency, large out-

put torque, and relatively simple control, permanent magnet synchronous machines
(PMSMs) have been widely used [1, 2], where accurate rotor position detection is
essential for stable and reliable operation [3]. However, in some special occasions,
it is difficult to mount rotary rotor sensors, e.g., encoder, directly to the shafts of

Y. Wang · K. Liu · W. Hua () · X. Zhu · B. Wang

EE—Southeast University, Nanjing, China
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 31

W. Zamboni, G. Petrone (eds.), ELECTRIMACS 2019, Lecture Notes
in Electrical Engineering 604, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37161-6_3
32 Y. Wang et al.

PMSMs. In addition, for ultra-precision position control, a sensor-less algorithm is

unsuitable [4]. Compared with encoder and resolver, which are expensive and have
complex coupling structure, linear Hall-based magnetic encoder can be embedded
in stator and free of oil, moisture, dust, obstacle, vibration, and shock.
A linear Hall magnetic encoder-based rotor position detection scheme is to
extend the rotor shaft and install a magnetized magnetic ring with sinusoidal field
distribution [5, 6], which inevitably take up extra volume. Another type of linear
Hall magnetic encoder [7–9] detects the magnetic leakage field of rotor-PMs at the
end of the shaft, utilizing two linear Halls orthogonal embedded in stator slot or
on a PCB located in the end-face of housing directly. However, the leakage field of
rotor-PMs is relatively low, leading to a weak output of linear Halls and reduction
of the position detection accuracy. Meanwhile, the temperature variation cannot be
compensated when only two orthogonally embedded linear Halls are employed,
unless two additional linear Halls are symmetrically installed to obtain the opposite
signals versus the initial signals from two former linear Halls. Additional installation
causes extra cost and the inaccurate installation results in unnecessary phase-shift
error. In [10], three 120◦ -symmetric-distribution linear Halls are embedded in slots,
but an extended Kalman Filter is used to eliminate the impact from temperature
variation, which weakens the dynamic response due to a large amount of calculation.
In general, none of the above methods consider the effect of armature current.
Hence, to resolve the contradictions above, a novel magnetic encoder with a
linear Hall embedded in stator yoke is proposed in this paper, taking the influence
of armature reaction into account.

2 The Principle of Angle Solving System

2.1 Selection of Magnetic Field Detection Points

Ideally, the magnetic field detected by the linear Hall should be in the form of an
analytical expression versus rotor position, which can enhance the accuracy of angle
decoding. Firstly, two-dimensional finite element analysis (2D-FEA) is carried out
by Ansoft Maxwell to find suitable mounting locations for the linear Hall.
From the perspective of magnetic field amplitude, the amplitude of the BPM
should be as large as possible, while the amplitude of the Barmature should be as
small as possible. From the perspective of solving accuracy, both the BPM versus
rotor position and Barmature versus armature currents should be linear.
A 9-slot/8-pole PMSM is exampled as shown in Fig. 1. Considering the stator is
symmetrical in the circumference, nine special points are selected as magnetic field
detection points within a tooth slot range.
Secondly, produced separately by PMs and armature currents, both the tangential
and radial components of the flux-densities of the nine detection points are analysed.
Among them, the tangential component of the BPM versus rotor position is shown in
Concept and Implementation of a Rotor Position Detection Method for. . . 33

Fig. 1 Distributions of
particular points in a
9-slot/8-pole PMSM

Fig. 2 The tangential P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

component of the BPM versus B(T)
P6 P7 P8 P9
rotor position 3

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
-1

-2

-3
Angle(°)

Table 1 Comparison of flux-densities at points P1–P9

Magnetic field source Amplitude of magnetic field Waveform of magnetic field
PM Large (567/126) Linear (7/12)
Armature-reaction Small (1234/356) Sinusoidal (137/12789)
Note: In the brackets, the numbers 1–9 represent points P1–P9, radial components/tangential
components

Fig. 2. The simulation results are shown in Table 1. In summary, point 2 is selected
as the magnetic detection point due to its high linearity for both BPM and Barmature .
For convenience, ‘point D’ represents ‘point 2’ in the following.
Moreover, considering the geometrical periodic of the 9-slot/8-pole PMSM, there
are other eight ‘point Ds’ on the stator, i.e., totally nine ‘point Ds’ with the detailed
locations listed in Table 2. Moreover, the nine ‘point Ds’ are divided into three
groups, e.g., D1 , D4 , and D7 for Group 1. The three Barmature versus time waveforms
in same group are distributed symmetrically by 120◦ in electrical degrees, and the
34 Y. Wang et al.

Table 2 The locations of Group D Locations

points D1 –D9
1 D1 (43.8, 180◦ , 0)
D4 (43.8, 60◦ , 0)
D7 (43.8, −60◦ , 0)
2 D2 (43.8, 140◦ , 0)
D5 (43.8, 20◦ , 0)
D8 (43.8, −100◦ , 0)
3 D3 (43.8, 100◦ , 0)
D6 (43.8, −20◦ , 0)
D9 (43.8, −140◦ , 0)
Note: The radial distance from
detection point to the axis is
43.8 mm

waveforms at D1 , D2 , and D3 are sequentially different by 15◦ in phase. Hence, D1 ,

D4 , and D7 are chosen as a group of signal detection points in the following process.

2.2 Mathematical Model of Armature-Reaction Field

The waveform of Barmature versus time of point D is essentially sinusoidal with

a small amount of harmonics and the same frequency as the armature current.
According to the nature of the trigonometric function, the Barmature can be linearly
combined by two phase armature currents.
The three-phase armature currents are as follows:
⎧
⎪
⎪ Ia = Im cos θ √ 
⎪
⎨  ◦
Ib = Im cos θ − 120 = Im 23 sin θ − 12 cos θ (1)
⎪
⎪    √ 
⎪
⎩ Ic = Im cos θ + 120◦ = Im − 3 sin θ − 1 cos θ
2 2

where Ia , Ib , and Ic are three-phase armature currents; Im is the amplitude of

armature currents; θ = ωt; ω is the electrical angular velocity (rad/s).
Set the tangential Barmature of point D as:

BT = Bm sin (θ + ϕ)
= Bm (sin
 θ cos ϕ + cos θ sin ϕ)  (2)
= Bm I√b −Ic cos ϕ − IbI+Ic
sin ϕ
3Im m
= EI b + F I c + G
 ◦  ◦
where, E = − √2Bm sin ϕ − 30 , F = − √2Bm sin ϕ + 30 , and G represents the
3Im 3Im
error term.
Concept and Implementation of a Rotor Position Detection Method for. . . 35

Fig. 3 Analytical result and B(T) Analycal Real

actual FEA-predicted value of 0.6
Barmature
0.3

0
0 10 20 30 40
-0.3

-0.6
Time(ms)

The Barmature with armature currents of point D1 can be fit by using the curve
fitting toolbox in Matlab and the following result is obtained:

BT = 0.004981Ib − 0.004981Ic − 2.7 × 10−5 (3)

The comparison between the analytical result and FEA-predicted value of

Barmature is shown as Fig. 3, showing that the Barmature can be expressed linearly
by the armature currents within 1.2% error.

