(Ebook PDF) Basic Electrical Engineering 1st Edition by Bhattacharya 9788131763261 9788131776254 Full Chapters Download
(Ebook PDF) Basic Electrical Engineering 1st Edition by Bhattacharya 9788131763261 9788131776254 Full Chapters Download
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-
engineering-1st-edition-by-
bhattacharya-9788131763261-9788131776254-full-chapters-22926/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-
engineering-1st-edition-by-bhattacharya-978-8131754566-full-
chapters-22928/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-and-
electronics-engineering-1st-edition-by-
bhattacharya-8131767868-9788131767863-full-chapters-22776/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-and-
electronics-engineering-1st-edition-by-
bhattacharya-9332586505aeurz-978-9332586505-full-chapters-22930/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-
engineering-4th-edition-by-wadhwa-9788122429473-full-
chapters-22844/
(Ebook PDF) Basic Electrical Engineering 1st edition by Sahdev
9332542163 978-9332542167 full chapters
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-
engineering-1st-edition-by-sahdev-9332542163-978-9332542167-full-
chapters-22774/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-
engineering-1st-edition-by-mehta-v-k-mehta-
rohit-978-8121908719-full-chapters-22762/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-and-
electronics-engineering-2nd-edition-by-r-k-
rajput-9789381159255-9789381159255-full-chapters-22932/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-transforms-for-
electrical-engineering-1st-edition-by-orhan-a-
zhan-3030988465-9783030988463-full-chapters-22788/
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-basic-electrical-and-
electronics-engineering-1st-edition-by-d-p-
kothari-1259006573-978-1259006579-full-chapters-22830/
Basic Electrical
Engineering
B.Tech. Semester 1
Biju Patnaik University of Technology
S. K. Bhattacharya
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior
written consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the
right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 9788131763261
eISBN 9788131776254
Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
Preface xi
Syllabus xii
Roadmap to the Syllabus xiii
About the Author xiv
7. M
agnetism, Magnetic Circuits, and
Electromechanical Energy Conversion 341
7.1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 341
7.2 Magnetic Field Strength 344
7.3 Magnetization Curve of a Magnetic Material 345
7.4 Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Loss in
Magnetic Materials 346
7.5 Magnetic Circuits 348
7.6 Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits 352
8. Transformers 371
8.1 Introduction 371
8.2 Applications of Transformers 372
8.3 Basic Principle and Constructional Details 373
8.4 Core Type and Shell Type Transformers 377
8.5 Power Transformers and Distribution Transformers 378
8.6 Emf Equation 378
8.7 Transformer on No-load 380
8.8 Transformer on Load 381
8.9 Transformer Circuit Parameters and Equivalent Circuit 382
8.10 Phasor Diagram of a Transformer 386
8.11 Concept of Voltage Regulation 387
8.12 Concept of an Ideal Transformer 388
8.13 Transformer Tests 388
8.14 Efficiency of a Transformer 391
8.15 Condition for maximum efficiency 392
8.16 All-day Efficiency 393
8.17 Calculation of Regulation of a Transformer 393
8.18 Factors Affecting Losses in a Transformer 394
8.19 Auto-transformer 410
Review Questions 411
Objective Type Questions 413
9. DC Machines 417
9.1 Introduction and Principle of Working 417
9.2 Constructional Details 422
9.3 Emf Equation of a DC Machine 425
9.4 Types of DC Machines 426
9.5 Characteristics of DC Generators 428
9.6 Applications of DC Generators 429
9.7 Operation of a DC Machine as a Motor 430
9.8 Speed Control of DC Motors 434
9.9 Types and Characteristics of DC motors 435
Basic Electrical Engineering is one of the core engineering subjects taught to students of all disciplines
of engineering and technology. It is important that the fundamentals of this subject are understood
well by students since these have applications in all disciplines or branches of study. In spite of a
number of books available in this subject, it was felt that there was a need to bring out a book that will
make learning easy, meaningful, and hence enjoyable. Simple language, easy explanation, plenty of
illustrations and worked-out examples, review questions with answers, university question papers are
some of the important aspects of this book. Further, the content of this book has been developed strictly
as per the syllabus of the Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha. This book covers comprehensive
coverage of all topics prescribed by the university.
As the book presents an explanation of the principles and applications of electrical engineering
cas per the prescribed syllabus, it will be a useful companion of all students and teachers alike.
This book is the outcome of my long experience in teaching basic electrical engineering to undergraduate
students. I am thankful to all the students with whom I interacted and learned from each other.
S. K. Bhattacharya
Transient Analysis
Transient analysis, writing differential equations for circuits, DC steady state solutions of circuits,
transient response of second order circuits.
AC Power
Power in AC circuits, complex power, transformers, three-phase power, residential wiring: Grounding
and safety, generation and distribution of AC Power.
Transient Analysis
Transient analysis, writing differential equations for circuits, DC steady state solutions of circuits,
transient response of second order circuits.
AC Power
Power in AC circuits, complex power, transformers, three-phase power, residential wiring: Grounding
and safety, generation and distribution of AC power.
S. K. Bhattacharya is currently the principal of SUS Women Engineering College Mohali, Punjab. He
received his B.E. degree from Jadavpur University, M.E. degree from Calcutta University and Ph.D.
from BITS Pilani. He is a fellow of The Institution of Engineers (India) and the Institution of Electronics
and Telecommunication Engineers (India). He was Principal of Technical Teachers Training Institute
Chandigarh; Director of National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research (Under
MHRD, Government of India), Kolkata; Director, Hindustan Institute of Technology, Greater Noida;
and Principal, SUS College of Engineering and Technology Tangori, Mohali, Punjab. As a professor
of electrical engineering, Dr. Bhattacharya taught electrical engineering both at the undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. He has written a number of popular textbooks and published over one hundred
technical papers in journals and conference proceedings.
