MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

General
Science



MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

REPUBLIC OF GHANA

General Science
Teacher Manual
Year One - Book One
GENERAL SCIENCE TEACHER MANUAL

Enquiries and comments on this manual should be addressed to:

The Director-General
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)
Ministry of Education
P.O. Box CT PMB 77
Cantonments Accra
Telephone: 0302909071, 0302909862
Email: [email protected]
website: www.nacca.gov.gh

©2024 Ministry of Education

This publication is not for sale. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced without prior written permission from the Ministry of
Education, Ghana.
 Contents

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
Learner-Centred Curriculum 1
Promoting Ghanaian Values 1
Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies 1
Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations 1
An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum 2
Social and Emotional Learning 2
Philosophy and vision for each subject 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
SCOPE AND SEQUENCE 10
SECTION 1: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE 11
Strand: Exploring Materials 11
Sub-Strand: Science and Materials in Nature 11
Theme or Focal Area: Characteristics of science in nature 13
Theme or Focal Area(s): Designing projects using the characteristics of science. 19
Theme or Focal Area(s): Application of the characteristics of science where appropriate. 24

SECTION 2: SOLIDS AND BINARY COMPOUNDS 28

Strand: Exploring Materials 28
Sub-Strand: Science and Materials in Nature 28
Theme or Focal Area(s): Metals, non-metals, and semi-metals. 30
Theme or Focal Area(s): Application of properties of different solid structures
in relation to their uses in life. 40
Theme or Focal Area(s): Relationship Between Binary Compounds,
the Composition of Binary Compounds and the Names of Compounds. 48
Theme or Focal Area(s): Naming of binary compounds 53

SECTION 3: DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 58

Strand: Processes for Living 58
Sub-Strand: Essentials for Survival 58
Theme or Focal Area(s): Concepts of diffusion and its application in life. 60
Theme or Focal Area(s): Osmosis and its application in our daily life. 64

iii
Contents

SECTION 4: REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS 69

Strand: Processes for Living 69
Sub-Strand: Essentials for Survival 69
Theme or Focal Area(s): Reproduction in plants 71
Theme or Focal Area(s): Female reproductive system 82
Theme or Focal Area(s): Menstrual cycle 86

iv
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) has developed a new Senior High
School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Curriculum. It aims to ensure that all learners achieve their potential by equipping
them with 21st Century skills, competencies, character qualities and shared Ghanaian values. This will
prepare learners to live a responsible adult life, further their education and enter the world of work.
This is the first time that Ghana has developed an SHS Curriculum which focuses on national values,
attempting to educate a generation of Ghanaian youth who are proud of our country and can contribute
effectively to its development.
This Teacher Manual for General Science covers all aspects of the content, pedagogy, teaching and
learning resources and assessment required to effectively teach Year One of the new curriculum. It
contains this information for the first 12 weeks of Year One, with the remaining 12 weeks contained
within Book Two. Teachers are therefore to use this Teacher Manual to develop their weekly Learning
Plans as required by Ghana Education Service.
Some of the key features of the new curriculum are set out below.
Learner-Centred Curriculum
The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum places the learner at the center of teaching and learning by
building on their existing life experiences, knowledge and understanding. Learners are actively
involved in the knowledge-creation process, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. This involves
using interactive and practical teaching and learning methods, as well as the learner’s environment
to make learning exciting and relatable. As an example, the new curriculum focuses on Ghanaian
culture, Ghanaian history, and Ghanaian geography so that learners first understand their home and
surroundings before extending their knowledge globally.

Promoting Ghanaian Values

Shared Ghanaian values have been integrated into the curriculum to ensure that all young people
understand what it means to be a responsible Ghanaian citizen. These values include truth, integrity,
diversity, equity, self-directed learning, self-confidence, adaptability and resourcefulness, leadership
and responsible citizenship.

Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum integrates 21st Century skills and competencies. These are:
• Foundational Knowledge: Literacy, Numeracy, Scientific Literacy, Information Communication
and Digital Literacy, Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurship, Cultural Identity, Civic Literacy
and Global Citizenship
• Competencies: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, Innovation and Creativity, Collaboration
and Communication
• Character Qualities: Discipline and Integrity, Self-Directed Learning, Self-Confidence,
Adaptability and Resourcefulness, Leadership and Responsible Citizenship

Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum promotes a balanced approach to assessment. It encourages
varied and differentiated assessments such as project work, practical demonstration, performance
assessment, skills-based assessment, class exercises, portfolios as well as end-of-term examinations
and final external assessment examinations. Two levels of assessment are used. These are:

1
Introduction

o Internal Assessment (30%) – Comprises formative (portfolios, performance and project work)
and summative (end-of-term examinations) which will be recorded in a school-based transcript.
o External Assessment (70%) – Comprehensive summative assessment will be conducted by the
West African Examinations Council (WAEC) through the WASSCE. The questions posed by
WAEC will test critical thinking, communication and problem solving as well as knowledge,
understanding and factual recall.
The split of external and internal assessment will remain at 70/30 as is currently the case. However,
there will be far greater transparency and quality assurance of the 30% of marks which are school-
based. This will be achieved through the introduction of a school-based transcript, setting out all
marks which learners achieve from SHS 1 to SHS 3. This transcript will be presented to universities
alongside the WASSCE certificate for tertiary admissions.

An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum ensures no learner is left behind, and this is achieved through
the following:
• Addressing the needs of all learners, including those requiring additional support or with special
needs. The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum includes learners with disabilities by adapting
teaching and learning materials into accessible formats through technology and other measures
to meet the needs of learners with disabilities.
• Incorporating strategies and measures, such as differentiation and adaptative pedagogies
ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities for all learners.
• Challenging traditional gender, cultural, or social stereotypes and encouraging all learners to
achieve their true potential.
• Making provision for the needs of gifted and talented learners in schools.

Social and Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning skills have also been integrated into the curriculum to help learners to
develop and acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge essential for understanding and managing their
emotions, building healthy relationships and making responsible decisions.

Philosophy and vision for each subject

Each subject now has its own philosophy and vision, which sets out why the subject is being taught
and how it will contribute to national development. The Philosophy and Vision for General Science is:
Philosophy: The next generation of learners can be empowered to acquire scientific knowledge and
develop science process skills in scientific concepts through 21st Century Skills and Competencies
that create opportunities that leverage practical activities in a learner-centred environment to make
Science functional, leading to Global relevance.
Vision: A learner equipped with scientific knowledge through 21st Century Skills and Competencies
who understands and applies scientific principles, solving daily scientific problems in an increasingly
complex society.

2
 Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Professor Edward Appiah, Director-General of the National Council for Curriculum
and Assessment (NaCCA) and all who contributed to the successful writing of the Teacher Manuals for
the new Senior High School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) curriculum.
The writing team was made up of the following members:

Subject Writer Institution

Home Economics Grace Annagmeng Mwini Tumu College of Education

Imoro Miftaw Gambaga Girls’ SHS
Love Boateng Juaso SHS
Jusinta Kwakyewaa (Rev. Sr.) St. Francis SHTS
Religious Studies Richardson Addai-Mununkum University of Education Winneba
Dr. Bonsu Osei-Owusu West Africa SHS
Prince Osei Adjei Adventist SHS, Bantama
Dr Francis Opoku Valley View University College
Yaw Sarkodie Agyemang University of Cape Coast
Aransa Bawa Abdul Razak Uthmaniya SHS
Godfred Bonsu Prempeh College
RME Anthony Mensah Abetifi College of Education
Joseph Bless Darkwa Volo Community SHS
Clement Nsorwineh Atigah Tamale SHS
Arabic Murtada Mahmoud Muaz AAMUSTED
Abas Umar Mohammed University of Ghana
Adam Abubakar Uthmaniya SHS
Mahey Ibrahim Mohammed Tijjaniya Senior High School
French Osmanu Ibrahim Mount Mary College of Education
Maurice Adjetey
Mawufemor Kwame Agorgli Akim Asafo SHS
Performing Arts Latipher Osei Appiah-Agyei University of Education Winneba
Desmond Ali Gasanga Ghana Education Service
Yaw Owusu Asiamah Adventist SHS, Bantama
Chris Ampomah Mensah Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo

3
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Art and Design Dr. Ebenezer Acquah University for Education Winneba
Studio and
Dr. Osuanyi Quaicoo Essel University for Education Winneba
Foundation
Seyram Kojo Adipah Ghana Education Service
Jectey Nyarko Mantey Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Yaw Boateng Ampadu Prempeh College
Kwame Opoku Bonsu Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dzorka Etonam Justice Kpando SHS
Applied Joseph Asomani AAMUSTED
Technology
Dr. Prosper Mensah AAMUSTED
& Design and
Communication Dr. Sherry Kwabla Amedorme AAMUSTED
Technology Esther Pokuah Mampong Technical College of
Education
Wisdom Dzidzienyo Adzraku AAMUSTED
Kunkyuuri Philip Kumasi SHTS
Antwi Samuel Kibi SHTS
Gabriel Boafo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Josiah Bawagigah Kandwe Walewale Technical Institute
Emmanuel Korletey Benso SHTS
Isaac Buckman Armed Forces SHTS
Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Tetteh Moses Dagbon State SHS
Awane Adongo Martin Dabokpa Technical Institute
Business Studies Emmanuel Kodwo Arthur ICAG
Dr. Emmanuel Caesar Ayamba Bolgatanga Technical University
Ansbert Baba Avole Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Faustina Graham Ghana Education Service, HQ
Nimako Victoria SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Agriculture Dr Esther Fobi Donkoh University of Energy and Natural
Resources
Prof. Frederick Adzitey University for Development Studies
Eric Morgan Asante St. Peter’s SHS

4
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Agricultural David Esela Zigah Achimota School