2.3 Angle Solving Algorithm

Assuming that a series of sinusoidal signals have been obtained by separating

the Barmature from BSynthetic , a reasonable signal processing algorithm should be
selected to generate the rotor position from these signals. The commonly used signal
processing algorithms are based on (1) Arc tangent, (2) Look-up table, (3) Linear
analytical, and (4) Adaptive notch filter (ANF) and phase-locked loop (PLL).
Algorithm 1 is simple to execute, but it requires a long operation time and cannot
meet the requirements of dynamic response [3, 6, 7]. Algorithm 2 greatly simplifies
the calculation; however, the sine function has a low resolution accuracy in the
portion with a small slope, which seriously reduces the resolution accuracy [11].
Meanwhile, a large amount of index data for high accuracy will reduce dynamic
response and lead to over-fitting. Algorithm 3 makes use of the linear segment at
the zero crossing of a sine wave to estimate the rotor position [12]. Algorithm 4
requires additional filters, which decreases the dynamic response [9].
This paper proposes a novel differential-type piecewise-linear analytical method.
After subjected to approximate differential process, the processed signal is divided
into several quadrants. In each quadrant, one of the signal with the highest linearity
is used to solve the rotor position and the linear analytical expressions are obtained
by least squares.
For the three symmetrical signals distributed by 120◦ , the same DC offset ΔU is
generated due to the environment, Um is the amplitude of the waveform and UOQ is
the static output voltage from linear Hall, then:
36 Y. Wang et al.

⎧
⎨ Ua = Um sin (θ
 )
+ UOQ + ΔU
◦
U = Um sin θ − 120 + UOQ + ΔU (4)
⎩ b  ◦
Uc = Um sin θ + 120 + UOQ + ΔU

⎧ √  ◦
⎨ Uab = Ua − Ub = √3Um sin θ + 30 
◦
U = Ub − Uc =√ 3Um sin θ − 90 (5)
⎩ bc  ◦
Uca = Uc − Ua = 3Um sin θ + 150

where Ua , Ub , and Uc are signals from three linear Halls located at points D1 , D4 ,
and D7 , as shown in Fig. 4; Uab , Ubc , and Uca are signals after the approximate
differential process, as shown in Fig. 5.
As for Eq. (5), a six-quadrant symmetric partition is performed according to
Fig. 5. In each quadrant region, the signal with highest linearity (marked with red
line) will be utilized by linear analytical solving, which treats the waveform as a line
segment, accelerating the dynamic response.
This novel method eliminates the DC offset without √ adapting addition differ-
ential linear Hall and increases the signal amplitude to 3 times, improving the

Fig. 4 The initial signals Voltage

Ua Ub Uc

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Angle(°)

Fig. 5 The quadrant diagram Voltage Uab Ubc Uca

of processed signals ķ ĸ Ĺ ĺ Ļ ļ

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Angle(°)
Concept and Implementation of a Rotor Position Detection Method for. . . 37

solving accuracy correspondingly. It coordinates the contradiction between dynamic

response, accuracy, and cost.

2.4 Angle Solving System Diagram

The rotor position can be obtained, according to the flow chart (Fig. 6), where two
sets of raw data are needed in angle solving system
1. Three-phase armature currents are obtained by high-precision current sensor
detection.
2. The voltage signals of Hall group are derived from three linear Halls embedded
in the stator.
Then,

Fig. 6 Angle solving system

diagram Start

Three-phase
Voltage signal
armature
from linear Hall
currents

Voltage-magnetic field
conversion
Current-magnetic field
conversion
Synthetic magnetic
field signal

Armature magnetic
Subtraction
field signal

Permanent magnet
magnetic field

Differential piecewise
linear analytic method

Rotor Position

End
Other documents randomly have
different content
preceding side, and, therefore, had it been a star, must have passed
over it, whereas it preserved the same apparent distance all the
while from the edge of the ring. (N.B. Saturn not very far from the
zenith on merid.)
Next night, Friday, May 5, Saturn most gloriously seen: quite as
sharp as any copper-plate engraving, with power 240 and full
aperture. All the five old satellites seen and measured, being now on
the opposite side. Now considerably short of its greatest following
elongation; distance just as before; and, as on Thursday, it was kept
in view long enough for Saturn to have left it behind by its own
motion had it been a star. The change of situation agrees perfectly
with the period 1d 9h, which is also the reason why it was not seen
May 5th, being on that night near its inferior conjunction. So this is
at last a thing made out. As for No. Seven I have no hope of ever
seeing it.

Fig. 2.

If your eyesight will not suffer from it, do write to Bessel. I am

sure he will be interested by this observation, as he is the only
astronomer who troubles himself about the system of Saturn. I shall
myself write to him shortly about it, but should like to have a few
more observations.
So now farewell once more, and, with many kind remembrances
to all Hanoverian friends,
 Believe me, your affectionate nephew,
J. Herschel.

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR JOHN HERSCHEL.

Hanover, June 11, 1837.
* * * * *
... From Mr. Schumacher I receive each paper as it comes from the
press, but always with a feeling of uneasiness, because I am not one
of those who can contribute anything to their valuable
communications, nor even understand all which my defective eyes
allow me to read. But they interest me exceedingly when I think
what you will say. For instance, to a paper of twenty-two quarto
pages, by Bessel, “Über den Einfluss der Unregelmässigkeiten der
Erde, auf geodetische Arbeiten und ihre Vergleichung mit den
astronomischen Bestimmungen.”[50] Perhaps you may have received
these papers before this reaches you, but if any are lost by the way,
I collect them for you; but I fear I shall not see the day of all the
wonders coming to light when you return with your budget....
... I must conclude, for writing at any time makes me sad; and
since I began this letter the notice of the death of our King has
arrived, and the Duke of Cumberland has been this day proclaimed
King of Hanover. It makes me feel as if I was doubly separated from
England, for your King is now no longer my King. And we lose the
Duke of Cambridge, who was ever so kind to me wherever he saw
me. Last winter he introduced me to his brother, then Duke of
Cumberland, who was here on a visit, at the concert, who spoke to
me of you first as my son, but recollected himself that I was only
aunt....
* * * * *
I had illuminated my front rooms with twenty candles (snuffed
them all myself, for Betty was out to see the show) on the evening
of the King’s arrival, and so I shall again next Saturday or Sunday,
when the Queen is expected. More I cannot do!...
... My head becomes crowded with melancholy forebodings of my
not lasting so long as to hear of your safe return to your home and
the friends which I think are only to be found in happy England; so,
instead of tracing my gloomy imaginations on paper, I go to sleep till
Betty rouses me with a cup of coffee.... But all I hear of you is told
in a tone of admiration, &c., &c., and it is felt by me like a drop of oil
supplying my expiring lamp.
1837. Sir John
Herschel’s Return.
J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.
Cape of Good Hope,
Sept. 7, 1837.