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction
We see applications of electricity all around us. We observe the presence of electricity in nature. It is
indeed amazing as well as interesting to know how mankind has been able to put electricity for their
use. All electronic and electrical products operate on electricity. Be it your computer system, cell
phones, home entertainment system, lighting, heating, and air-conditioning systems, all are examples
of the applications of electricity. Application of electricity is limitless and often extends beyond our
imagination.
Electrical energy has been accepted as the form of energy which is clean and easy to transmit from
one place to the other. All other forms of energy available in nature are, therefore, transformed into
electrical energy and then transmitted to places where electricity is to be used for doing some work.
Electrical engineering, therefore, has become a discipline, a branch of study, which deals with genera-
tion, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electricity.
Electronics engineering is an offshoot of electrical engineering which deals with the theory and
use of electronic devices in which electrons are transported through vacuum, gas, or semiconductor.
The motion of electrons in electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and thyristors is controlled
by electric fields. Modern computers and digital communication systems are advances of electronics.
Introduction of very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits has led to the miniaturization of all electronic
systems.
Electrical and electronic engineering are, therefore, very exciting fields of study. A person who
is unaware of the contribution of these fields of engineering and the basic concepts underlying the
advancement will only have to blame himself or herself of not taking any initiative in knowing the
unknown.
In this chapter, we will introduce some basic concepts, laws, and principles which the students might
have studied in physics. However, since these form the basis of the understanding of the other chapters
in this book, it will be good to study them again.
positions in the outermost orbit filled by eight electrons. However, in semiconducting materials, with
the increase in temperature, it is possible for some of the electrons to gain sufficient energy to break the
covalent bonds and become free electrons and cause a flow of current.
1.5 E
lectric Current, Resistance, Potential,
and Potential Difference
1.5.1 Electric Current
In any conducting material, the flow of electrons forms what is called current. Electrons have negative
charge. Charge on an electron is very small. For this reason, charge is expressed in terms of coulomb.
The charge of 1 C is equal to the charge of 6.28 × 1018 electrons. Excess or deficit of electrons in a body
is called charge. Thus, electrical current is expressed as flow of negative charge i.e. electrons. Any
substance such as copper, aluminium, and silver, which has large number of free electrons (i.e. loosely
bound electrons in the outermost orbit of its atom), will permit the flow of electrons when an electrical
pressure in the form of emf (electromotive force i.e. voltage) is applied.
Since these materials conduct electricity, they are called conductors. They easily allow electric
current to flow through them. The strength of current will depend upon the flow of charge per unit time.
This is expressed as:
t
dq
i= C/Sec or, q = ∫ idt , (1.1)
dt o
where charge q is measured in coulomb and time, t, in seconds. The unit of current, therefore, is coulomb
per second, when 1 C of charge flows in 1 s, the magnitude of current is called 1 Ampere (A).
Thus, 1 A of current is equivalent to the flow of charge of 1 C per second.
In earlier years, current was assumed to flow from positive to negative terminals. This convention is
used even now although it is known that current is due to the movement of electrons from negative to
positive terminals.
Magnet is a body which attracts iron, nickel, and cobalt. Permanent magnets retain their magnetic
properties. Electromagnets are made from coils through which current is allowed to flow. The mag-
netic properties will be present as long as current flows through the coil.
The space with in which forces are exerted by a magnet on a magnetic material is called a magnetic
field. It is the area of influence of the magnet.
1.5.3 Resistance
Electrical resistance is the hindrance or opposition to the flow of electrons in a given material. It is
measured in unit called ohm. Since current is the flow of electrons, resistance is the opposition offered
by a material, to the flow of free electrons. Resistance, R, is directly proportional to the length of the
material and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the material, A, through which current
flows. The resistance offered by conducting materials such as copper and aluminium is low whereas
resistance offered by some other conducting materials such as nicrome and tungsten is very high. All
these materials are called conducting materials. However, the value of resistivity of these materials is
different. Resistance, R, of a material is expressed as
R=ρ , (1.2)
A
where r is the resistivity, l is the length and A is the cross-sectional area of the conducting material.
Resistivity is also called the specific resistance of the material. The most conducting material, silver, has
the lowest value of resistivity i.e. 0.016 × 10−6 ohm-m. After silver, copper is most conducting. Resistivity
or specific resistance of copper is somewhat more than that of silver i.e. 0.018 × 10−6 ohm-m. That is to
say copper is less conducting than silver. We will see a little later why and how the value of resistance
changes with temperature.
The unit of resistance is ohm. Resistance between two points in a conductor will be 1 ohm when a
potential difference of 1 volt applied between these points produces a current of 1 ampere through the
conductor.
When work done is 1 joule and charge moved is 1 C, the potential is called 1 volt. If we say that a point
has a potential of 6 volts, it means that 6 joules of work has been done in moving 1 C of charge to that
point. In other words, we can say that every coulomb of charge at that point has energy of 6 joules.
Potential difference of two points indicates the difference of charged condition of these points.