Science
Prof J.V.K. Afun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Kwadwo Amankwah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Alex Adu Frimpong Benso SHTS
Mrs. Benedicta Foli
Government Josephine Akosua Gbagbo Ngleshie Amanfro SHS
Augustine Arko Blay University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kofi Adu Fettehman SHS
Economics Peter Anti Partey University of Cape Coast
Charlotte Kpogli Ho Technical University
Joseph Agbevanu Kinbu SHS
Adams Abdul-Somed Kalponin SHS
Benjamin Agyekum Mangoase SHS
Geography George Boateng Berekum College of Education
Dr. Esther Yeboah Danso-Wiredu University of Education Winneba

Dr. Matthew Krusah University of Education Winneba

Raymond Nsiah Asare Methodist Girls’ High School
History Kofi Adjei Akrasi Opoku Ware School
Anitha Oforiwah Adu-Boahen University of Education Winneba
Prince Essiaw Enchi College of Education
Ghanaian David Sarpei Nunoo University of Education Winneba,
Language Ajumako
Catherine Ekua Mensah University of Cape Coast
Ebenezer Agyemang Opoku Ware School
Physical Education Paul Dadzie Accra Academy
and Health
Sekor Gaveh Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Anthonia Afosah Kwaaso Junkwa SHS
Mary Aku Ogum University of Cape Coast
Social Studies Mohammed Adam University of Education Winneba
Simon Tengan Wa SHTS
Jemima Ayensu Holy Child School

5
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Computing and Victor King Anyanful OLA College of Education

Information
Raphael Dordoe Senyo Ziavi SHTS
Communication
Technology (ICT) Kwasi Abankwa Anokye Ghana Education Service, SEU
Millicent Heduvor STEM SHS, Awaso
Mohammed Abdul-Samed Dagbon State SHS
Dr. Gaddafi Abdul-Salaam. Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
English Language Esther Armah Mangoase SHS
Kukuaa Andoh Robertson Achimota School
Cecilia Amponsah Presbyterian Boys’ SHS
Alfred Quaittoo Kaneshie SHTS
Benjamin Orsoo Islamic SHS
Fuseini Hamza Tamale Girls’ SHS
Intervention Roberta Emma Amos-Abanyie Ingit Education Consult
English
Prof. Charles Owu-Ewie University of Education Winneba
Perfect Quarshie Mawuko Girls SHS
Sampson Dedey Baidoo Benso SHTS
Literature in Blessington Dzah Ziavi SHTS
English
Angela Aninakwah Ghana Education Service
Dr. Emma Sarah Eshun University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kwame Kassah St. Peter’s SHS
Juliana Akomea Mangoase SHS
General Science Dr. Comfort Korkor Sam University for Development Studies
Saddik Mohammed Ghana Education Service
Robert Arhin SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Chemistry Ambrose Ayiku St. Francis College of Education
Awumbile Patrick Nsobila Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Bismark Tunu Opoku Ware School
Gbeddy Neurus Anthony Ghanata SHS
Physics Linus Labik Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Henry Benyah Wesley Girls’ SHS
Sylvester Affram Kwabeng Anglican SHS

6
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Biology Damoah Paul Prempeh College

Maxwell Bunu Ada College of Education
Ebenezer Delali Kpelly Wesley Girls’ SHS
Doris Osei-Antwi Ghana National College
Mathematics Edward Dadson Mills University of Education Winneba
Zacharia Abubakari Sadiq Tamale College of Education
Faustina Nana Ackob Mfantsiman SHS
William Ababu Swedru SHS
Collins Kofi Annan Mando SHS
Additional Dr. Nana Akosua Owusu-Ansah University of Education Winneba
Mathematics
Gershon Mantey University of Education Winneba
Very Rev. Prof. William Obeng Kwame Nkrumah University of
Denteh Science and Technology
Charles B. Ampofo Kibi College of Education
Bismark Twum SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Innocent Duncan KNUST SHS
Intervention Florence Yeboah Assin Manso SHS
Mathematics
Mawufemor Adukpo Ghanata SHS
Jemima Saah Winneba SHS
Mohammed Shani Abdulai Yendi SHS
Robotics Dr. Eliel Keelson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Nii Longdon Sowah University of Ghana
Kwabena Osei-Kusi Prempeh College
Michael Wilson CSIR
Isaac Nzoley Wesley Girls’ SHS
Engineering Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Prof. Abdul-Rahman Ahmed Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Griffth Serlorm Klogo Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Japheth Kwadwo Bumusi Mawuli School
Valentina Osei-Himah Atebubu College of Education

7
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Aviation and Opoku Joel Mintah Altair Unmanned Technologies

Aerospace
Engineering Dr. Eunice Akyereko Adjei Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. David Kofi Oppong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Sam Ferdinand Afua Kobi Ampem Girls’ SHS
Biomedical Dr. Dorothy Yakoba Agyapong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science Science and Technology
Jennifer Fafa Adzraku Université Libre de Bruxelles
Dr. Isaac Acquah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
David Ayah St. John’s Grammar School
Dr. Eric Worlawoe Gaba Br. Tarcisius Prosthetics and Orthotics
Training College
Manufacturing Benjamin Atribawuni Asaaga Kwame Nkrumah University of
Engineering Science and Technology
Dr. Samuel Boahene Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Issahaku Iddrisu Ada SHS
Dr. Mizpah Ama D. Rockson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Prof Charles Oppon Cape Coast Technical University
Spanish Setor Donne Novieto University of Ghana
Franklina Kabio University of Ghana
Mishael Annoh Acheampong University of Media, Art and
Communication
Assessment Benjamin Sundeme St. Ambrose College of Education
Victor Gideon Obeng Retired
Prof. Eric Francis Eshun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Ruth Annan-Brew University of Cape Coast
Dr. Isaac Amoako Atebubu College of Education

8
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Curriculum Writing Paul Michael Cudjoe Prempeh College

Guide
Prof. Winston Abroampa Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Cosmos Eminah University of Education Winneba
Ahmed Amihere University of Education Winneba
Evans Odei Achimota School
Ellen Abakah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Hasiyatu Abubakari CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Eyram Eric Kwasi Fiagbedzi CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Deborah Atobrah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Ayine Akoglo CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Theodora Akweley Asiamah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
NaCCA Matthew Owusu Ebenezer Ankamah
Reginald Quartey Alice Abbiw Donkor
Rebecca Abu Gariba Abigail Birago Owusu
Anita Collision Samuel Owusu Ansah
Joachim Honu Richard Teye
Joana Vanderpuije Joseph Barwuah
Uriah Otoo Anthony Sarpong
Nii Boye Tagoe Jephtar Adu Mensah
Eric Amoah Nancy Aseiduwaa Gyapong
Francis Agbalanyo Godwin Senanu
Dennis Adjasi Godfred Mireku
Samuel Amankwa Ogyampo Juliet Owusu-Ansah
Sharon Antwi Baah Thomas Kumah Osei
Ayuba Sullivan Seth Nii Nartey

9
Scope and Sequence

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

General Science Summary

S/N STRAND SUB-STRAND YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3

CS LO LI CS LO LI CS LO LI
1 Exploring Science and
Materials Materials in 2 2 6 1 1 3 2 2 4
Nature
2 Processes For Essentials for
2 3 5 2 2 6 2 2 6
Living Survival
3 Vigour Powering the
Behind Life future with 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
energy forms
Forces acting on
substances and 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
mechanisms
Consumer
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
Electronics
4 Relationships The Human
3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 4
With The Body and Health
Environment Technology
in our Local 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1
Industries
TOTAL 12 13 22 8 8 18 10 10 21

Overall Totals (SHS 1 – 3)

Content Standards (CS) 30
Learning Outcomes (LO) 31
Learning Indicators (LI) 61

10
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

SECTION 1: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE

Strand: Exploring Materials

Sub-Strand: Science and Materials in Nature

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Characteristics of Science

Content Standard: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the characteristics of science

and show how they are applied in everyday life.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section focuses on providing learners with an understanding of the characteristics of science.
Empiricism, objectivity, repeatability, and falsifiability are some of science’s defining characteristics
and are the foundation of the scientific process. By integrating this knowledge into project design,
teachers can facilitate hands-on experiments, critical thinking, and evidence-based conclusions.
Encouraging learners to create their experiments fosters curiosity and helps them acquire critical
thinking abilities. Crucially, the characteristics of science are not limited to the science domain and
have connections to various areas of study. Social studies offer context, Mathematics helps with
data analysis, Language skills facilitate communication, and creativity is fostered by art and design.
Teachers can design a comprehensive, interdisciplinary learning method that promotes students’
critical thinking, problem-solving, and lifelong-learning skills by fusing the characteristics of Science
with other disciplines.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 1: Explain the characteristics of science in nature.
Week 2: Design projects using the characteristics of science.
Week 3: Apply the characteristics of science where appropriate.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Pedagogical exemplars focusing on the characteristics of science aim to engage learners in critical
thinking and practical application. To effectively teach this topic, teachers should encourage learners
to reflect on the importance of science and discuss their ideas with peers thus promoting collaborative
learning. Learners should then present their thoughts to the class, improving their communication skills.
Teachers should use appropriate teaching and learning resources and put learners in mixed-ability
groups to discuss and explore the characteristics of science, emphasizing their meaning, significance,
and real-life applications. Learners should engage in hands-on experiments to demonstrate
characteristics like tentativeness, predictability, replication, and empiricism. These activities help
learners grasp the practical implications of the characteristics of science.
Assessment should focus on learners’ ability to articulate and apply the characteristics of science.
Learners should be evaluated on their participation in discussions, performance in experiments, and
poster creation, thus displaying their knowledge of the key scientific characteristics.
To cater to gifted and talented students, additional content could include more complex experiments,
in-depth analysis of scientific theories, and opportunities for independent research projects to deepen
their understanding and challenge their abilities.