My dear Aunt,—
* * * * *
I need hardly say how much we are rejoiced to see your
handwriting once more, though that joy is damped by your
complaints of winter indisposition. And such a winter! by all
accounts. May this prove a better! and may we hope to find you in
no worse health and spirits when we come to see you next summer
in Hanover. For so, if it please God to lead us safe home, according
to our present altered plans, we most assuredly propose to do.
I say our altered plans, for you know our intention was to have
embarked next March for Rio Janeiro, and there to have spent two
or three months, after which to have taken passage in the Brazilian
packet for England, which would have probably detained us till
October, and have rendered a visit to Hanover that season
impracticable. But by striking off this Brazilian trip, and taking our
course directly homewards, so much time will be saved, and all the
rest of our domestic arrangements become so much simplified that it
seems like finding a treasure, as a fund of time will thereby be
placed at our disposal, the first fruits of which, as in all love and duty
bound, we have determined to devote to you; or rather, I should say,
that, when in talking over with Margaret all the pro’s and con’s of the
question, whether to return home direct, or viâ Brazil?—this
consideration at once decided it in favour of the direct course, her
desire to see you outweighing every consideration of amusement or
temporary gratification which a visit to Rio could offer. So now be
sure, dear aunty, and keep yourself well, and let us find you in your
best looks and spirits; and, although what you say respecting our
good Mrs. Beckedorff’s health is somewhat deplorable, yet I will
indulge the hope that she too will perform a part in the dramatis
personæ of that happy meeting. Meanwhile, as the time of our
departure hence approaches, we shall take care and apprise you of
all our movements, respecting which it is impossible at present to
speak more precisely.

FROM H.R.H. THE DUKE OF CAMBRIDGE.

Cambridge House, May 18, 1838.
My dear Madam,—
Having just been informed by the newspapers that your nephew is
safely landed in this country, I hasten to write you a few lines by this
night’s mail to congratulate you most sincerely on this event, which I
know will give you pleasure.
I am unable to send you any further details about him or his
family, as I am not aware if he is arrived as yet in town, and should
this not be the case, my letter will perhaps be the first to give you
this welcome news, which I shall certainly be delighted at.
I trust you continue enjoying your health; and with best wishes,
&c., &c.,
Yours most sincerely,
Adolphus.

1838. Return of Sir

John Herschel.
SIR JOHN HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.
 London, May 20, 1838.
Here we are, my dear aunt, at last, safely landed and housed, all
in good health and, as you may suppose, in good spirits at our
return. We ourselves and our six little ones were very comfortable
during our nine weeks’ voyage in the good ship Windsor, which is
lying snug and sound in the river at Blackwall, with all our things on
board, telescopes and all (as well as the astronomical results of our
expedition). We left our ship, however, at the entrance of the
Channel, and got to London in a steamer under the flag of King
Leopold, of Belgium, which, having been to Glasgow to take in her
machinery, was returning without passengers, not yet being fitted up
for their reception. This was a most opportune and unexpected piece
of good fortune, as I assure you we found most sensibly, by the
non-arrival of the ship till this morning, having been four days longer
at sea, beating about against contrary winds. I have more particulars
to tell than would fill this paper, which I must reserve till our
meeting, which will not now be longer delayed than is indispensable
for getting our baggage on shore, and passing it through the Custom
House, and transporting it by a barge to Windsor, and so to Slough.
I hope and trust to find you as well in health as your two letters to
John Stewart and Mary Baldwin allow us to suppose....

The visit promised in the foregoing letter was paid

in July, when Sir John Herschel, accompanied by his
little son, spent a few days with his aunt, whose
intense anxiety as to the proper treatment of her
little grand-nephew—his sleep, his food, his
playthings—kept her in a constant state of alarm on
his account. “I,” she writes, “rather suffered him to
hunger than would let him eat anything hurtful;
indeed, I would not let him eat anything at all
without his papa was present.” Great as was the joy
of the dear venerable lady to rest her aged eyes
once more on almost the only living being upon
whom she poured some of that wealth of affection
with which her heart never ceased to overflow, it is
on the disappointments and shortcomings of those
few precious days that she dwells; and, if she could
have felt resentment towards her nephew, it would
have been roused by the abrupt termination of his
visit. Her lamentations are piteous. Solely with the
intention of sparing her feelings, her nephew went
away without letting her know the exact time
beforehand of his departure, and made no formal
leave-taking, when he bade her good-night to return
to his inn. To her infinite dismay and distress, she
found that he and his son had quitted Hanover at
four o’clock on the following morning. It was kindly
intended, but it was a mistake that gave intense
pain. Her introduction to her little grand-nephew is
described as follows by his father:—
1838. Visit from her
Grand-nephew.
... “Now let me tell you how things fell
out. Dr. Groskopff took Willie with him to aunty, but without saying
who he was. Says she, ‘What little boy is that?’ Says he, ‘The son of
a friend of mine. Ask him his name.’ However, Willie would not tell
his name. ‘Where do you come from, little fellow?’ ‘From the Cape of
Good Hope,’ says Willie. ‘What is that he says?’ ‘He says he comes
from the Cape of Good Hope.’ ‘Ay? and who is he? What is his
name?’ ‘His name is Herschel.’ ‘Yes,’ says Willie, ‘William James
Herschel.’ ‘Ach, mein Gott! das ist nicht möglich; ist dieser meines
Neffen’s Sohn?’ And so it all came out, and when I came to her all
was understood, and we sat down and talked as quietly as if we had
parted but yesterday....
“Groskopff, by the way, was recounting a strange feat which, to
give you some notion of the sort of person (par rapport au
physique), she performed, not longer than half a year ago.
Remember it is a person of eighty-eight or eighty-nine of whom we
are speaking. Well! what do you say of such a person being able to
put her foot behind her back and scratch her ear, in imitation of a
dog, with it, in one of her merry moods?”

The “Day-Book,” as already stated, had been

recommenced in the year 1833. The first volume of
the new Day-Book concludes in May, 1837, with
comments on Baily’s account of Flamsteed, and
recollections of days spent at Greenwich in 1799,
when she had seen and wondered at the piles of
manuscripts accumulated there. “Dr. Maskelyne was
not indifferent to the stores of observations of his
predecessor, for he even attempted to make me
undertake the examination of some of Halley’s
scribblings on fragments of waste paper [to see if
they] might not belong to some star or other. But
such things cannot be done in a moment, and the
parcel was restored to its dusty shelf. Poor Dr.
Maskelyne had but one assistant, with a salary of
£70 a-year, whom I once heard lament that all the
planets happened to pass the meridian in the night-
time!”
The entries are chiefly of the numerous visitors
she received, but there are frequent intervals of
several months when illness or disinclination to write
prevented her continuing her Journal regularly. The
English Quarterly and Monthly Reviews and
newspapers, and James’s novels, supplied her with
constant reading, and every allusion to her brother’s
or her nephew’s labours is carefully noted. It is
evident that she still was in the habit of taking ample
notes of any book that interested her, in spite of
complaints of the growing failure of sight, and that,
when tolerably well, no day was considered
altogether satisfactory which was passed in solitude.
It was in May, 1833, that she moved to No. 376,
Braunschweiger Strasse, and here she continued to
dwell for the remainder of her days.

MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.

Hanover, July 30, 1838.
My dearest Niece,—
I hope that when you receive this my dear nephew, with his
precious charge (little William), will be safely restored to your
longing arms, and that he may have found you, with all the little
family, in perfect health. I wish to be assured by a few lines from
your dear hands as soon as possible, for I cannot divest myself of a
fear that the botheration and intrusion of some of the stupid
Hanoverians must have been very inconvenient to him. To which
may be added the change of weather from excessive heat to very
cold and wet, to which at this present moment (as far as I know)
they are still exposed, for I think they must be now in Hamburg....
1838. Sir J.
Herschel at Home
again. SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS
HERSCHEL.
London, Aug. 6, 1838.
My dear Aunt,—
Willie and I arrived in London safe and hearty on Friday night
about eight o’clock, and I am happy to say we found all here quite
well—both mamma and all the little folks, who, as you may easily
imagine, were in great joy, and full of enquiries about you and about
all our adventures in foreign parts. Grandmamma Stewart, and all
her circle also, with exception of poor James S. (who is, however,
much better, and we hope permanently), are well, and join us in
kind enquiries after you. I found here my cousin, Thomas Baldwin,
and his excellent and most amiable wife. Cousin Mary had left us,
and was returned to Anstey.
I found Dr. Olbers well, and have to thank you, in his name, for
the Cape wine, a bottle of which was produced at dinner the day I
dined there. I assure you it was drank in good company, being
associated (not mixed) with Hock of 240 years of age!! Dr. O. is
weak and corpulent, but is otherwise in the full enjoyment of his
mental faculties, and in good spirits.
I could not persuade myself to encounter a regular parting with
you, and, in fact, I found the distance to Bremen so much greater,
on enquiry, than I had fancied it, that it was necessary to leave
Hanover at four a.m., which, of course, prevented all further
meeting. We shall be most anxious to hear from you. M. will write in
a day or two (and so will the children) to thank you for all your kind
remembrances of them, and for the many pretty and valuable things
you have sent; and till then, believe me,
 My dear aunt,
Ever your affectionate nephew,
J. F. W. Herschel.

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL.

Hanover, Aug. 21, 1838.
My dearest Nephew,—
By the arrival of your letter of the 6th I was relieved from my fears
for the safety of you and your dear little fellow-traveller, almost a
week sooner than I had reason to hope.
* * * * *
... I had so longed for a few hours of confidential conversation
with you which would have spared me the unpleasant task of writing
about earthly matters.... My good neighbours came to wish me joy,
and congratulate me on having seen my glorious nephew and his
son (who has left no few admirers behind, I can tell you).
Dr. Mühry has lost a sister, a solitary old maid, like myself, whom
they could not leave till she was buried. But she was in some
respects better off than I, for I found it necessary to order all these
matters myself. Miss Beckedorff and Mde. Knipping will at my death
have to deliver a sealed packet to Dr. Groskopff, my executor, in
which, on his opening in their presence, he will find the means
requisite for discharging all the items specified in an enclosed
memorandum of directions. Such matters I had wished to talk over
with you, thinking it not unnecessary you should know a little about
the way in which I have always managed my affairs. As soon as I
was left to myself, in the year 1788, I kept a book strictly accounting
for my expenses, which was to serve as a voucher of the orderly life
I led. But being frequently under the necessity of assisting one or
other of my, as I thought, poor (but say extravagant) relations, I
began to keep a spare box, by way of showing to what extent I have
thus robbed myself.... I am sorry to trouble you with such details,
but I find myself so unwell at present that I cannot rest till I have
cautioned you not to ask any question about me of any one, for
nobody knows anything about me—my confidence in Mrs.
Beckedorff, even, can only be partial, as we can only see each other
so seldom.
* * * * *
1838. Letter to Lady
Herschel.
MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
Hanover, Sept. 24, 1838.
* * * * *
I see by the postscripts you directed my nephew to add to your
letter that you know exactly what will make his poor old aunt happy;
and I must beg you to make my peace with my dear little William,
for I fear the angry looks I gave him when seeing him climbing too
high on an open window two stories above the pavement, can have
left no favourable impression on his recollection. Unfortunately we
could not converse together: he talked too soft and quick for me (I
do not hear so well as formerly), and my mixture of German and
English was not intelligible to him.... Had the knitting with beads
been known forty years sooner, it would have been one of the
accomplishments with which I came, at the age of twenty-two, into
England in 1772, for there was no kind of ornamental needlework,
knotting, plaiting hair, stringing beads and bugles, &c., of which I did
not make samples by way of mastering the art. But as it was my lot
to be the Cinderella of the family (being the only girl) I could never
find time for improving myself in many things I knew, and which,
after all, proved of no use to me afterwards, except what little I
knew of music, being just able to play the second violin of an
overture or easy quartette, which my father took a pleasure in
teaching me. N.B. When my mother was not at home. Amen. I must
think no more of those times, only just say I came to Bath with a
mind eager to learn and to work, and never changed my mind till I
came here again, but now I can no more.... One thing I must tell my
nephew, which is, that I hope I have found a deserving protector of
my sweeper in Director Hausmann, and I hope either himself or his
son will find us a few comets with it yet. He is a constant visitor of
mine.

SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.

Slough, Nov. 26, 1838.
My dear Aunt,—
I have received a letter from Sir Wm. Hamilton, Astronomer Royal,
Dublin, informing me that the Royal Irish Academy have elected you
an honorary member of that body. The diploma is by this time on its
way to my care, and I will, so soon as I receive it, take the very first
secure opportunity of transmitting it to you.
Yesterday I received your most welcome letter and Mr.
Boguslawski’s in one. I wrote to him some time ago relative to
Halley’s comet. He seems a very diligent observer, and I am glad you
have seen him.
Your letter of September 24th, with its numerous dates, was like a
little diary, and almost made us fancy ourselves with you in
Hanover....
I am sorry to see, on looking at my banker’s account, that you
have not (as you promised to do) drawn on Cohen for the £50 of
this half year. Pray do, and that soon, or I shall be sadly
disappointed.
We have got a most excellent president for the Royal Society in
the Marquis of Northampton. He presided at the anniversary dinner
on the 30th, and did the honours with great credit.
A Copley Medal was awarded to Gauss for his researches,
theoretical and practical, on the subject of terrestrial magnetism.
1838. Elected Hon.
Member of the R. A.
I. S. MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR J. F. W.
HERSCHEL.
 Hanover, Dec. 17, 1838.
My dear Nephew,—
First and foremost let me dispatch what may be called business.
In the first place, I thank you for your kind letter and communication
of having so great an honour conferred on me as to be admitted an
honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy. I cannot help crying
out aloud to myself, every now and then, What is THAT for? Next I
must beg you to return my thanks in what words you think proper I
should express them, and if you will only send me a copy of the
diploma, and keep the original along with my other trophies,
allowing them perhaps a corner in some such box as that your dear
mother had for suchlike things, for I have no other desire but to be
remembered by you and Lady H., and your children, for yet
awhile....
... It is a long while since you asked me if I wanted any of my
Indexes to Flamsteed’s Catalogue of omitted stars. If there should
yet be any left, I could wish to have one or two; for you hinted to
me I might leave Baily’s work to the “Archives” here, which I intend
to do, and then I should like to give an Index along with it.
* * * * *

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR JOHN HERSCHEL.