Suppose point A has a potential of 6 volts and point B has a potential of 3 volts. When the points A and B
are joined together by a conducting wire, electrons will flow from point B to point A. We say that current
flows from point A towards point B. The direction of current flow is taken from higher potential to lower
potential, while the flow of electrons is actually in the opposite direction. The flow of current from a
higher potential to a lower potential is similar to the flow of water from a higher level to a lower level.
I V R=3
R=2
R=1
slope = 1
R slope = R
0 0
V I
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 ( a) Shows linear relationship between V and I (b) V-I characteristics for
different values of R
R R
R2
Rt
R2−R1
R0 is the resistance at 0 °C. R1
Rt is the resistance at t °C. t2−t1
R0 Rt Rt − R0 R0
Slope = t
R0
−234.5° 0 t t 0 t1 t2 t
(a) (b)
From Fig 1.2 (b), using the relation in Eq. (1.6), we can write
R2 − R1
(t2 − t1 )
α1 =
R1
or, α1 R1 (t2 − t1 ) = R2 − R1
or, R2 = R1 + α1 R1 (t2 − t1 )
Thus, if resistance at the temperature t1 is known, the resistance at the temperature t2 can be calculated.
Calculation of a at different temperatures:
We have seen,
slope of resistance versus temp. graph
α0 =
Original resistannce, R0
If a1 and a2 are the temperature coefficient of resistance at t1 and t2 degrees respectively, then
slope of resistance Vs temp. graph
α1 =
R1
slope of resistance Vs temp. graph
and α2 =
R2
Thus, we can write,
α 0 R0 = α1 R1 = α 2 R2 = α 3 R3 =… and so on
Therefore,
α 0 R0 α 0 R0 α0
α1 = = = (1.8)
R1 R0 (1 + α 0 t1 ) 1 + α 0 t1
α 0 R0
α2 =
R2
α 0 R0 α0
= =
R0 (1 + α 0 t2 ) 1 + α 0 t2
and, α 2 R2 = α1 R1
α1 R1 α1 R1
or, α2 = =
R2 R1 [1 + α1 (t2 − t1 )
α1
or, α2 = (1.9)
1 + α1 (t2 − t1 )
The relationship among electric power, voltage, and current is found out as
Work done Work done Charge
Power, P= = ×
time Charge time
From Eqs (1.1) and (1.3) we have:
P = V × I Watts (1.14)
i.e. Power = Voltage × Current
The unit of power is joules/second or watts. The unit of work or energy is Joules.
Joules
Thus, = Watt
second
or, watt second = joules
Unit of energy = joules = watt second
Watt second is a small unit. Commercially, the unit of energy is expressed as kilowatt hour (KWh).
When we consume electricity in our house, the electricity supply authority bills us per unit of electric
energy consumed.
Electric energy = power × time
and Electric power = voltage × current
Electric energy = V × I × t
Electric power, P = V × I = I × R × I = I 2 R Watts (1.15)
2
V V
Again, P =V × = Watts (1.16)
R R
A C
+ I +
E V R
− −
B D
The potential, V across the load, becomes equal to the battery emf. Both emf, E, and potential, V, have
the same unit of volt. They are in fact similar. Both E and V have been indicated by arrows in the figure.
The arrow head in both the cases represent higher potential.
Example 1.1 A copper wire has resistance of 0.85 ohms at 20 °C. What will be its resistance at
40 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 0 °C is 0.004 per degree Celsius.
Solution:
α0
We know, α1 =
1 + α 0 t1
0.004
Here, α 20 = = 0.0037
1 + 0.004 × 20
We know, R2 = R1 1 + α1 (t2 − t1 )
Example 1.2 The heating element of an electric heater made of nicrome wire has value of resistivity
of 1 × 10−6 ohm-m. The diameter of the wire is 0.2 mm. What length of this nicrome wire will make a
resistance of 100 ohms?
Solution:
We know, R= ρ
a
R.a
or, =
ρ
given R = 100 W, r = 1 × 10 ohm-m, d = 0.2 mm
−6
100 × 12.56 × 10 −8
= = 12.56 m
1 × 10 −6
Output
We know, efficiency =
Input
Energy Spent ie Output
So, energy input to immersion rod =
η
126 × 104
=
0.8
= 157.5 × 104 joules
The time of operation of the heater rod = 30 minutes = 30 × 60 seconds.
= 1800 secs.
Energy Input
The power rating of the heater =
Time of operation
157.5 × 104 Joules
=
1800 seconds
= 870 Joules / sec
= 870 Watts
= 0.87 kW
209.1
Input power of the pump motor =
0.8
= 261.3 kW
Example 1.5 A residential flat has the following average electrical consumptions per day:
• four tube lights of 40 watts working for 5 hours a day
• two filament lamps of 60 watts working for 8 hours a day
• one water heater rated 2 kW working for 1 hour a day
• one water pump of 0.5 kW rating working for 3 hours a day
Calculate the cost of energy for a month if 1 kWh of energy (i.e. 1 unit of energy) costs `3.50.
Solution:
Total kilowatt hour consumption of each load for 30 days is calculated as:
4 × 40 × 5 × 30
Tube lights = = 24 kWh
1000
2 × 60 × 8 × 30
Filament lamps = = 28.8 kWh
1000
Water heaters = 1 × 2 × 1 × 30 = 60 kWh
Water pump = 1 × 0.5 × 3 × 30 = 45 kWh
Total kilowatt hour consumed per month = 24 kWh + 28.8 kWh + 60 kWh + 45 kWh
= 157.5 kWh
One kilowatt hour of energy costs `3.50.