11
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section focuses on DoK Level 3: Formative and Summative Assessment. Formative assessment
will include activities such as laboratory and practical work where the specific characteristics of
science are demonstrated to enhance the science process skills of learners. Short tests, class exercises,
assignments, group discussions, project work, and group presentations are incorporated. A record
should be kept of progress for this range of formative assessments for all learners. Summative
assessment should be done at the end of the lesson, section, and end of the semester. Refer to the
Teacher Assessment Manual and Toolkits for more details as to how to assess learners. Both formative
and summative assessments contribute to the cumulative records of the learners.

12
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Week One
Learning Indicator(s): Explain the characteristics of Science in nature.

Theme or Focal Area: Characteristics of science in nature

Overview of Science
Science is the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical
explanation of natural phenomena to widen our understanding of nature and solve problems.
Some reasons why Science is important include;
• Science enhances global understanding - covering subatomic particles to huge structures.
• Scientific innovations like computers, satellites, x-rays, and cell phones have proven invaluable.
• Research boosts health, yielding medications, vaccinations, and therapies - extending lifespans
and simplifying lives.
• Scientific advancements drive diverse transportation modes: automobiles, aircraft, ships, and
space exploration.

Characteristics of Science and Their Meaning

Reproducibility: This means that the results of an experiment or study can be repeated by other
scientists following the same methods and procedures.
Observation: Science in nature relies on careful observation of the natural world. Scientists keenly
observe phenomena, organisms, and processes to gather data.
Empirical Evidence: This means information gained is through direct observation and measurement.
Precision: This is the degree of consistency and reproducibility. Precise scientific measurements
consistently produce similar results over multiple trials with minimal deviation, error, or uncertainty.
Accuracy: This is the correctness or truthfulness of scientific information or measurements. When
scientific findings are accurate, they reflect the true nature of the phenomenon under study, with
minimal errors, bias, or distortion.
Validity: This is how well an experiment or study measures what it claims to measure. It refers to the
scientific method and the conclusions that can be drawn.
Consistency: This is the ability of scientific findings to be reliable and repeatable over time.
Consistency means that other scientists can replicate experimental results using the same methods
and procedures and that the findings are consistent with what is already known about the phenomenon
being studied.
Tentative: This means that scientific knowledge and understanding are not fixed or absolute but are
subject to change and revision as new evidence, data, and insights emerge.
Verifiability: This means knowledge is based on concrete and factual data that can be tested.
Objective: This simple science relies on empirical evidence to understand natural phenomena, not
prejudice, beliefs, culture, etc.
Methodical: This means scientific data/knowledge is collected (acquired) by following a step-by-
step approach.

13
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Cumulative: This means that knowledge and understanding build up over time as new discoveries
are made and added to what is already known.
Replication: This means that scientific experiments are replicated several times to ensure the results
are similar when identical procedures are used. Replication is necessary to allow chance results to
be excluded.
Predictions: Scientists use patterns observed in nature to predict future events. These predictions are
based on a logical interpretation of collected data.

Demonstration of Characteristics of Science

Experiment to show that Science is empirical.
Title: Determining the Boiling Point of Water.
Aim: To verify whether the boiling point of water remains constant at sea level.
Hypothesis: The boiling point of water at sea level is 100 degrees Celsius (oC).
Materials: Heat source (e.g., Bunsen burner or electric stove), a metal pot or beaker, thermometer,
water, stopwatch, or timer.
Procedure
i. Fill the beaker (or metal pot) with a fixed amount of water (e.g., 500 ml). Insert the thermometer
into the water without touching the bottom of the beaker – a clamp stand can be used to hold the
thermometer above the beaker’s bottom.
ii. Place the beaker on the heat source.
iii. Gradually increase the heat and monitor the temperature using the thermometer.
iv. When the water boils, note the temperature and start the timer
v. Continue boiling the water and monitor the temperature every 30 seconds for five minutes.
NB: Use a table to record your results and repeat the experiment to insure the reliability of results.
Expected Results: According to the hypothesis, the boiling point of water at sea level is expected
to be 100oC. Therefore, during the experiment, we should observe that the water boils at or near this
temperature and remains constant if it continues to boil.

Fig 1.1: Boiling point of water

14
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Conclusion: We can conclude that the boiling point of water at sea level remains constant at or near
100oC. This allows us to accept our hypothesis. As the results are collected scientifically and agree
with our hypothesis, we have demonstrated the use of empirical measurement in the testing and
confirmation of the scientific hypothesis as fact.
Note that some pupils may measure the boiling point consistently above or below 100; this can be
explained using the term accuracy. School thermometers may have a precision of around plus or
minus 1oC.

Experiment to show that Science is replicable.

Title: Simple experiments should be replicable.
Aim: To conduct a simple experiment involving a pendulum to demonstrate that scientific results
should be replicable if the same methods are used, and variables are kept uniform.
Materials: A sturdy string or thread, a small weight (e.g., a metal ball or a stone), a ruler or measuring
tape, a stopwatch or timer, and a stable point to hang the pendulum (e.g., a hook or a sturdy table edge).
Procedure:
i. Attach the weight to one end of the string securely.
ii. Hang the other end of the string from the stable point.
iii. Measure and record the pendulum’s initial length: use the ruler or measuring tape to measure
the pendulum’s length (from the point of suspension to the centre of the weight).
iv. Hold the pendulum a measured and fixed distance away from its resting position and release it
from this same starting point each time.
v. Time the pendulum swinging to and fro ten times using the stopwatch or timer.
vi. Record the time taken for the swings.
vii. Repeat the experiment three times and compare the times taken for ten swings.
Analyse the data:
i. Compare the results for each repeat of the experiment.
ii. How variable are the results from the three repeats of the experiment?
iii. Are the results the same? If not, what reasons could there be to account for the variability?
iv. Does changing the length of the string change the time taken for 10 swings to and fro?

15
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Fig. 1.2: Replication on simple Pendulum

Conclusion: Students should conclude that the time taken for ten swings to and fro should be very
similar for the three repeats of the experiment as long as the length of the string and the point of
release are kept uniform. Thus, properly designed and executed experiments are replicable.
Any small variability in the results will be down to errors of timing or small inconsistencies in the
height of release of the experiment. Increasing the length of the pendulum string should increase the
time taken for 10 swings.

Experiment to show that Science is methodical.

Title: Investigating the presence of starch in plants.
Aim: Test the presence of starch
Materials: Test tubes, test-tube stand, test-tube holder, electric kettle dropper, filter paper, iodine
solution, distilled water, leaf.
Procedure:
i. Gather leaves from plants exposed to sunlight for testing
ii. Pour boiling water from the electric kettle into a large beaker.
iii. Using forceps, immerse a leaf in the hot water for approximately three minutes.
iv. Remove the leaf from the boiling water with forceps and observe any changes.
v. Transfer the leaf to a labelled boiling tube, pushing it to the bottom with a glass rod.
vi. Fill the boiling tube halfway with ethanol and place it in a beaker of boiling water for a hot
water bath. Observe as the ethanol boils and the green chlorophyll colour is extracted from the
leaf, which may take a few minutes.
vii. If green colour remains after 5 minutes, replace the hot water with freshly boiled water.
viii. Remove the leaf from the boiling tube using forceps, rinse it under cold water, and gently wash
it with tap water.
ix. Place the leaf in a petri dish on a white tile and add iodine solution, ensuring complete coverage.

16
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Observation: Observe for a few minutes for the development of a blue-black colour indicating
the presence of starch.
Conclusion: the experiment is usually failsafe and should yield consistent results (presence of starch)
if the procedures are followed in a methodical manner.

Fig 1.3: Plant leaf contain starch

Safety:
• Keep ethanol away from open flames to prevent accidents.
• Students must wear eye protection while handling ethanol or iodine solution.
• Exercise caution when dealing with hot liquids to avoid burns.
• Note that plant sap may cause skin irritation, so handle it with care.

Learning Task

1. Write at least three situations in life where characteristics of science are evident.
2. Identify at least four characteristics of science in nature.
3. Explain at least four characteristics of science in nature.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Collaborative learning:
1. Learners think about the importance of science and discuss their ideas with a peer. The teacher
asks learners to present their ideas to the whole class. The teacher presents videos, charts,
pictures, and demonstrations on the characteristics of science to learners and learners in mixed-
ability groups discuss the characteristics of science, considering the meaning, importance, and
real-life applications.
2. Learners in mixed ability groups perform an experiment as shown in fig. 1, 2, 3 to demonstrate
the characteristics of science such as replicability, predictability (the ability of scientific

17
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

investigations to make accurate and reliable predictions about future events), empirical (relies
on observations and data gathered).
3. Learners reflect and share their views of different situations in life where the characteristics of
science are evident with peers for critique.
4. Group learners create a poster showing the key characteristics of science/definitions, significance,
and application in daily life for a whole class gallery walk and presentation.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 1: Identify at least four (4) characteristics of science.
Assessment Level 2: Explain four (4) characteristics of science.
Assessment Level 2: Explain at least any four (4) characteristics of science in everyday life.
Assessment Level 2: Explain the need to study the characteristics of science.
Assessment Level 2: Describe how the scientific processes can be used to make predictions.

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 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Week Two
Learning Indicator: Design projects using the characteristics of science.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Designing projects using the characteristics of science.