Hanover, Jan. 7, 1839.
I see, to my sorrow, that my letter was not come to hand at the
time when you directed the parcel with the diploma, which was sent
me on the 2nd of January, accompanied by a note from the
President, which I beg you will answer for me, and for that purpose
transcribe here the same:—
Observatory, Dublin,
Dec. 4, 1838.

“Madam,—
 “In transmitting to you the accompanying Diploma from the Royal
Irish Academy, I wish to be allowed to add, as I thus do, the
expression of my own high sense of your services to Astronomy, and
of the eminent degree in which you have deserved the present
testimonial.
“I have the honour to be, Madam, &c., &c.,
“William Rowan Hamilton,
“P.R.I.A.”

1839. Life in
Hanover.
MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR JOHN HERSCHEL.
Hanover, Dec. 1, 1839.
Dear Nephew,—
Do not you think I have been very good to let the most dismal
month in the year pass without troubling you for accounts of the
progress my dear niece is making in her recovery?
My dear niece said once, I should write often, and in few lines
inform her how I go on, so I must say—I get up as usual every day,
change my clothing, eat, drink, and go to sleep again on the sofa,
except I am roused by visitors; then I talk till I can no more—
nineteen to the dozen! N.B. I don’t tell fibs, though they may not
always like what I say.
I have been twice at the concert, and each time been honoured
with a wie gehts?[51] by His Majesty, and the notice of many
acquaintances whom I have no opportunity of seeing elsewhere, the
public concerts being the only place where I can go with the least
trouble to myself or others. You say when I talk of the Gelehrten
then all goes well, but I know nothing about them....
But one piece of news I must tell you, which is, that a fortnight
after Dr. Mädler had been the conductor of Mde. Witte (the Moon)
and her daughter to the meeting at Pyrmont, I received two cards,
the one, “Professor Dr. Mädler,” under it, “Minna Witte-Verlobt.[52]”
The reason Madame Witte gives for this hasty courtship is, that it is
Dr. M.’s first love, and that he would not wait, so the lady said yes!
As you have seen this lady, I would give you this piece of news.
* * * * *
I beg you will give a true account of my dear niece’s and the
children’s health, not forgetting the babe and how she will be
named, that I may enter the same in my biographical account.
I remain, my dear nephew,
Your most affectionate aunt,
Car. Herschel.

The second Day-Book concludes in July, 1839, and

is in all respects like the preceding one, but contains
here and there touches and sentiments of which her
own words can only do justice.

Aug. 3rd.—I went to buy some clothing for wearing at home, and
went to my mantua-maker to give directions. I had to climb up to
the third story, and I was of course quite knocked up when I came
home, but it is my intention to continue to take some exercise as
long as the weather and the length of the afternoon will permit.
1839-1840. Her Aug. 26th.—My niece Knipping came in
Day-Book. the afternoon to assist me in some
needlework—we did not do much!
Sept. 25th.—To-day I was made happy by a visit of Alexander
Humboldt; which, though it was extended to the utmost limit of the
time which this interesting man could spare me, was too short for all
I wished to hear and had to say, which, as the theme of our
conversation was my nephew, may be easily imagined.
Oct. 5th & 6th.—Mr. Hohenbaum and the carpenter were with me
to pack up the seven-foot telescope. I assisted as well as I could,
being very ill all the while.
Oct. 7th.—Dr. G. called for a moment, but nobody else!
Dec. 10th.—I went in the evening to the concert, where I exposed
myself most sadly by falling a-crying when the King most kindly
came to me to inquire after my health. I do not think I shall have
the courage to show myself there again in a hurry.
Jan. 27th.—This is the first day since the 30th December that the
ice is detached from my sitting-room window.
Jan. 31st.—Mr. Hausmann brought me some Journals, and talked
for an hour of old times with me, as he ever does, good man!
Feb. 7th.—A letter from my niece came this morning by the
Hamburger post, which will make me happy for some time, and
make me bear my painful solitude more patiently.
March 17th.—Thank God the 7th and 16th March are got over, and
I begin to recollect that I have much else to do than bewail myself at
being obliged to spend such days severed from all that are, or were,
so dear!... I found my poor friend [Mrs. Beckedorff] very much
altered, but before I left her I thought she looked a twelvemonth
younger for our two hours’ chat. But we both were obliged to part,
for we could no more. Yesterday she sent me some fine flowers, as
usual on my birthday. Dr. Mühry left a card; two of my nieces called,
and Hofräthin Ubelode brought me some flowers. They left me
fatigued to death, to spend the long evening in solitude.
June 18th.—Yesterday Mr. Hausmann came to see me, and
brought the Philosophical Magazine for June, in which I had the
pleasure to see that Dr. Lamont has observed three of the Georgium
Sidus satellites.
July 3rd.—Dr. G. brought me an extract from The Sun that my
nephew has been created a baronet on the occasion of the
coronation.
July 9th.—My nephew arrived in Hanover in the evening.
July 10th.—In the afternoon I saw him and my little grand-nephew
for a few hours.
 July 25th.—My nephew and his son took tea with me, and we
soon parted, without taking leave, and next morning I am told they
left Hanover at four in the morning. More I cannot say!
Oct. 24th.—Mr. Hausmann came in the forenoon and took the box
with the mirror of my sweeper with him, and in the evening he came
to receive the stand. I am glad my poor sweeper is now in good
hands!
Oct. 29th.—Mrs. Knipping spent an hour with me in the dusk of
the evening, and read an act of a play.
Dec. 30th.—In the afternoon Fraulein S. came to see me, but she
is deaf. I talked with her for a couple of hours without either of us
being the wiser.
Jan. 5th.—Went in the evening to the concert; had some talk with
the Levies, who delighted the company with their performance,
especially the youngest son, eight years of age, who gave several
pieces on the French horn. Conversed with several persons besides
the Prince Solms.
Jan. 20th.—I have been to the concert last night to hear the
wonderful violinist, Ole Bull. It was very crowded for the confined
room, though the largest in Hanover next the play-house. By the
help of Miss B. and the M.’s I got safely through the crowd to my
chair. But I was somewhat disappointed, for, by the report of those
who had heard Ole Bull before, I expected to hear a virtuoso on the
violin who would have given us an idea of the manner of
performance of a Jordine, Kramer, Jacob Herschel, and Dietrich too;
but it is more like conjuration than playing on a violin.
Feb. 12th.—Dr. Lissing paid me a visit. He wished me to subscribe
to a work on Magnetism, but I think it would look only like
affectation to let my name appear among the learned subscribers on
a subject of which I know so little.
March 16th.—Mrs. Beckedorff sent me two beautiful flowers,
accompanied by her good wishes, which she never forgets to do on
my birthday. Mde. Knipping, and others, came to wish me to live
many more years,—but what can I say?
 March 23rd.—I was at the last subscription concert. His Majesty
was there, and asked me how I did? I said, tolerably! This was all
our conversation.
July 16th.—The whole of yesterday I had no other prospect but
that it would have been the last of the days of sorrow, trouble, and
disappointment I have spent from the moment I had any recollection
of my existence, which is from between my third and fourth year....
In the night I fell out of one fainting fit into another, and when I
came to my recollection, between six and seven in the morning, I
found Dr. G. sitting before me talking loud in his usual nonsensical
way. Him had Betty called in her fright, for his wife (who is of use to
nobody) is gone to spend the summer months in the country. Mde.
Knipping also is away.
1839. End of Day- July 25th.—Mr. Hausmann, junior, and Mr.
Book. Hohenbaum called to look at the
photographical drawing. I am told it is the only specimen of the kind
in Hanover.
This Day-book, No. 2, is now full, and I shall not be easy till it is
deposited in a portfolio, in which will also be found the Mem.-book
9.... It often enables me to contradict erroneous impertinent notions
concerning my brother William’s disinterested character.
I am now not able even to look over, much less to correct, what I
have scribbled, but it must go as it is. Perhaps my dear niece may
look into them at some leisure moment, and she will see what a
solitary and useless life I have led these seventeen years, all owing
to not finding Hanover, nor anyone in it, like what I left, when the
best of brothers took me with him to England in August, 1772!

SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.

Slough, Oct. 23, 1839.
Dear Aunt,—
... Now let me reply to your two letters of August 26 and October
10, the last of which, being so entirety in your old style, made us
very happy. I now go so little to London, and then only on the
business of the Royal Society respecting this magnetic expedition,
that it has not yet been practicable for me to call on Dr. Küper,
whom I well remember, however, at Cumberland Lodge, and since.
As to sending either of our boys to Germany, it is time enough, as
W. is yet only six years old, and I assure you he is now learning
German very fast.
M. desires me to tell you, in answer to your question whether she
preserves your letters, that she does so, most carefully. She is sorry
she omitted saying so in her last in which she replied to everything
else. So do I, you may be sure.
The Fables arrived safe, and W. must thank you for them himself,
as well as for your care of him in Hanover.
I had the honour to meet at dinner, at Sir Gore Ouseley’s, the
other day, H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge. He was very particular in
his enquiries after you. He is quite well, and his affable and
agreeable manners make him generally beloved.
Your letter of October 10th relieved us of much uneasiness, after
the alarming account with which the former one was filled. When
you once more begin to write about die Gelehrten, &c., I know all is
well. So God bless you, and believe me,
Dear Aunt, your affectionate nephew,
J. F. W. Herschel.

1840. Anecdote of
the Old Telescope.
MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
Jan. 10, 1840.
My dearest Niece,—
* * * * *
Perhaps you may have heard that in the early part of its [the forty-
foot telescope’s] existence, “God save the King” was sung in it by
the whole company, who got up from dinner and went into the tube,
among the rest two Misses Stows, the one a famous pianoforte
player, some of the Griesbachs, who accompanied on the oboe, or
any instrument they could get hold of, and I, you will easily imagine,
was one of the nimblest and foremost to get in and out of the tube.
But now!—lack-a-day!—I can hardly cross the room without help.
But what of that? Dorcas, in the Beggar’s Opera, says, “One cannot
eat one’s cake and have it too!”... I will only thank you once more for
your charming letter, and beg to be kindly remembered to all who
are dear to you, and to give an embrace extraordinary to the dear
little ones around you, and not forgetting to include my dear nephew
in the general hug! and believe me,
My dearest niece,
Yours and his most affectionate aunt,
Car. Herschel.

P.S.—One anecdote of the old tube (if you have not heard it) I
must give you. Before the optical parts were finished, many visitors
had the curiosity to walk through it, among the rest King George III.,
and the Archbishop of Canterbury, following the King, and finding it
difficult to proceed, the King turned to give him the hand, saying,
“Come, my Lord Bishop, I will show you the way to Heaven!”
This was in the year 1787, August 17th, when the King and
Queen, the Duke of York and some of the Princesses were of the
company.
I hope the book where the visitors were noted, has been
preserved? Some time after it was kept by other hands; but before I
parted with it, I copied some pages which put me sometimes in
mind of persons who were interesting to me.
These scribblings will come to you among the rest of my scraps.
Good-bye!

MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.

Hanover, Jan. 10, 1840.
My dearest Niece,—
 * * * * *
... For the last month past I have been so much disturbed and
fatigued by visitors who came to wish me a happy New-year, &c., for
I have of late gained the acquaintance of half a dozen ladies, added
to two who were in the habit of visiting me between the hours of
twelve at noon and six or seven in the evening; (for the first two or
three hours, after having passed a sleepless night, I am obliged to
spend in the manner as perhaps you may have seen Lord Ogleby did
in The Clandestine Marriage).
But now, from seven to eight till between eleven and twelve, I am
left to amuse myself as well as I may, but it is no easy task to turn
books into companions by one who has no eyes left; but there is no
help for it. There is neither man, woman, nor child in Hanover to be
found but they must spend the evening at balls, plays, routs, clubs,
&c., and not a month goes over one’s head without a jubilee being
celebrated at enormous expense to someone who has fifty years
enjoyed title and salaries for doing his duty (anyhow, perhaps).
But what a contrast between a jubilee auf der Börse[53] at Hanover
and the one at Slough,[54] described in your letter with which I was
made happy January 4th. The company so select—for I figure to
myself none but angels from above were listening to, and joining
their kindred in the chorus below!... Before I take leave of this
jubilee I must beg the excellent poet of the song to accept my
hearty thanks for remembering me so kindly in verse 4, and for not
letting the poor forty-foot telescope[55] depart in silence.
1840. Misfortunes
of Friends.
MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
April 5, 1840.
My dearest Niece!—
Your delightful letter of March 8th, which I received about a week
after that of my dear nephew, could never have come at a more
needful time for chasing away the melancholy impressions my
friends’ losses and misfortunes have had on my spirits. On the 7th of
March Dr. Mühry came to wish me joy on my nephew’s birthday.
Nine days after, when they all used to come and bring me flowers,
&c., the whole family were thrown into despair by the death of Dr. C.
M., who died by his own hands (thirty-four years old). About a week
before I had spent an evening with him at his grandmother’s, when
he begged me to thank my nephew once more for giving him a
letter of introduction to Dr. ——, at Oxford. This poor man was
spoiled by being made too much of from his infancy. As a boy of
seven or eight, he was brought to England to visit his grandmother
and aunt, and was loaded with costly presents by the Princesses,
and fed with nothing but dainties, till, when grown up, nothing but
what was most extravagant would satisfy him. The 30th of March
our friend P—— was buried, eighty-three years old. On my birthday
a circular letter came by post, announcing Dr. Olbers’s death. So, I
must say once more, my nephew’s and your dear letter came very
seasonably to turn my thoughts to something more cheering....
Now I am in two minds whether I shall turn to my dear niece or
have done with you first. But out with it! I would, if you have no
objection, draw on Mr. Drummond for £52,
* * * * *
and if I should (as it seems) live to the age of Methuselah, come
again for the same sum after the 10th of October next. For this is
quite enough for me to live with credit, and more would only be a
trouble to me.
I am tired, and can write no more just now, but for our
amusement I will, some time or other, give you the history of the
few days you were in Hanover, in July, 1838. For all that past was
like Sheridan’s Chapter of Accidents. If I could only have had a few
hours of private conversation with you then, much trouble would
since have been spared me.
I hope to have soon some account of how your new situation
agrees both with papa, mamma, and the little bodies. How many
English miles is it from London?
 ... My sweeper, which I should have been so happy to put in the
hands of my little grand-nephew, and teach him to catch comets till
he could do something better (O! why did I leave England!) is now
in the hands of the good, honest creature, Director Hausmann, and
the seven-foot telescope is also saved from being sold for an old
song....