The total cost of energy per month = 157.5 × 3.50
= `551.25
Example 1.6 An electric kettle has to raise the temperature of 2 kg of water from 30 °C to 100 °C in
7 minutes. The kettle is having an efficiency of 80% and is supplied from a 230-V supply. What should
be the resistance of its heating element?
Solution:
m = 2 kg = 2000 gms
t2 − t1 = 100 − 30 = 70 °C
Specific heat of water = 1
7
time of heating = 7 minutes = hours
60
Output energy of the kettle =mst
= 2000 × 1 × 70 calories
= 140 kilo calories
= 140 kWh
860
= 0.1627 kWh [1 kWh = 860 kCal]
0.203 0.203 × 60
Kilowatt rating of the kettle = = = 1.74 kW
time in hours 7
Example 1.7 Calculate the current flowing through a 60-W lamp on a 230-V supply when just
switched on at an ambient temperature of 25 °C. The operating temperature of the filament material is
2000 °C and its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.005 per degree Celsius at 0 °C.
Solution:
V V2
We know, power, W = VI = V =
R R
Here, W = 60 W, V = 230 V
V2 230 × 230
∴ R= = = 881.6 Ω
W 60
This resistance of the filament is at 2000 °C. Let us call it R2000 = 881.6 Ω.
At the instant of switching, resistance is at room temperature i.e. at 25 °C. Let us call it as R25.
We know R2000, we have to calculate R25, given a0 = 0.005 ohm/ °C.
α0
We know, α1 =
1 + α 0 (t1 − t0 )
∴ α0 0.005
α 25 = =
1 + α 0 (25 − 0) 1 + 0.005 ( 25)
= 4.44 × 10 −3 / °C
We know the relation,
R2 = R1 1 + α1 (t2 − t1 )
R25 = 90.25 Ω
The current flowing through the 60-W lamp at the instant of switching will be corresponding to its
resistance at 25 °C.
V 230
∴ I= = = 2.55 A
R25 90.25
Example 1.8 A coil has resistance of 18 Ω at 20 °C and 20 Ω at 50 °C. At what temperature its resis-
tance will be 21 Ohms?
Solution:
R20 = 18, R50 = 20, Rt = 21 at what t?
or, 20 = 18 [1 + α 20 (30)]
or, α 20 = 3.7 × 10 −3/ °C
We can write,
R3 = R1[1 + α1 (t3 − t1 )]
substituting,
21 = 18 [1 + 3.7 × 10−3(t3−20)]
or, t3 = 65 °C
Example 1.9 The resistance of a wire increases from 40 Ω at 20 °C to 50 Ω at 70 °C. Calculate the
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 °C.
Solution:
Given, R20 = 40Ω, R70 = 50Ω, what is ao?
50 = 40 [1 + α1 (70 − 20)]
α1 = 5 × 10 −3/°C
α0
α1 =
1 + α 0 t1
α0
or, 5 × 10 −3 =
1 + 20 α 0
or, α 0 = 5.55 × 10 −3/°C
Example 1.10 A resistance element of cross-sectional area of 10 mm2 and length 10 m draws a cur-
rent of 4 A at 220-V supply at 20 °C. Calculate the resistivity of the material. What current will be drawn
when the temperature rises to 60 °C? Assume a20 = 0.0003/ °C.
Solution:
a =10 mm 2
= 10 × 10 −6 m 2
V = IR
V 220
or, R= = = 55Ω
I 4
10
Now, R60 = ρ60 = 55.66 × 10 −6 = 55.66
a 10 × 10 −6
V 220
Current, I = = = 3.9525 A
R60 55.66
Elements of an
electrical network
Independent Independent
voltage source current source
i V
+ +
or, V
V _
_
I1 I2 i
(a) (b)
V2
is V
V1
is i
(a) (b)
Figure 1.6 (a) Symbol of independent current source (b) v−i characteristic
Dependent Sources: A dependent or controlled source is one in which the source quantity i.e. voltage
or current is determined by a voltage or current existing at some other location in the circuit under
consideration. Such dependent sources are observed in the electrical equivalent models for electronic
devices such as transistors, operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits. To differentiate a dependent
source from an independent source, a diamond-shaped symbol is used. Figure 1.7 shows the symbol of
four types of dependent sources.
In electronic circuit analysis, we will find current source whose value depends on a voltage or a voltage
source which is controlled by current flowing in some other element in the circuit. Some examples, which
the student will observe while studying circuit analysis at a later stage, include the drain current of a field
effect transistor (FET) as a function of the gate voltage; the output voltage of an analog integrated circuit
(IC) as a function of differential input voltage.
Thus, independent and dependent voltage and current sources are active circuit elements. They are
capable of delivering power to some external device.
1.11 Resistors
Wirewound resistors are made of wires of constantan, manganin, or nicrome wound on a ceramic tube.
These resistances are available in ranges varying from fraction of an ohm to thousand of ohms.
The power rating also varies from a fraction of a watt to few kilowatts. While specifying a resistance,
both resistance value and power dissipating value must be mentioned. Electronic circuits require resistors
of accurate values. The value of resistors used in electronic circuits is quite high, of the order of kilo ohms.
Since carbon has high resistivity, carbon resistors are made with copper leads. Their power rating varies
from fraction of a watt to several watts. Colour code is used to indicate the value of such resistors. The
effect of temperature on resistance has already been discussed in earlier section.