Overview
A scientific project design is a systematic research or investigation plan that outlines the objectives,
methods, procedures, and expected outcomes of a particular study or experiment.
A. Real-world example of a design project
Title: Investigating the effects of different fertilizers on plant growth.
Aim: To apply the characteristics of science to investigate the effects of different fertilizers on
plant growth.
Methods
i. Select sixty (60) seedlings of the same plant species (e.g., tomato plants), all the seedlings
must be of similar age.
ii. Divide them into three equal groups.
iii. Plant the seedlings into the soil.
iv. Assign each group a different fertilizer treatment. For example, Group One could receive a
commercial chemical fertilizer (NPK) of 20cm3, Group Two - an organic fertilizer of about
1kg (equivalent to 20cm3 of chemical fertilizer) and Group Three - control group with no
fertilizer.
NB: Ensure all groups receive the same environmental conditions e.g., light, temperature, water.
Observe: Observe, measure, and record the plants’ height and number of leaves at regular
intervals of three days over a set period (e.g., six weeks).
Sample table.
Day Group One Group Two Group Three
Mean Height Mean number Mean Mean number Mean Mean number
of leaves Height of leaves Height of leaves
0
3
6
9
12
15

Analysis and discussion: Analyse the collected data using simple statistical methods (for
example, plot average values against time on a line graph with a different line for each treatment)
to compare plant growth patterns across different fertilizer treatments.
Conclusion: Draw conclusions based on the results obtained considering the effects of different
fertilizers on plant growth and any significant differences observed.

19
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

NB: By designing and conducting this project, students can gain hands-on experience applying
the characteristics of science and developing their skills in experimental design, data collection,
analysis, and critical thinking.
A key critical point is the experimental validity – can 1kg of organic fertilizer be considered
equivalent to 20cm3 of chemical NPK fertilizer?
Examples of characteristics of Science applied in the above project.
1. Empirical: The project will involve conducting experiments and collecting empirical data
by observing and measuring the growth of plants.
2. Objective: The project will follow standardised methods of experimentation to minimize
bias and subjectivity. Care will be taken to ensure accurate and unbiased measurements and
observations.
3. Verifiable: The project will formulate testable hypotheses regarding the effects of different
fertilizers on plant growth. The results obtained will help determine if the hypothesis is
supported or not.
4. Replicable: The experimental set-up and procedures will be documented to enable other
researchers to replicate the study and verify the findings. The project will provide detailed
instructions and guidelines for replicating the experiment.
5. Cumulative: The project will contribute to the cumulative body of scientific knowledge
by adding new data and insights to the current understanding of the effects of fertilizers on
plant growth.
6. Tentative: The project recognises that scientific knowledge is tentative and subject to
revision. The findings will be interpreted within the context of current understanding and
may lead to modifying or refining existing theories or practices.
7. Predictive: The project will analyse the data collected to predict the effects of different
fertilizers on plant growth. These predictions can serve as a basis for further experimentation
or practical applications in agriculture.
B. Real-world example of a design project
Title: Relationship between the period of a pendulum and its length.
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the period of a pendulum and its length.
Materials: string, weight (such as a metal nut or a small ball), stopwatch or timer, ruler or
measuring tape
Procedure:
i. Tie the weight to one end of the string.
ii. Attach the other end of the string to a fixed point (such as a retort stand or hook).
iii. Measure the length of the string from the fixed point to the center of the weight.
iv. Pull the weight aside to a fixed angle (such as 45o and release it allowing it to swing freely.
v. Start the stopwatch or timer as soon as you release the weight.
vi. Record the period of the pendulum (time for one complete swing).
vii. Repeat the experiment for different lengths of string, keeping other variables constant such
as the angle of release and the mass of the weight.

20
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Fig. 1.4: Investigating the relationship between the period of a simple pendulum and its length

Analysis: Plot a graph with the length of the pendulum on the x-axis and the period of the
pendulum on the y-axis. Analyze the relationship between the length and period of the pendulum.
It should be concluded that as the length increases, the period also increases.
Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above project.
1. Empirical Evidence: The experiment relies on direct observation and measurement of the
relationship between pendulum length and period.
2. Systematic Observation: The experiment follows a systematic procedure, changing one
variable (length) while keeping others constant to observe its effect.
3. Predictive Power: By analyzing the relationship, you can predict how changing the length of
the pendulum will affect its period.
4. Objectivity: by ensuring the mass of the weight used is constant, the type and length of string
is kept constant and there is an agreed protocol for measuring the length of the period of the
pendulum, bias is removed, and the experiment can be considered objective.
5. Testability: The hypothesis that the period of a pendulum depends on its length is testable
through experimentation. By conducting this experiment and analysing its results, you can gain
a deeper understanding of the characteristics of science within the realm of physics.
C. Real-world example of a design project
Title: Investigating acid-base properties using hibiscus flower juice indicator
Aim: To demonstrate the scientific method by investigating the acid-base properties of various
substances using red cabbage indicator.
Materials: Hibiscus flower leaves, distilled water, blender, strainer, various substances to test
vinegar, lemon juice, baking soda, soap, etc.), test tubes, pipettes, pH strips or pH meter.
Procedure
i. Chop up a few hibiscus flowers leaves into small pieces.
ii. Blend the hibiscus flowers with distilled water until a smooth mixture is obtained.
iii. Strain the mixture to obtain the hibiscus flower juice which will serve as the indicator.
iv. Pour a small amount of the hibiscus flower indicator into each test tube.

21
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

v. Label each test tube with the substance to be tested.

vi. Add a small amount of each substance to the appropriate test tube with the indicator using
a clean pipette.
vii. Observe any colour changes.
viii. Compare the colour changes to known pH values (measured using the pH paper).
NB Red cabbage leaves can be used if hibiscus flowers are not available. See https://edu.rsc.
org/experiments/making-a-ph-indicator-using-red-cabbage/422.article
Data Collection and Analysis
i. Record the colour changes observed for each substance.
ii. Determine whether each substance tested is acidic, basic, or neutral based on the colour
changes observed. Use pH paper to help.
iii. Discuss any limitations of the experiment and potential sources of error.
Results
• Vinegar and lemon juice should turn the indicator red/pink indicating acidity.
• Baking soda should turn the indicator green/blue indicating alkalinity.
• Soap may not show a significant colour change indicating neutrality or a slight change.
Conclusion: Using the hibiscus flower indicator, the experiment demonstrated the acid-
base properties of various substances. The results align with established scientific principles
regarding pH and acid-base reactions.
Note: Ensure safety precautions are followed, and proper disposal methods are employed for
any chemical waste generated during the experiment.
Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above project.
1. Empirical Evidence: The experiment relies on observable phenomena (colour changes) to
conclude the acid-base properties of substances.
2. Systematic Observation: The experiment systematically tests various substances using a
standardised indicator (red cabbage juice), allowing for consistent and comparable observations.
3. Reproducibility: The experiment can be repeated by others using the same materials and
procedures leading to comparable results.
4. Predictive Power: Based on established scientific principles of acid-base chemistry, the
experiment allows predictions about how different substances will react with the indicator,
leading to specific colour changes.
5. Objectivity: The interpretation of results is based on objective observations of colour changes
rather than subjective opinions or biases.
6. Hypothesis Testing: The experiment tests hypotheses about the acid-base properties of
substances, such as whether a substance is acidic, basic, or neutral, based on the observed
colour changes.

22
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Learning Tasks

1. Identify three steps involved in designing science projects.

2. Describe how to design science-based projects using the characteristics of science.
3. Give an example of designing science-based projects where the characteristics of science
can be identified.

Pedagogical exemplars
1. Provide videos, charts, diagrams, and pictures for learners on designing science-based projects
using the characteristics of science in nature.
2. In mixed-ability groups, learners discuss the step-by-step science characteristics used in videos,
charts, diagrams, and pictures to design the project.
3. Demonstrate how the characteristics of science (empiricism, systematic observation, objectivity,
tentativity) are used in designing a project for the learners.
4. In mixed-ability groups, provide hands-on experimentation for learners on characteristics of
science. Allow learners to explain the characteristics of science demonstrated in the experiment.
For example, an experiment to show the empirical nature of science.
5. Learners present their findings from the experiment to the class for peer review or critique.
Encourage learners to seek feedback from peers and teachers, iterate on their designs, and
reflect on the iterative design process to enhance learning outcomes.

Key assessment
Assessment Level 2: Describe the characteristics of science when designing a scientific project.
Assessment Level 3: Identify three characteristics of science and discuss how each can enhance the
effectiveness of a scientific project’s design.
Assessment Level 3: Explain the role of empirical evidence in design.
Assessment Level 4: Why is gathering and analysing data during the design process essential?
Provide examples of how empirical evidence can influence design decisions.

23
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Week 3
Learning Indicator: Apply the characteristics of science where appropriate.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Application of the characteristics of science where

appropriate.
The characteristics of science can be applied in the following areas:
1. Agriculture
2. Health
3. Industry
4. Education
5. Domestic Home
6. School

Agriculture
Real-world example 1: Crop breeding relies on empirical observations and data collection. Plant
breeders observe and analyse the characteristics of different crop varieties, including their growth
patterns, yield potential, resistance to pests and diseases, and nutritional qualities. These observations
help in identifying desirable traits and understanding the genetic basis of these traits.

Fig. 1.5: Crop breeding of seedlings

Real-world example 2: Science emphasizes the collection of accurate and reliable data. For instance,
in fertilizer application, scientists collect data on plant growth, nutrient content, soil characteristics,
and environmental conditions. This data is then analysed to gain insights into the effectiveness of
different fertilizers and optimise their application strategies for maximum crop productivity.
Real-world example 3: Scientific experimentation is vital in agricultural and animal production
research. Controlled experiments are conducted to test hypotheses, evaluate the effectiveness of
different techniques, and study the impact of many factors on crop yields and animal health. Data
collected during these experiments are analysed to make evidence-based recommendations.