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL, BART.

July 6, 1840.
* * * * *
But at another time, when perhaps I may find myself a little
better, I will amuse my dear niece with introducing some of my
acquaintances to her notice. Some of the family of General Halkett,
[56]
at least, she will not be displeased at knowing personally. Last
night the sister of the general, Mrs. W. Clarke,[57] a widow, sat an
hour with me, and said she would next summer visit her late
husband’s relations in England, and then she would not fail of seeing
you. You must love her for my sake, for she really takes some pains
to give me pleasure, bringing me flowers, taking me an airing in her
fine English equipage, &c. I must not forget the general’s lady, a
second wife, of course a stepmother of my young friend. She is
Scotch (a Graham), and brought me little Christmas pies in her
reticule on New-year’s Day, of the young lady’s making—the only
good kind I have tasted in Hanover, and they were as good as my
nephew’s mamma ever made.
1840. Her Seven-
foot Telescope.
MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
August 3, 1840.
My dearest Niece,—
... But first and foremost, I must beg you will give my best thanks
to my dear niece Caroline for her very sensible and very clever letter,
and I only wish I may be often favoured by her fair hands with such
favourable accounts of all your health and contentment with your
new situation.
I am not able to write long letters, and must content myself with
saying, in as few words as possible, that if my nephew thought the
seven-foot telescope worth the acceptance of the Royal Astronomical
Society, it is well!... (Mem.—Its only being painted deal was, because
it should look like the one with which the Georgium Sidus was
discovered.)
I have also the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy to thank
you for, twenty pages. I suppose I have nothing to do but to accept
them. But I think almost it is mocking me to look upon me as a
Member of an Academy; I that have lived these eighteen years
(against my will and intention) without finding as much as a single
comet. But no more of these terrible eighteen years just now....
My dear nephew, if I did not feel myself seriously declining very
fast, I would not incommode you at present (when your time must
be so precious) with such letters as my two or three last have been.
But going many nights to bed without the hope of seeing another
day, I think it my duty to guard you against putting any trust or
confidence in ——. He and the whole family have never been of the
least use to me; and for all the good I have lavished on them, they
never came to look after me, but when they had some design upon
me.
In short, I find that all along I have been taken for an idiot, or that
at least I am now reckoned to be in my dotage, and therefore ought
not to be mistress of my own actions. But, thank God, I have yet
sense enough left to caution you against being imposed upon by a
stupid being who would make you believe I died under obligations to
any of the family. I know he has already, without asking my leave,
passed himself off for my guardian, and is vexed at my being able to
do without him. But I could not live without that little business of
keeping my accounts; and by my last book of expenses and receipts
may be seen, that I owe nothing to anybody, but to my dear nephew
many many thanks for fulfilling his father’s wishes, by paying for so
many years the ample annuity he left me.
 SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.
August 10, 1840.
... The telescopes are now, I trust, properly disposed of. Mr.
Hausmann (who will value it) has the sweeper. The five-foot
Newtonian reflector is in the hands of the Royal Astronomical
Society, and will be preserved by it as the little telescope of Newton
is by the Royal Society, long after I and all the little ones are dead
and gone.

SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL TO MISS HERSCHEL.

August 10, 1840.
... Did I ever tell you that I had lately brought together the
observations of four or five years, proving beyond all doubt α Orionis
to be both a variable and a periodical star, and one of the most
remarkable among them? Its period is about a year, and it changes
in that time from a lustre superior on some occasions even to Rigel,
to a degree of brightness nearly on a par with Aldebaran.

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR JOHN HERSCHEL.