The main applications of resistors are to limit current, divide voltage, split current, and in some cases
to generate heat. Resistors are available in different ratings, various shapes, and many sizes. Resistors can
be of fixed value or of variable value. Fixed resistors are made using various techniques and materials.
Carbon composition fixed value resistors are made with a mixture of finely powdered carbon, insu-
lating filler and a resin as binding material.
Other type of fixed value resistors includes carbon film, metal film, metal oxide film, and wire
wound. Resistors are available in different tolerance level such as ±5% and ±20%. Tolerance indicates
the allowable variation in the indicated value of resistance of the resistor.
Colour code is used to indicate the value of a resistor and its tolerance. Band of colours made around
the resistor are used to indicate the value of the resistor.
Variable resistors are designed such that their values can be changed manually or automatically.
A variable resistor used to divide a voltage is called a potentiometer. A variable resistor used to control
current in an electric circuit is called a rheostat. An automatic variable resistor in the name called therm-
istor is also available. In a thermistor, the resistance is temperature sensitive.
1.12 Inductors
Inductor is a passive circuit element formed by a coil of wire which exhibits the property of inductance.
The ability of a coil to induce emf in itself when the current through it changes is called its inductance.
In other words, inductance is a measure of the ability of a coil to establish an induced emf as a result of
change in its current. The unit of inductance is henry and symbolized by H. One henry of inductance
causes 1 volt of induced emf when current changes at the rate of one ampere per second.
di
e=L (1.17)
dt
e
or, L= ,
di/dt
where, L is inductance in henry, e is induced emf in volt, and di/dt is the rate of change of current in
ampere per second.
When steady current flows through an inductor coil, its inductance value will be zero. An inductor
stores energy in the magnetic field created by the current. The energy stored is expressed as:
1
E or W = LI 2 joules, (1.18)
2
where L is in henry and I is in amperes. Inductance is of two types viz. air-core type and iron-core
type. Inductors are also called chokes. Inductors are available in all current ranges. Air-core inductors
are wound on bakelite or cardboard rods and are extensively used in electronic circuits in millihenry
and microhenry ranges. High-value inductors are made of iron core. They are mainly used in ac power
supply frequency of 50 Hz. The factors that determine the value of inductance, L, of a coil are:
µN 2 A
L= , (1.19)
where L is the inductance in henry, N is the member of turns of the coil, m is the permeability of the core
material in henry per metre, A is the cross-sectional area in m2, and ℓ is the core length. These have been
shown in Fig. 1.8.
Cross sectional l
area, A
Core
material
Coil
N
Core
Number i
of turns, N
Figure 1.8 F
actors determining the inductance Figure 1.9 Inductance of a coil
of a coil
When an inductance coil is made of wire of insulated copper or some other material, there will be
some resistance of the wire. In many applications, the small resistance of the winding wire is neglected
and only its inductance is taken into consideration.
1.12.1 Self-inductance
Consider a coil of N turns wound on a core of magnetic material. Let an alternating current i pass
through the coil as shown in Fig. 1.9.
The emf induced, e, will be:
dφ
e = −N
dt
The flux, φ =B×A
= mHA
Ni
=µ A
µ NA
= i,
where m is the permeability of the core material and is the length of flux path. A is the area of the coil.
Substituting,
d µ NA
e = −N i
dt
µ N 2 A di
=−
dt
di
or, e = −L , (1.20)
dt
where,
L = µ N A henry
2
(1.21)
L is called the coefficient of self-inductance or simply self-inductance of the coil.
Inductance of a coil is, therefore, dependent upon the permeability of the core material. If we put
iron as the core material instead of any non-magnetic material, or air as the core, the inductance will
increase many times.
m = mo mr,
where mr is the relative permeability and mo is the permeability of free space. Relative permeability of
iron may be as high as 2000 times higher than that of air. Hence, an iron-core coil may have inductance
value 2000 times more than that of an air-core one, other dimensions remaining the same. Again,
inductance, L, is inversely proportional to the length of the flux path and directly proportional to the
area of the core material or the coil. Inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns.
To have inductance of large value, the number of turns should be high.
Inductance, L, can be expressed in terms of the rate of the change of flux with respect to current
flowing in the coil as:
Flux, f = BA
= m HA
NI
=m A
For a small increment of di, let the increase of flux be df. Therefore,
mNA
df = di
d f mNA
or, =
di
df mN 2 A
or, N = =L
di
df
or, L=N henry
di
If f and i have a linear relationship,
d f di can be written as f I.
Therefore, L = N f I henry.
mN 2 A N 2 N2
Again, L= = = (1.22)
Reluctance
mA
or, LI = N f
df f
L=N = N (assuming linear magnetization)
di I
Nf
L= If N f is equal to 1 Wb-turn and I is 1 ampere, (1.25)
I
1Wb − turn
then L= = 1 henry
1 Ampere
Thus, we can say that a coil has an inductance of 1 henry if a current of 1 ampere flowing through the
coil produces a flux linkage of 1 Wb-turn.