24
 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Domestic Home
Real-world example: Cooking can be considered a form of applied science to transform raw
ingredients into delicious and nutritious meals. Here are some characteristics of science that apply
to cooking:
1. Observation: Observation is an important part of cooking as it helps to identify the quality of
ingredients, texture, colour, aroma, and other characteristics. Observations help to decide how
long to cook, what temperature to cook and which ingredients to use for the best outcome.
2. Hypothesis Testing: Cooking involves testing hypotheses. For example, if you try using a
different spice, you can hypothesise that the dish will get a new flavour. Through hypothesis
testing, cooking can help to discover new recipes or improve old ones.
3. Accuracy: Accurately measuring ingredients is necessary to achieve the desired taste and
texture in cooking. Using precise weights and measures is essential in following recipes and
creating consistent results.
4. Replication: In cooking, replication is important, especially in commercial kitchens where
consistency is required. Through scientific processes, recipes can be replicated with minimal
variation, leading to consistent meals.
5. Experimentation: Cooking involves experimenting with different ingredients, cooking
methods, and recipes to create or improve existing dishes. Experimentation is also useful in
finding solutions to problems that may arise during cooking.

Education
1. Observation: It plays a vital role in education, akin to its significance in science. Teachers can
observe their students’ performance, behaviours, and learning preferences to pinpoint areas of
strength and weakness. This valuable information enables educators to customise their teaching
approaches to suit the individual needs of each student.
2. Hypothesis testing: In education, teachers can create hypotheses about how a particular lesson
or teaching method will impact student learning. Through hypothesis testing, teachers can
determine what works best for their students and adjust their teaching methods to improve
student learning outcomes.
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is essential in education, as educators must provide accurate information
to their students. They must be precise when grading assignments, giving feedback, and
communicating with parents to ensure authentic assessment of student progress.
4. Objectivity: Objectivity is crucial in education as it ensures consistency and fairness in grading
and assessment. Teachers often use rubrics to assess student work to ensure that assignments
are graded consistently across all students.
5. Experimentation: Teachers can experiment with different teaching and assessment methods
to find the most effective strategies for their students. They can also try new technologies or
instructional methods to enhance student learning.

Health
1. Empiricism: Medicine relies on empirical evidence obtained through observation and
experimentation. Scientific methods such as clinical trials and laboratory research are used
to gather data and test hypotheses. Medical professionals collect information about diseases,
symptoms, treatments, and outcomes to make evidence-based decisions.
2. Replicability: Replicability is a fundamental principle of science that emphasizes the ability to
reproduce research findings. In medicine, replicability ensures that studies and experiments can

25
Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

be repeated by other researchers, enhancing the results’ reliability. Replication allows for the
verification and validation of scientific claims and forms the basis for evidence-based medicine.
3. Falsifiability: Falsifiability is the capacity of a hypothesis or theory to be proven false if it
is indeed incorrect. In medicine, hypotheses and theories are tested and refined to ensure
accuracy. Scientific claims are subjected to rigorous scrutiny, and if evidence emerges that
contradicts a hypothesis, it can be modified or discarded. This iterative process helps refine
medical knowledge over time.
4. Peer Review: Peer review is a critical part of the scientific process. Research papers and studies
undergo rigorous evaluation by independent field experts before being published in reputable
scientific journals. Peer review helps maintain the quality and integrity of scientific research
and provides an added layer of scrutiny and validation.

Industry
Example 1: By conducting experiments, collecting data, and observation, industries can make
informed decisions and improve operations.
Example 2: Industries employ structured methodologies to solve problems and optimise processes.
This may involve defining objectives, researching, testing hypotheses, and implementing solutions
step-by-step.
Example 3: Scientific inquiry is characterised by objectivity and impartiality. These characteristics
are vital in ensuring un-biased evaluations, assessments, and decision-making processes in the
industry. By adopting an objective approach, industries can make decisions based on evidence rather
than personal biases leading to more reliable outcomes.
Example 4: Science emphasises reproducibility of experiments and findings to validate results.
Industries also strive to ensure reproducibility in their processes, products, and quality control
measures. By implementing standard operating procedures, rigorous testing protocols, and verification
processes, industries can achieve consistent and reliable outcomes.

Learning Task

1. Explain how characteristics of science can be applied in everyday life, such as in education.

Pedagogical Exemplars
1. Put learners in mixed-ability groups. Using think-pair-share lets learners search for the
applications of the characteristics of science (empirical evidence, systematic observation,
objectivity, tentativity) in everyday life, such as agricultural science, health, education, and
home and reflect on their findings. Learners discuss their findings on the applications of the
characteristics of science in everyday life.
2. Let learners assess each other’s contributions during group activities, presentations, and
experiments.
3. Organise a visit or field trip to a local industry or school farm where learners can observe the
applications of the characteristics of science firsthand. During field trips to local industries or
school farms, teachers can monitor students’ engagement, note-taking, and interactions with
industry professionals to assess their understanding of the applications of the characteristics
of science.
4. Learners write a summary report about what they learnt from the field trip.

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 Section 1: The Characteristics of Science

Summary report on the field trip to the local industries.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 2: Identify at least three areas where characteristics of science are applied.
Assessment Level 2: Explain how empirical evidence as a characteristic of science is applied in
Agriculture.
Assessment Level 2: Explain how the characteristics of science are applied in health and school.
Assessment Level 3: Analyse at least two situations or areas where the characteristics of science can
be applied.

Section Review
These lessons were structured to provide a holistic learning experience. Learners should now
possess a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of science in nature, be able
to apply this knowledge in practical project design and demonstrate proficiency in applying
scientific characteristics in diverse contexts. The aim is for each student to gain theoretical
knowledge and develop practical skills that can be utilised in scientific activities beyond the
classroom.

Additional Learning
1. Identify the characteristics of science involved in the solubility of salt experiment and explain
your answer. HINT: Systematic, observation, empirical, verifiable, etc.
2. Identify any problem in your community and apply the characteristics of science to solving it.
Hint: Causes, Observation/ Experimentation, and empirical data analysis.
3. Designing hands-on experiments or field trips to help students observe natural phenomena and
collect data.
4. Using inquiry-based learning activities where students formulate research questions and design
investigations to answer them.

References
1. Curriculum document
2. https: //evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/
3. https: //www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list
4. Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of nature
of science questionnaire (VNOS): Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’
conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 497-521.V
5. Smith, J. K. (2002). The Empirical Nature of Science: A Comprehensive Guide. P

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

SECTION 2: SOLIDS AND BINARY COMPOUNDS

Strand: Exploring Materials

Sub-Strand: Science and Materials in Nature

Learning Outcome: Explain the functions of solids in life.

Content Standard: Know, understand, and identify the roles of solids in life.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section will examine the many types of solids and how they are used in everyday life.
Understanding the characteristics of various solids is critical for understanding their functions and
applications in various industries. We will look at how these solids are used in real-world applications,
giving insight into the importance of material qualities in various settings. In addition, we will discuss
the relationship between binary compounds, their compositions, and naming practices. This section
seeks to provide a detailed overview of chemical compounds, including information on their structures
and nomenclature. After completing this part, learners can categorise various solids and identify their
purposes. By applying solid properties to real-world circumstances. Learners will better understand
the practical significance of material qualities in everyday life. In addition, there will understanding
of the relationship between binary compounds, their compositions, and the process of identifying
compounds. This information will enable leaners to correctly name and analyse binary compounds,
improving learners’ chemical compound identification skills. Mastering these ideas will increase
your learners’ awareness of the importance of solids and compounds in diverse applications, laying a
solid foundation for future research in science-related courses.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 4: Classify different solids and their uses.
Week 5: Apply the properties of solids to everyday use.
Week 6: Discuss the relationship between binary compounds, the composition of binary
compounds and the names of compounds.
Week 7: Discuss the relationship between binary compounds, the composition of binary
compounds and the names of compounds.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Teachers should use a comprehensive approach incorporating differentiated instruction to care for
diverse learning needs when designing pedagogical exemplars. Teachers should focus not just on
what learners need to know and comprehend but also on providing interesting content for bright
and talented learners. Teachers should use various teaching strategies and techniques to meet
learners’ diverse learning styles and skills in the classroom. Differentiated instruction is essential
for addressing individual needs and ensuring that all learners have effective access to the focus area
of study. Clearly define all learners’ learning outcomes and expectations, including the fundamental
knowledge, understanding, and abilities they must acquire during the learning process. Assessments
should be aligned with the learning outcomes to appropriately evaluate learning progress. Give
gifted and talented learners more challenges, extensions, and enrichment opportunities to help them
learn more effectively. This could include more challenging coursework, independent research
projects, or opportunities for creative expression outside of the traditional curriculum. By employing

28
 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

these strategies, teachers can foster a supportive learning environment that encourages academic
improvement for all learners while also giving advanced chances for gifted and talented learners to
attain their full potential.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section’s assessments may be formative, summative, or differentiated. Formative assessment will
involve laboratory work demonstrating certain science aspects to improve learners’ science process
abilities. Short exams, class exercises, assignments, group discussions, group projects, and group
presentations also exist. Written examinations, interviews, observations, or performance assignments
based on assessment indicators are delivered, along with graded outcomes. Students could be
issued with a list of the learning outcomes for each section, and they could review their learning
by coding each learning outcome red (not understood). Amber (understood but not yet secure) and
green (securely understood). Summative assessments are due at the end of every lesson, section, and
semester. However, both formative and summative exams contribute to learners’ cumulative records.
To foster a positive assessment environment, ensure learners are given clear instructions. Maintain
consistency in administering the evaluation across all participants to ensure fairness. To foster a
positive assessment environment, ensure learners are given clear instructions. Maintain consistency
in administering the evaluation to all participants to ensure fairness and impartiality.
Transcript recording requires relevant information such as the learner’s characteristics, assessment
date, components, and scores. Include any additional observations or notes that may provide valuable
insights into the evaluation results. Refer to the Teacher Assessment Manual and Toolkits for more
detail on how to assess learners.
Differentiated assessment focuses on learners’ needs, strengths, and interests. Teachers should adjust
assessment questions to different levels of readiness, learning styles, and preferences so that all
students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their competencies.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Week 4
Learning Indicator(s): Classify different solids and their uses.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Metals, non-metals, and semi-metals.