Sept. 1, 1840.
... I owe you many thanks for relieving me two whole days sooner
from the anxiety of having been misunderstood by you, and now I
am happy, and all is well! But there are times when I should like to
have some talk with you or my dear niece, to put you in mind of
many past events, but if you will excuse the style and the spelling,
&c., &c., on account of my eyesight being so uncertain, I will at
times try to amuse you with what passed in old times, for my
memory is as good as ever [this is in her ninety-first year]. (N.B.—
Year of the past.) Writing this, puts me in mind that I never could
remember the multiplication table, but was obliged to carry always a
copy of it about me.
1840. Christmas in MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
Hanover.
Dec. 27, 1840.
... There is another circumstance on which account I feel not very
easy, which is that by leaving Slough you are separated from all your
usual friends, &c., doctors and all; but pray keep up your spirits, for
the days are already a cock’s stride longer, and my windows have
now been covered with ice for the last three weeks, which is long
enough in conscience; therefore I hope to see a change every
morning when I can get my eyes open, which is never the case till
near eleven o’clock.
There have been some English gentlemen with Mrs. Beckedorff on
business, who, in conversation, among the rest, were saying that the
keeping Christmas in the German fashion was coming to be very
general in England; but I hope they will never go such lengths in
foolery as they do here. The tradespeople have been for many
weeks in full employ framing and mounting the embroideries of the
ladies and girls of all classes, for there exists not a folly or
extravagancy among the great but it is imitated by the little. The
shops are beautifully lit up by gas, and the last three days before
Christmas all that could be tempting was exhibited in the market
places in booths lighted up in the evening, where all run to gaze and
get a liking to all they see. Cooks and housemaids present one
another with knitted bags and purses, the cobbler’s daughter
embroidered neck-cushions for her friend the butcher’s daughter,
which are made up by the upholsterer at great expense, lined with
white satin, the upper part, on which the back is to rest, is worked
with gold, silver, and pearls.
But I find too much difficulty to write in these short days, else I
could write a book about the nonsense which is going on in this city.
I have for this last month been completely tired out with this
Christmas bustle; but now the balls at the Bourse, given by the
shopmen to the daughters of their masters, will be succeeded by the
masquerades in Lent, an amusement which in the good old times
was only for the nobility, but from which they are now excluded....
1841. Concerning MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR J. F. W.
her Brother. HERSCHEL.
Feb. 24, 1841.
* * * * *
I intended to have made some remarks to you about several
things which are said in those pages which came enclosed in the
letter of February 3rd. I suppose it is not expected to acknowledge
the receipt thereof, but if there is anybody to whom my thanks are
due, I beg you will do it for me, because I am not capable of writing
to strangers. But to you I cannot help pointing out several things
which displease me very much....
I think whoever reads the Preface to the description of the forty-
foot telescope (see “Philosophical Transactions,” June 11, 1795),
would not accuse him of jealousy—which also may be seen by the
four volumes on the construction of Specula, which your father left
behind in MSS., (to which you added those excellent drawings of the
machinery, &c.), which it was my care, for half a dozen years at
least, to save them from being devoured by the mice, by placing
them on a table in the middle of the library, where I was obliged to
leave them when I left Slough, for I could not find a better place for
them.
Your father was latterly most miserably stinted for room, and I
fear many, many things have met with destruction in consequence of
being put by in corners among rubbish when not in use. For
instance, when polishing and the foci were to be tried, by three
apertures, which generally wanted to be repaired first; (for the
twenty-foot they were made of pasteboard, but for the forty-foot of
light deal) and I was directed to hold them before the mirror, and,
listening to the report of the trial, was glad to hear “All right, three
foci perfectly alike!” and the work proceeded to perfect the polish.
Dear nephew, I stick fast, and must give over talking about these
things; it downright fatigues me. But these folks would not have
called the Herschelian construction useless if they had seen the
struggle, during the years from 1781 to ’86, to get a sight of the
Satellites of the Georgium Sidus, when, after throwing aside the
speculum, they stood broad before us.... Pray, does South live still?

MISS HERSCHEL TO SIR J. F. W. HERSCHEL.

March 31, 1841.
* * * * *
Not to send blank paper, I will fill it by copying from my Day-book
the names of the visitors I had to receive on the 16th of March. This
I can do mechanically and by feeling, and it serves to pass away the
time, as I cannot see to read for any length of time.
By way of being ready to see anybody by twelve o’clock, I rose an
hour earlier than usual, but before I was dressed, Mrs. Beckedorff
and Mrs. W. Clarke sent each a beautiful moss-rose and card. Soon
after, Mrs. Clarke and General Halkett came; Generalin Borse and
daughter brought violets; Frau von Both; Ober Medicinal-Rath
Mühry; Miss Beckedorff; Madam Groskopff; Hofräthin Ubelode
brought mignonette; Oberjustiz-Rath von Werloff sent crocuses;
Fraulein von Werloff sent a card and hyacinths; Dr. Groskopff,
Hauptman Buse, Alexis Richter, Major Müller;—all these I saw
between twelve and four o’clock, and several for a good while
together. I talked and complimented myself into a fever, of course
“looked blooming,” and am to live to be a hundred years old. What
stuff! After eating my solitary dinner I tried to get a little sleep, as I
generally do, but before I could compose myself enough, two of
Major Müller’s sisters came and remained two hours with me; after
they left me, Fraulein von Werloff sent her companion, a
Mademoiselle H., and a sister, to keep me company till ten o’clock.
With difficulty, and the help of Betty, I got into bed, but could get no
sleep, nor the whole day after.
1841-1842. Her
Ninety-first
Birthday. MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
Hanover, July 31, 1841.
 My dearest Niece,—
If it was not that I ought to thank you for your kind letter of June
9th, I should perhaps not have now the spirit to take up the pen;
but your letters always, especially the last, contain, besides the
many consoling expressions, such very interesting information, that I
would not for the world risk to lose the monthly sight of your dear
handwriting, by omitting to return at least my grateful thanks for
your kind communications of what the present philosophers are
about.
I think I can form some idea of the author of the book on
philosophy (and godfather of our little Amelia), from what I recollect
to have read some years past in some quarterly publication by a Mr.
Whewell, in defence of Sir Isaac Newton. In short, it met with my
approbation! There is for you! What do you say to that?
I do not wish to write in what my dear brother William used to call
a Dick Doleful style, when our brother Alexander was in the dismals,
and out of which we often succeeded in laughing him. But I cannot
just now turn to anything of a cheering nature, for yesterday, the
30th, our Queen died, and I have been very unwell in consequence
of the violent change in the weather....

The following letter refers to the intended removal

of Sir J. Herschel and his family to Collingwood,
which he had purchased:—

MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.

Hanover, August 2, 1841.
My dearest Niece,—
... I could wish to know something more about the place where
you now are.[58] How many miles is Collingwood from London? How
many from Hastings? Have you any good people or neighbours
about you? I think I read in Watson’s Gazetteer, Hawkhurst to be full
of poor, and, what is worse, of smugglers. Pray take care of the dear
boys and children, that they are not kidnapped in their little rambles
from home.
I can for the present only say so much of myself that my friends
are almost going to kill me with their visits, like, as they say, the cat
did her kitten with kindness. On Sunday I was even honoured with a
visit from the Duchess of Anhalt Dessau and the Princess of
Rudolstadt—the latter a little astronomer—who remained a whole
hour with me. They are both daughters of the late Queen.
1842 Concerning
her Brother.
MISS HERSCHEL TO LADY HERSCHEL.
Hanover, Feb. 3, 1842.
... Your mentioning the Government gift of the Kew Observatory to
the Royal Society, recalls to my mind the struggles through a life of
privations during the lapse of between twenty and thirty years, till
my brother had realised a capital sufficient for living in a respectable
manner by making seven, ten, twenty, and twenty-five-foot
telescopes. For it was in 1782 when Mr. De Mainborg, the King’s
private astronomer (formerly one of his tutors) at Kew, died, and my
brother, in consequence of the discovery of the G. Sidus, was called
from his lucrative employment at Bath. His friends had no other idea
but that he was to succeed Mr. De Mainborg at Kew. But it was
otherwise decreed, for the King was surrounded by some wiseacres
who knew how to bargain, and even £100 were offered if he would
go to Hanover!
But you know by what I once wrote on a former occasion that he
settled at Datchet with £200 per annum, after four months’ travelling
between London, Greenwich, and Windsor, and moving his workshop
and instruments from a house at Bath, of which he had a lease. And
at Michaelmas, 1782, was the first £50 he ever saw of the King’s
money. This happened at the time when Parliament had granted to
the King £80,000 a-year for encouraging sciences. This I only knew
by what I heard at that time, and that Mr. West, R.A., with his giant
Judas, Jervis, who made the altar-piece for St. George’s chapel
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