Similarly, if we calculate induced emf in coil 1, due to change in current in coil 2, we can find induced
emf e1 in coil 1 as:
K N N m A di
e1 = 2 1 2 2 2 ,
2 dt
K 2 N1 N 2 mA2
where, M = (iv)
2
Now, multiplying the expression for M as in Eqs (iii) and (iv),
K1 K 2 N1 N 2 N1 N 2 mA1 mA2
M2 =
1 2
m N12 A1 m N 22 A2
or, M 2 = K1 K1
1
2
or, M 2 = K1 K2 L1 L2
i1
N1 N2
1 2
Figure 1.10 Mutual inductance of two coils
Therefore, M = K1 K 2 L1 L2 = K L1 L2 , (1.26)
where K = K1 K 2
mmf NI
as Flux f1 = = 11 (vi)
Reluctance 1
mA1
From Eqs (v) and (vi),
f1 N1
= (vii)
I1 1
mA1
From Eqs (iii) and (iv),
K1 N1 N 2 mA1
M =
l1
N1
= K1 N 2
1
mA
1
f1
M = K1 N 2
I1
f1
or, M = N1 (∵ f1 = K 2 f2 )
I2
N1f1 Flux linkage in coil 1
Thus, M = = (1.28)
I2 Changing current in coil 2
LL L2
L1 L2 f f
f f 1 2
1 2
i
(a) (b)
When the coils are differentially connected as in Fig. 1.11(b), emf induced in coil 1 due to di in time dt
in coil 2 i.e. M (di dt )is in opposition to the emf induced in coil 1 due to its self-inductance. Similar is
the case of emf induced in coil 2 due to mutual inductance. Thus, for differentially connected coil,
L′e = L1 + L2 − 2M (vii)
Thus the total inductance of an inductively coupled series connected coil circuit can be expressed as equal to
LT = L1 + L2 ± 2M (1.29)
Dot convention is used to determine the sign of induced voltage M di dt . If dot convention is used,
there will be no requirement of knowing in which direction the coils have been would be cummulatively
or differentially.
Example 1.11 The total inductance of two coils connected in series cumulatatively is 1.6 H and
connected differentially is 0.0.4 H. The self-inductance of one coil is 0.6 H. Calculate (a) the mutual
inductance and (b) the coupling coefficient.
Solution:
We know, LT = L1 + L2 ± 2M
Substituting given values,
L1 + L2 + 2M = 1.6 (i)
and L1 + L2 − 2M = 0.4 (ii)
From Eqs (i) and (ii),
4M = 1.2
or, M = 0.3 H
given, L1 = 0.6.
Therefore, 0.6 + L2 + 2 × 0.3 = 1.6
or, L2 = 1.6 − 1.2 = 0.4 H
L1 = 0.6 H, L2 = 0.4 H, M = 0.3 H.
We know, M = K L1 L2
M
or, K=
L1 L2
0.3
Substituting values, K= = 0.612
0.6 × 0.4
When the current is broken i.e. when current is switched off, the magnetic field collapses and the
energy stored is used in inducing an emf in the inductance coil.
1.13 Capacitors
A capacitor, in its simplest form consists of two thin parallel plates of conducting material separated
by a dielectric material. A capacitor is capable of storing charge when a voltage is applied across the
capacitor plates. If a voltage source, say a battery, is connected across the two plates of a parallel plate
capacitor as shown in Fig. 1.12, electrons are removed from plate A and an equal number is deposited in
plate B. Plate A loses electrons and plate B gains electrons. This way, the excess electrons produce nega-
tive charge on one side of the capacitor while the opposite side will have positive charge. The dielectric
material placed in between the plates holds the charge because the free electrons cannot flow through an
insulator (i.e. the dielectric material such as air, paper, or mica). Storage of charge by a capacitor means
that the charge remains in place even after the voltage source is disconnected. Capacitance of a capaci-
tor is the ability to store charge. Charging and discharging are the two main effects of capacitors. When
a dc voltage is applied, there is accumulation of charge in the capacitor and as a result, voltage is built
up across the terminals of the capacitor. This is called charging of the capacitor. The capacitor voltage
becomes equal to the applied voltage when the capacitor is fully charged. The voltage across the capaci-
tor remains even after the voltage source is disconnected. The capacitor discharges when a conducting
path is provided across the plates without any applied voltage connected.
The more is the charging voltage, the more will be the accumulation of charge in the capacitor.
The amount of charge, Q, stored in a capacitor is, therefore, proportional to the charging voltage, V.
A capacitor with large area of the parallel plates can store more charge. Capacitance of a capacitor also
depends on the distance between the plates and the type of dielectric used between the plates. A large
capacitor, obviously, will store more charge. Thus, we can write:
Q
Q = CV coulombs, or C =
V
where Q is the charge stored in coulombs, V is the voltage applied across the plates, and C is the
capacitance of the capacitor in farads. One farad is the amount of capacitance when one coulomb of
charge is stored with one volt across the plates.
where Œ is the absolute permittivity constant, C is the capacitance, A is the area of the plate, and d is the
distance between the plates.
The term absolute permittivity is expressed as:
∈= e o e r ,
where eo is the permittivity constant of vacuum and er is the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
placed between the two plates.
The value of eo has been calculated experimentally as 8.85 × 10−12 farad per metre.
Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor can be expressed as,
eA A
C= = e r × 8.85 × 10 −12 farad
d d
Farad is the unit of capacitance and coulomb is the unit of electric charge.
One farad is the amount of capacitance when 1C of charge is stored with one volt across the plates.
Energy stored in a capacitor
We have known that when a capacitor is switched on to a dc supply, the charge q can be expressed as
q = Cv where at any instant, q is the change, v is the potential difference across the capacitor plates, and
C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
Potential difference of v volts across the capacitor means v joules of work has to be done in transfer-
ring 1 C of change from one plate to the other. If a small charge dq is transferred, then, the work done
dw can be expressed as:
dw = vdq = Cvdv.