The three broad categories of elements based on their chemical and physical properties are metals,
nonmetals, and semi-metals. These categories are used to classify elements in the periodic table.
The periodic table organises elements based on their atomic number. Elements in the same vertical
column, known as a group or family, share similar chemical properties as they have the same valence
electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom. Elements in
the same group have the same valence electrons leading to similar chemical behaviors. Elements in the
same horizontal row, known as a period, have the same principal energy level but different numbers
of valence electrons. As you move across a period, the properties of elements change gradually.
Groups are labeled with numbers and specific names. For example, Group 1 elements (alkali metals)
share similar properties such as high reactivity due to having one valence electron. Group 17 elements
(halogens) are highly reactive nonmetals with seven valence electrons. The semi-metals are found in
the middle of the periodic table. They have varying numbers of valence electrons and exhibit a wide
range of chemical behaviours.

Fig. 2.1: Peroidic Table on the first twenty element.

30
 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Metals
Metals are found on the left-hand side of the periodic table. They are elements that donate electrons
in a chemical reaction to form cations. Eg. Li, Na, K, Be, Mg and Ca.

Fig. 2.2: Different metals

Physical properties of metals

Physical State: Metals are solids at room temperature except mercury and gallium which are liquids
at room temperature.
Lustre: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from its surface and can be polished e.g. gold,
silver, and copper.
Malleability: Metals have the ability to be hammered into different shapes without breaking into pieces.
Ductility: Metals can be drawn into flexible wires.
Hardness: All solid metals are hard except sodium, rubidium, caesium, lithium, and potassium which
are soft and can be cut with a knife.
Valency: Metals have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms.
Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and copper are the
two best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury,
and iron are also poor conductors.
Density: Metals are very heavy and have high densities. Iridium and osmium have the highest densities
while lithium has the lowest.
Melting and Boiling Point: Metals have high melting and boiling points.
Electropositive Character: Metals are elements that tend to lose electrons and form cations.
Sonority: Some metals are sonorous - they produce a sharp ringing sound when hit by an object.
Experiment to Show Thermal Conductivity.
Aim: To investigate the thermal conduction properties of a selection of metals.
Materials needed: Bunsen burner, Vaseline, copper, iron, brass, and aluminium rods, stopwatch,
drawing pins, tripod, cardboard or paper, matches.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Procedure
i. Stick the flat end of a drawing pin to the end of each metal rod using the Vaseline. Try to use
the same amount of Vaseline for each drawing pin.
ii. Place the cardboard on the tripod (this insulates the metal rod from the metal tripod).
iii. Balance the metal rods on the cardboard so that one end is over the Bunsen burner but not too
close that it catches fire.
iv. Light the Bunsen burner.
v. Using a stopwatch, time how long until each pin drops off.
vi. Record your results in the table.

Fig. 2.3: Testing the conductivity of metals

Results and recording: Record your results in the following table

Type of metal Time taken for pin to drop off (seconds)

Iron
Copper
Brass
Aluminium

Observation: The pin stuck to the copper rod should drop off first as copper is the best conductor of
heat and the Vaseline will melt first.
Conclusion: Metals vary in their thermal conductivity with copper having the best in this selection.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Experiment to show that metals are malleable

Aim: to investigate the malleability of different metals by striking them with a hammer.
Materials needed: Pieces of iron, zinc, lead, and copper, hammer, an anvil, or solid block of iron to
act as an anvil
Procedure
i. Note the initial shape of each piece of metal.
ii. Take a piece of iron and place it on the block of iron or anvil.
iii. Strike the piece of iron five times with a hammer.
iv. Observe and record any changes in the shape of the piece of iron.
v. Repeat the same process with pieces of zinc, lead, and copper.
vi. Record observations and note any differences in how each metal changes shape

Fig. 2.4: Testing malleability of metal

Observation: Metals have varying degrees of malleability and there should be a range of deformations
amongst the four metals being investigated here: copper and lead are more malleable than zinc or iron.
Conclusion: metals can be hammered into different shapes.

Experiment to Show the Lustrous Nature of Metals

Aim: To compare the lustre of different metals.
Materials needed: Samples of iron, copper, aluminium, magnesium and sandpaper
Procedures:
i. Observe and note the appearance of each metal sample.
ii. Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing it with sandpaper.
iii. Observe and note any changes in appearance.
Observation: copper shines more (is more lustrous) than other metals such as iron, aluminium,
magnesium.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Conclusion: Metals exhibit a shining surface known as metallic lustre, the degree of lustre varies
amongst metals

Experiment to show that metals are hard

Aim: To demonstrate the hardness of metals compared with other non-metal materials
Materials: Various objects made of varied materials (e.g., metal spoon, key, rubber band, plastic
ruler, piece of cloth), a coin.
Procedure: Gently try to scratch the surface of each object with the coin.
Observe: Note which objects resist scratching and which ones are easily scratched by the penny.
Conclusion: The metal objects should be difficult to scratch, whilst the softer materials should show
visible scratches indicating that they are less hard.
Explanation: Metals are harder than other materials because their atoms are arranged in strong,
ordered structures. This makes it difficult to deform or break the metal’s surface when scratched.
Softer materials have weaker atomic bonds, making them more susceptible to scratches and dents.

Chemical Properties of Metals

Reactivity: The ability of metal to undergo chemical reactions with water or acids. Metals vary in
their reactivity with acids. Some metals, like zinc and aluminum, react with acids to produce hydrogen
gas and a metal salt. Others are resistant to reaction. Some metals are more reactive than others and
can be ordered into a reactivity series from most to least reactive (e.g., the mnemonic MAZIT useful
here - Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn)
Corrosion: Many metals undergo corrosion, this is a chemical reaction with substances in the
environment that leads to the deterioration of the metal. Iron, for example, corrodes to form rust in
the presence of oxygen and water.

Formation of Alloys
Metals can form alloys which are mixtures of two or more metals. Alloying often enhances the
properties of metals such as increased strength or resistance to corrosion.
Uses of metals
• Gold, silver, platinum, and copper are widely used in jewellery.
• Iron and steel (an alloy of iron) are widely used in building and home construction.
• Cooking utensils are best made from metals like steel, aluminium, and copper.
• Sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and many others are available as micro-nutrients
in our body.
• Iron, steel, titanium and aluminium are used in machinery and automobile construction.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Non- Metals
Non-metals are chemical elements that do not have the properties of a metal for example, Hydrogen
(H), Helium (He), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O).

Physical properties of Non-metals

Physical state: Most non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature: gases
such as oxygen and solids such as carbon.
Low Ductility: Non-metals are usually very brittle and cannot be rolled into wires or pounded
into sheets.
Poor conductivity: Non-metals are typically poor conductors of electricity and heat. However,
graphite (a form of carbon) is a notable exception.
Poor lustre: Non-metals often have dull, non-reflective surfaces.
Low malleability: Solid non-metals cannot be easily hammered or pressed into different shapes
without fracturing.

Chemical Properties
Reactivity: They form acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen. Non-metals tend to gain electrons in
chemical reactions, making them reactive towards metals.
Electronegativity: They have higher electronegativity compared to metals, meaning they attract
electrons more strongly.
Ionization: Non-metals easily gain electrons to form negative ions (anions) or share electrons to form
covalent bonds.
Acidity: Many non-metals form acidic oxides when they react with oxygen, such as sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Hydrogen Bonding: Non-metals like oxygen and nitrogen exhibit hydrogen bonding, influencing
their properties in compounds.

Uses of Nonmetals
• Nitrogen can be used as a food preservative and in light bulbs.
• Sulfur is used in making black gunpowder, matches, and fireworks.
• Chlorine can be used as a bleaching agent and in the treatment of water to make it safe to drink.
• Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity from oxygen and hydrogen.
• Oxygen used in space rockets as fuel, in respiration, in welding.

Semi-metals (sometimes called metalloids)

Semi-metals are elements found along the “staircase” line in the periodic table, bordering the region
between metals and non-metals. The semi-metals include boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.
Semi-metals show some properties of both metals and non-metals making their classification
intermediate between the two groups.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Properties
Conductivity of electricity: Partial conductivity - better than non-metals but not as good as metals.
Malleability: Intermediate between metals and non-metals
Ductility: Also intermediate between metals and non-metals.
State: All semi-metals are solid at room temperature

Fig. 2.5: Different metals

Differences between metals and non-metals

The classification into metals, non-metals, and semi-metals helps in understanding the fundamental
properties and behaviours of different elements, and it provides a foundation for studying their various
chemical interactions and applications.

Differences between semi-metals and non-metals

Semi-metals Non-metals
They may be brittle like non-metals They are typically brittle in solid form.
and have intermediate malleability and
ductility.
Semi-metals often have intermediate They have low thermal conductivity making
thermal conductivity. them good insulators in most cases.
Semi-metals have intermediate electrical They are bad conductors of electricity.
conductivity.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Differences between metals and semi-metals

Metals Semi-metals
Are excellent conductors of electricity. Have intermediate electrical conductivity.
Metals have high heat conductivity. Have intermediate thermal conductivity.
Metals are often malleable and ductile. Semi-metals can be brittle, making them less
suitable for applications where malleability and
ductility are important.
Metals tend to be reactive. Semi-metals have intermediate reactivity.
Metals typically have a shiny, metallic Semi-metals may have a metallic appearance but
lustre due to the reflection of light from can also appear dull or non-metallic.
their surface.

Corrosion
Corrosion is a natural chemical process (oxidation) that occurs when a metal reacts with oxygen/air
in the presence of water to form an oxide. Rusting refers specifically to the corrosion of iron or steel
(an alloy of iron). Other metals such as aluminium can also corrode.