The total work done in raising the potential of the capacitor to the supply voltage of V volt can be
expressed as: v
W = ∫ dW
0
v
= ∫ Cvdv
0
v
v2
=C
2 0
1
or, W= CV2
2
The work done is stored in the electrostatic field setup between the plates of the capacitor in the form
of energy. Thus, the energy stored, E, is expressed as
1
Energy stored = CV 2 joules
2
1
= QV joules (1.31)
2
1.13.2 How a Capacitor Stores Energy
When a capacitor is not charged i.e. no voltage is applied across it, i.e. when the capacitor is in the neutral
state, both the plates of the capacitor have equal number of free electrons. When the capacitor is charged
by applying a dc voltage electrons are removed from one plate and equal number are deposited in the
other plate. There is deficiency of electrons in one plate which becomes positive plate. There is excess of
electrons in the other plate which becomes negative plate. During the charging process, no electron can
Electric field
dielectric
material
Plate + − Plate
A B
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ − Q1 Q2
F
+ − + −
+ − d
move from one plate to the other because a dielectric material is placed in between the plates. When the
capacitor is disconnected from the voltage source, ideally the capacitor retains the charge for a long time.
An electric field is established between the two plates of a charged capacitor.
In Fig. 1.13, a charged capacitor is shown. The lines of force between the positive and negative
charges represent the electric field. There is dielectric material between the plates. A force, F, exists
between the two point source charges Q1 and Q2 which are separated by a distance d.
According to Coulomb’s law, force F is given by
Q1 Q2
F∝ (1.32)
d2
The force is dependent on the amount of charge and the distance between the plates.
The energy stored is proportioned to the forces developed between the charges on the plates. More
is the charge stored, the more will be the force between the plates and more will be the energy stored.
Thus, energy stored is proportional to the capacitances of the capacitor. The amount of charge stored is
proportional to the voltage applied. The charge stored Q can be represented as:
Q = C V,
where Q is the charge in coulomb, C is the capacitance in farads, and V is the voltage applied in volts.
The energy stored W is given as
1
W = CV 2 joules (1.33)
2
In ideal case no current will flow through the dielectric material. Dielectric material in a capacitor helps
in maintaining or holding the charge on the capacitor plates. However, actually no dielectric material is
perfect. Some charge from the plates will leak off and hence some leakage current will flow.
Example 1.12 A current of 5 A flowing through a coil of 500 turns produces a flux of 1 mWb.
Another coil is placed near this coil and current in this coil is suddenly reversed in 10 milliseconds. As a
result, the emf induced in the second coil is measured as 50 volts. Calculate self- and mutual inductance
of the coils assuming a coefficient of coupling as 60%.
Solution:
di
e2 = M 1
dt
or, 50 = M 5 + 5 [+5 A current has been changed to −5 A]
10 × 10 −3
−3
or, M = 50 × 10 × 10
10
or, M = 50 × 10−3 H.
Self-inductance of coil 1 is:
Nφ 500 × 1 × 10 −3
L1 = 1 1 = = 10 × 10 −3 H
I1 5
Using the formula, M = K L1 L2 ,
50 × 10−3 = 0.6 10 × 10 −3 × L2
or, L2 = 694.4 × 10−3 H
Example 1.13 Two coils of number of turns N1 = 1000 and N2 = 400, respectively, are placed
near to each other. They are magnetically coupled in such a way that 75% of the flux produced by
one of 1000 turns links the other. A current of 6 A produces a flux of 0.8 mWb in N1 and the same amount
of current produces a flux of 0.5 mWb in coil of N2 turns. Determine L1, L2, M, and K for the coils.
Solution:
φ1 0.8 × 10 −3
L1 = N1 = 1000 × = 0.133 H
I1 6
φ 0.5 × 10 −3
L2 = N 2 2 = 400 × = 0.033 H
I2 6
K1 φ1 0.75 × 0.8 × 10 −3
M = N2 = 400 ×
I1 6
= 0.04 H.
0.04
or, K= = 0.606
0.066
Therefore,
Self-inductance of coil 1 = 0.133 H
Self-inductance of coil 2 = 0.033 H
Mutual inductance of the coils = 0.04 H
Coefficient of coupling = 0.606.
Example 1.14 The current through a 100-mH inductor charges from 0 to 200 mA in 4 microseconds.
What is the value of induced emf in the inductor or the choke?
Solution:
di 200 × 10 −3
e=L = 100 × 10 −3 ×
dt 4 × 10 −6
= 5000 V
= 5 kV
It is observed that a high voltage is induced in the choke because of very fast change of current flow
through it. In a tube light circuit, a high voltage is induced in the choke by the same method and is used
to ionize the gas inside the tube light and thus start the tube light.
Example 1.15 Self-inductances of two coils are L1 = 2 H and L2 = 8 H. The coil L1 produces a
magnetic flux of 80 mWb. Of this total flux, only 60 mWb is linked with coil L2. Calculate the mutual
inductance of the two coils.
Solution:
The coefficient of coupling, K, is given as
mutual flux linkage between L 1and L2
K=
flux produced by L1
60 × 10 −6 Wb
= = 0.75
80 × 10 −6 Wb
Mutual inductance M is calculated as:
M = K L1 L2 = 0.75 2 × 8 = 3 H
Example 1.16 Calculate the capacitance of capacitor made of two parallel plates of cross-sectional
area of 3 m2 having a distance between the plates of 1 cm. The dielectric is air in between the plates.