Fig. 2.6: Rusting of metals

The chemical reaction involved in rusting can be represented as follows:

Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) →Hydrated Iron (III) Oxide (Rust)
4Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe203.H2O

Conditions necessary for rusting to occur

1. Water (moisture)
2. Air (oxygen)
Rust is a reddish-brown coating that forms on the surface of the iron. It can weaken the metal over
time, causing it to deteriorate and lose its structural integrity. This process can be accelerated in
warm, saltwater, or acidic conditions.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

A practical activity to show the rusting of iron

Aim: To conduct a simple experiment to demonstrate the conditions necessary for
rusting of iron
Material: Test tubes, iron nails, cork, distilled water, oil, Anhydrous calcium chloride.
Procedure
i. Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each
ii. Label these A, B, and C.
iii. Pour some water into a test tube A and cork it. The water should cover the nails.
iv. Pour enough boiled and cooled water into test tube B to cover the nails, add about 1 ml of oil
and cork it. The oil will float on water and prevent the oxygen from dissolving into the water.
Boiling removes dissolved oxygen from the water.
v. Put approximately 5g of anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it. Anhydrous
calcium chloride will absorb any moisture from the air.
vi. Leave the test tubes for a week and then observe and note the results.

scan for
information

Fig. 2.7: Investigating the conditions under which iron rusts.

Observation: Iron nails will rust in test tube A but they should not rust in test tubes B and C. In test
tube A, the nails are exposed to both oxygen and water. In test tube B, the nails are exposed to only
water, and the nails in test tube C are exposed to only to oxygen.
Conclusion: Oxygen (in air) and water are required for rusting to take place.

Methods for the prevention of corrosion include:

Painting: Paint provides a protective layer that seals the metal surface and blocks moisture and
oxygen from reaching the metal.
Clear Coats and Sealants coating: Transparent coatings like lacquers and clear sealants can be used
to protect metal surfaces while preserving their natural appearance.
Galvanising: Galvanising involves electro-coating the iron (or steel) with a thin layer of zinc. This
has two modes of protection - the thin layer of zinc acts as a barrier to water and oxygen; and zinc is
more reactive than iron and corrodes instead of the iron (called sacrificial protection).

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Plating: Plating involves depositing a layer of another metal onto the surface of the base metal.
This outer layer serves as a protective barrier. For example, chrome plating is commonly used for
decorative and corrosion-resistant purposes.
Alloying: Alloying involves mixing two or more different metals or non-metal and a metal. This helps
to improve its corrosion resistance. An example of this is stainless steel which contains chromium
which reacts with oxygen to form a thin, invisible oxide layer on the metal’s surface. This layer acts
as a barrier, protecting the underlying metal from rust.
Keeping the metal in cool dry place: Keeping metal objects dry and clean reduces the likelihood of
corrosion.
Desiccants: The use moisture-absorbing substances like silica gel packets or other desiccants when
storing metal objects in enclosed spaces can reduce corrosion and is used in many commercial
products within the packaging.

Learning Tasks

1. Enumerate three properties each of metals, non-metals, semi-metals

2. In tabular form, outline four differences between metals and nonmetals.
3. Explain why metal objects should be kept dry and clean.

Pedagogical Exemplars
• Learners can be grouped in mixed-gender and mixed-ability groups to explore the uses of
various solid materials in different structures and substances within their community during
a walk around their community (e.g., buildings, vehicles, litter, glass, plastic, construction
materials etc.).
• Learners can use the internet to research these different solid materials and classify them based
on specific criteria using concept maps. Teacher ensures learners classify solid materials into
metals, non-metals, semi-metals. Note: there will be some that cannot as they are compounds
or mixtures.
• In groups, discuss the classification of solids into metals, non-metals, semi-metals using their
properties. Groups can present their conclusions.
• Using samples of metals, semi-metals and non-metals, guide learners in pairs to research
and distinguish between their properties such as lustre, electrical and thermal conductivity,
malleability, ductility, and sonority.
• Assign learners in separate groups to perform the different practical activities. Learners can
present their results to the rest of the class
• Working in small groups, learners can create a poster which shows the findings from their
practical activities.

Key assessment
Assessment Level 1: Identify three substances which are solids at room temperature.
Assessment Level 2: Explain why gold and platinum do not corrode.
Assessment Level 2: Describe an experiment to explain the conditions necessary for corrosion of iron.
Assessment Level 3: Describe and explain the differences between metals and non- metals

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Week 5
Learning Indicator(s):

Apply the properties of solids to everyday use

Theme or Focal Area(s): Application of properties of different solid structures in

relation to their uses in life.

Solid materials
Solid materials refer to substances or objects with a definite/fixed shape and volume. Unlike liquids
and gases, which can flow and change shape easily, solids maintain their shape and volume under
normal conditions. Solids are characterised by strong intermolecular forces that hold their constituent
particles such as atoms, ions, or molecules in a fixed arrangement.
A table showing examples of solids in different structures.
Examples of Structures Examples of Solids in structures
Building concrete, steel, wood, brick
Glassware Sand is a raw material in the making of glass
glass wool, glass beads
Vehicles Metals, glass, plastics, leather, cushion, connecting wires
Gadgets (e.g., computer) Glass, plastics, , etc.
Plastic materials (e.g., Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
bottles, bowls)
Tables Wood, nails. steel, plastic, glass
Sculptures stones, marble, metal, or wood
Bridges steel, concrete, stone

Classification of materials with reasons.

Examples of Solids Classification Reason(s)
Polyethylene, polyvinyl Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating
chloride (PVC) subunits called monomers.
are flexible and have a high strength-to-weight
ratio.
Table salt, sugar Crystalline exhibit well-defined geometric shapes.
(sucrose), diamond, have a highly ordered and repeating arrangement
quartz. of particles (crystals).
Plastics Polymers do not have a well-defined shape.
do not form crystals.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Solid metals
Properties of solid metals and some of their uses.

Property Use(s)
Conductivity: They are high thermal and This property is valuable in electrical
electrical conductors. wiring, power transmission, electronics,
and heating.
Magnetic properties: Iron, nickel, and This characteristic is essential for
cobalt exhibit magnetic properties. electrical motors, generators, transformers,
and magnetic storage devices.
Reflectivity: particularly those with a This property is used in applications such
smooth surface (e.g., Steel), have high as mirrors, reflectors, and solar panels
reflectivity for light and heat. where efficient reflection is required.
High melting and boiling points: Most Metals with extremely high melting
metals have high melting and boiling points, such as tungsten and molybdenum,
points allowing them to withstand high produce refractory materials capable of
temperatures. withstanding very high temperatures.
Metals with high melting points are used
to make crucibles and molds for casting
other materials such as ceramics and
alloys. The crucible or mold remains
stable and does deform during casting.
Other metals (such as lead) with lower
melting points are used in soldering
and brazing processes to join different
components.
Density: The density of metals refers to In military and defence applications,
how much mass is packed into a given high-density metals like depleted uranium
volume of the material. In simpler terms, are used in armour-piercing ammunition
it is a measure of how heavy a metal due to their ability to penetrate heavily
is for its size. Metals tend to have high armored targets.
densities providing substantial mass and
strength.

Experiment to demonstrate the magnetic properties of different materials

Aim: To compare the magnetic properties of various materials.
Materials: Bar magnet, iron nail, copper wire, aluminum foil, paper clips, plastic ruler, wooden stick,
plastic bottle cap, Styrofoam ball and rubber band.
Procedure
i. Position the bar magnet on a level surface.
ii. Bring each substance close to the bar magnet one at a time to see if there is any attraction or
repulsion between them.
iii. Repeat the process with each material.
iv. Classify each object as magnetic or non-magnetic and list these in a table.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Observations:Materials such as the iron nail, paper clips, and copper wire will be attracted to the
magnet, showing magnetic properties. Materials like aluminum foil, plastic ruler, wooden stick, plastic
bottle cap, Styrofoam ball, and rubber band will not be attracted to the magnet and are considered
non-magnetic.
Conclusion: Certain materials exhibit magnetic properties and are attracted to a magnet whilst others
do not show any magnetic response.

Experiment to show densities of various metals.

Aim: to investigate the densities of different solid materials.
Materials needed: Various metal samples such as iron, lead, aluminum, copper, iron, zinc, balance,
measuring cylinder, beaker, water, forceps.
Procedure
i. Start by collecting samples of the metals you want to test. Make sure they are clean and free of
any dirt or debris.
ii. Weigh the mass of each metal sample and record in grams.
iii. Fill the measuring cylinder with a known volume of water and record
iv. Carefully lower the first metal sample into the water using a pair of forceps. Make sure the
metal is fully submerged.
v. Measure and record the new increased volume of water after adding the metal sample. Measure
volume in ml.
vi. Repeat for each metal sample.
vii. Calculate the volume of each metal sample by subtracting the initial volume of water from the
final volume of water.
viii. Use the formula: Density = Mass / Volume to calculate the density of each metal sample.
ix. Record your results and compare the densities of the different metals.

Fig. 2.8: Investigating the density of solid materials

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Observations: different metals will have different densities. Lead should be the most dense
Conclusion: metals vary in density and have different uses e.g.; lead is often used in adding ballast
(weight) as it is very dense and therefore heavy for its volume.

Experiment to show electricity conductivity.

Aim: to investigate the electrical conductivity of different solid materials.
Materials: Solid objects composed of a range of materials e.g., metal rod, key, wooden stick, plastic
ruler, graphite rod, lead pencil, etc. A simple circuit set up with a battery, LED bulb and wires.