Solution:
A 3
C = eoe r = 8.85 × 10 −12 × 1 × −2 F
d 10
= 2655 × 10 −12 F
Note that although the area of the plates is large, the value of capacitance is very small. Instead of air
as the dielectric, if we place mica or paper in between the plates, capacitance will increase. If we also
reduce the distance between the plates, the capacitance will increase.
Example 1.17 A 25 microfarad capacitor is switched on to a time varying voltage source. The volt-
age wave is such that voltage increases at the rate of 10 V per second. Calculate the charge accumulated
in the capacitor at an elapse of 1 second and the amount of energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution:
Charge, q = CV = 25 × 10 −6 × 10
= 250 × 10 −6 coulomb
1 1
Energy stored, W = CV 2 = × 25 × 10 −6 × 102
2 2
= 12.5 × 10 −4 joules
(Load current) IL
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Load characteristics
Figure 1.14 Voltage source and its characteristic
IL
IL
IL = IS
+ IS Ideal
Practical
IS ↑ IS ↑ IL = IS Load VL
VL
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics
Figure 1.15 Current source and its characteristics
Rsc IL Ish IL
VS VL RL IS VS Rsh RL
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16 Representation as (a) practical voltage source (b) practical current source
Rse
IL Ish IL
+ V RL Is ↑
− S Rsh RL
IL IL
Rse
IS ↑ Rsh RL + RL
VS −
Examples 1.18 Convert a voltage source of 20 volts with internal resistance of 5 W into an
equivalent current source.
Solution: V 20
Is = s = = 4A
Rse 5
5Ω
+
20 V Voc 4A ↑ 5Ω Voc
−
(a) (b)
B B
(a) (b)
Figure 1.20 Conversion of current source into an equivalent voltage source
Fig 1.20(a) shows the current source.
Here, I = 100 A, Rsh = 10 W.
For an equivalent voltage source has been shown in Fig 1.20(b). Here,
V = I × Rsh = 100 × 10 = 1000 V
Rsh = Rse = 10 W in series
The open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current are the same in the two equivalent circuits. The Voc in
both the cases is 1000V. The short circuit current in both the cases is 100A.
CHAPITRE XXVI.
Ce chapitre est numéroté XXVII dans les éd. ant. et l’ex. de Bordeaux.
, Suffisance.—Rien n’est plus vrai du fait même de notre raison dont la
conception est des plus limitées, qui ne peut en outre juger que par
déduction et est bien loin de voir les choses comme elles sont et en ignore
toujours les causes premières, et plus encore par les influences des
milieux ambiants qu’elle subit jusqu’à complet anéantissement.
Cet effet est particulièrement manifeste quand on considère à quelle
omnipotence atteignent les croyances les plus contraires à la raison:
«Credo quia absurdum, je crois par cela même que c’est absurde»,
aphorisme émis par Tertullien en matière de foi, est un axiome
d’application constante.
De fait, une croyance ne dépend pas de la part de vérité ou d’erreur
qu’elle peut contenir, mais uniquement des sentiments qu’elle fait naître et
des sentiments qu’elle inspire. Impérative au suprême degré, elle n’admet
ni analyse ni discussion et par elle les erreurs les plus évidentes se
transforment en vérités éclatantes; chez les convaincus, l’intelligence la
plus haute est impuissante contre l’entraînement de la foi; l’apôtre ne
doute de rien, aucune difficulté ne l’embarrasse.
En dépit de tout raisonnement, les croyances communes constituent
une force qui donne à un peuple une cohésion, une énergie qui
contribuent dans la plus large mesure à sa sauvegarde; et l’un de nos plus
grands dangers à l’époque actuelle est bien certainement de n’avoir plus
guère de croyances communes (G. Lebon).
290,
, Saturúsque.—Le texte latin porte satiate; saturus mis pour satur
constitue un barbarisme. Le Clerc.
292,
, Iuger.—Add. des éd. ant.: des choses.
, Nature.—Les éd. ant. port.: Dieu.
2, Rien trop.—Maxime philosophique célèbre attribuée par Aristote à Bias;
Pline en fait honneur à Chilon; Diogène Laerce pareillement, mais ensuite il
en dote Solon; on l’a attribuée à d’autres encore.—Elle a été émise à
maintes reprises; on en retrouve le sens dans Homère; Térence, dans son
Andrienne, la met dans la bouche d’un esclave: «Je pense, dit-il, que
beaucoup est chose utile dans la vie, pourvu que beaucoup ne soit pas
trop.» Horace, dans sa satire I, la développe en deux vers souvent cités:
«En toutes choses, il est certain tempérament, il y a des limites
déterminées et le bien ne se trouve ni en deçà ni au delà.» Abstemius
l’exprime de la sorte: «Nul immodéré ne dure longtemps.» «Trop, c’est
trop,» a dit Rivarol. «Surtout, Messieurs, pas de zèle,» répétait Talleyrand
à ses diplomates. «L’excès en tout est un défaut,» est un aphorisme des
plus usités. On dit encore: «De peu on jouit, de trop on pâtit.» Dans le
Paradis perdu de Milton, Adam demande à l’ange Gabriel s’il vivra
longtemps: «Oui, dit l’ange, si tu observes la règle: Rien de trop.» La
Fontaine en a fait le titre d’une de ses fables et a dit d’elle avec vérité:
«Rien de trop est un point
Dont on parle souvent et qu’on n’observe point.»
CHAPITRE XXVII.
Ce chapitre est numéroté XXVIII dans les éd. ant. et l’ex. de Bordeaux.
ebookball.com