Fig. 2.9: Testing for electrical conductivity of different solid material

Procedure
i. Construct a simple circuit setup with a battery, LED bulb, and wires.
ii. Check the circuit conducts electricity, the battery is good, and the bulb is working by connecting
the free wire ends to complete the circuit.
iii. Introduce metal rod, wooden stick, plastic ruler, graphite rod, and pencil lead into the circuit to
complete it. Note: the pencil lead is in fact graphite, ensure the wires are connected to the lead
of the pencil rather than the surrounding wood
iv. Does the bulb light up? Record in a table whether the object conducts electricity by observing
if the bulb lights.
Observation: the metal rod, pencil lead and graphite rod will all conduct electricity (the bulb lights
up) and the wooden stick and plastic ruler will not.
Conclusion: Different solid objects and materials vary in terms of electrical conductivity.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Uses of Polymers in relation to their properties.

Strength and durability properties: Many polymers show excellent strength and durability,
making them suitable for applications that require robust materials. Durability is the material’s
ability to withstand wear, corrosion, fracture, fatigue, deformation, and exposure to a wide variety of
temperatures.
Use: Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used in packaging, construction materials like
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, and aramid fibres used in bulletproof vests.
Flexibility and elasticity properties: Certain polymers possess high flexibility and elasticity allowing
them to withstand bending and stretching without breaking.
Use: These polymers find use in applications such as flexible packaging films, elastic bands, and soft-
touch materials like rubber.
Thermal Stability properties: Some polymers have good resistance to high temperatures.
Uses: Polyimides (PI) are used in aerospace and electronics due to their excellent thermal stability
and electrical insulation properties.
Other polymers with high thermal stability can be used to manufacture textiles and fibres that can
withstand extreme temperatures making them useful in producing protective clothing for firefighters
and industrial workers.
Resistant properties: Many polymers are resistant to various chemicals, acids, and solvents, making
them suitable for applications in corrosive environments.
Uses:Chemically resistant polymers are preferred for making pipes and tubing in industries where
corrosive fluids or gases are transported. They prevent leaks, corrosion, and the risk of contamination,
making them suitable for applications in chemical processing plants and laboratories. These polymers
are also used in coatings and paints to enhance their durability and resistance to chemical exposure
and environmental factors. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is used in chemical processing equipment
whilst Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is used in chemical storage tanks.
Electrical Insulation properties: Polymers can act as excellent insulators, preventing the flow of
electricity.
Uses: This property is valuable in electrical applications such as insulating coatings, cables, and
connectors. Examples include polyethene (PE) and polypropylene (PP).
Transparency properties: Certain polymers possess transparency or optical clarity making them
suitable for applications that require see-through materials.
Use: Polymethyl methacrylate, commonly known as acrylic or plexiglass, is used in products like
display panels, lenses, and signage.
Water Resistance properties: Some polymers exhibit good resistance to water absorption making
them ideal for applications that involve contact with moisture.
Use: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is commonly used in beverage bottles due to its water resistance
and transparency.
Biodegradability properties: Biodegradable materials can be degraded naturally by decomposers
and environmental processes over time. These materials are typically made from organic resources.
They can be a more environmentally friendly option to non-biodegradable materials, which can remain
in the environment for a long time and contribute to pollution. Biodegradable polymers have grown

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

in popularity as people become more concerned with sustainability. These polymers can degrade
spontaneously over time lessening their negative environmental effects.
Uses: Biodegradable polymers are employed in various medical devices and drug administration
methods. For example, absorbable sutures constructed of biodegradable polymers disintegrate over
time, removing the need for surgical removal. Biodegradable polymers can also be used for packaging
purposes, notably in single-use applications that reduce plastic waste.
Bonding properties: Some polymers have adhesive properties, bonding well with various surfaces.
Use: They are used in adhesives, tapes, and sealants enabling bonding in industries like construction,
automotive, and electronics.

The properties and uses of crystalline solids.

Glass Properties Use
Soda-lime glass Transparent. Chemical resistance - it It is used in windows, bottles,
is non-reactive. Soda-lime glass has a and jars and scientific glassware
moderate coefficient of thermal expansion
meaning it expands and contracts evenly
when exposed to temperature changes.
Borosilicate Exhibits high chemical resistance, high Suitable for laboratory
thermal resistance, and durability. glassware, chemical storage
containers, and pharmaceutical
packaging where the material
needs to withstand corrosive
substances. Also, cookware e.g.,
Pyrex and high-end lighting
fixtures.
Lead crystal It contains a significant amount of lead Often used in fine glassware,
oxide giving it exceptional clarity, chandeliers, and decorative
brilliance, luxurious appearance, and items.
weight.
Fused silica: Its high purity, thermal stability, optical It is ideal for lenses, mirrors,
transparency, and chemical resistance and precision optics in scientific
makes fused silica is a versatile material instruments.
used in a wide range of industries
Aluminosilicate Contains aluminum oxide and silica It is used in applications such
glass offering high strength, chemical resistance, as smartphone screens, armored
and thermal shock resistance. vehicle windows, and aerospace
components.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Properties and uses of marble.

Marble Properties Use

Glass Marble Glass marbles are fragile and can break For games, crafts, and decorations,
if dropped or subjected to pressure. They crafting jewelry, mosaic art, and
can have different surface finishes such as DIY projects.
matte or glossy.
Agate Marble This may exhibit translucency, hardness, Used in jewelry, decorative arts,
translucency, durability, and high density and collectibles.
Alabaster It has a smooth, polished surface and Decorative arts and architecture.
Marble comes in various colours including white,
cream, beige.
Once fired, clay marbles become hard Traditional games, decorative
and durable with a smooth surface. Clay purposes
marbles are dense which gives them good
weight and stability,
Steel Marble Usually made of hardened steel. Steel Furnace applications or automotive
is a good conductor of electricity, so engines.
steel marbles can be used in electrical
applications, such as electrical contacts
or as conductive elements in electronic
devices.
Steel marbles have a high density
Ceramic Ceramic marbles are typically durable and Cooking or industrial processes.
Marble resistant to wear and tear

Learning Tasks

1. State three uses of solid metals.

2. Explain the relationship between the properties of solid metals and their uses.
3. Write four properties of solid metals.
4. How will you determine the density of different solid materials.

Pedagogical Exemplars
1. Learners’ research on how the features of different solids connect to their daily uses from
various cultural viewpoints. Learner reflects and cross share their views.
2. Guide learners to develop concept maps to visualise the relationship between solids, their
qualities, and uses.
• Put learners into mixed ability groups to demonstrate their understanding of how various
solids are employed based on their qualities through practical activities e.g. electrical
conductivity using simple electric circuits.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

3. Assign roles, based on individual strengths, such as researcher, presenter, visual maker, or
group facilitator, to encourage active participation and contribution from all learners during the
demonstration of practical activities.
4. Learners discuss their results with the class through a variety of presentation alternatives, such
as oral presentations, poster displays, multimedia slideshows, or performances, so they can
select a format that best suits their strengths and interests.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 1: Provide examples of everyday products that use the electrical conductivity
of metals.
Assessment Level 2: Explain how the high tensile strength of steel contributes to its usefulness in
constructing bridges and buildings.
Assessment Level 2: Discuss the importance of corrosion resistance in selecting materials for outdoor
structures and marine environments.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Week 6
Learning Indicator(s): Discuss the relationship between binary compounds, the composition of
binary compounds and the names of compounds.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Relationship Between Binary Compounds, the Composition

of Binary Compounds and the Names of Compounds.

Binary compounds
Binary compounds are chemical compounds composed of two different elements. These compounds
are formed through the combination of two distinct types of atoms. The elements involved in binary
compounds can be metals and nonmetals or two nonmetals. There are two main types of binary
compounds: ionic and covalent compounds.

Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are chemical compounds composed of two elements: a metal and a nonmetal. These
compounds form through ionic bonding, a type of chemical bond in which electrons are transferred
from one atom to another. The metal donates electrons to become a positively charged ion (cation),
and the non-metal accepts these electrons to become a negatively charged ion (anion). The resulting
oppositely charged ions are held together by electrostatic forces, creating a stable compound.
Properties of Ionic Compounds
State of Matter: Most ionic compounds exist in a solid state at room temperature. The strong
electrostatic forces between positively and negatively charged ions create a stable crystal lattice
structure.
Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. The strong
ionic bonds require a substantial amount of energy to break, high temperatures are needed for these
compounds to undergo phase changes.
Solubility in Water: Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. When placed in water, the ions
separate and disperse throughout the solution due to the polar nature of water molecules. However,
not all ionic compounds are equally soluble, and some may show limited solubility or are insoluble.
Conductivity in Aqueous Solutions: Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water
or in molten form. In these states, the ions are free to move and carry an electric current. However, in
their solid state, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
Crystal Structure: Ionic compounds form a regular and repeating three-dimensional crystal lattice
structure. The arrangement of positive and negative ions in this structure contributes to the stability
of the compound.
Hardness and Brittleness: Ionic compounds are typically hard and brittle. The crystal lattice structure
can fracture when subjected to force as like-charged ions repel each other.
Density: Ionic compounds have high densities. The arrangement of ions in the crystal lattice
contributes to the overall mass of the compound in each volume.
Colour: Pure ionic compounds are often colourless. However, certain metal ions, especially transition
metals, can impart colour to the compound. For example, copper ions can give a blue or green colour
to an ionic compound.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Covalent Compounds
Covalent Compounds are those whose molecules contain bonds formed through the sharing of
electrons between two or more different atoms. As the name suggests, covalent compounds contain
covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. Covalent
bonding involves different atoms of the same element or different elements sharing electrons in their
outermost shells to attain a stable electron configuration. Examples of covalent compounds are
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO2), Water (H2O), Ammonia (NH3) and Methane (CH4).
Molecules such as Hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O2) also consist of covalent bonds. In the formation
of hydrogen gas, each of the two atoms of hydrogen contribute its electron to be shared with the other
hydrogen atom. Sharing of electrons ensures that each hydrogen atom gains an additional electron in
its valence shell (K shell). This ensures that the shell has a stable configuration.

2.10: Formation of molecule of Oxygen Gas (O2)

Similarly in a molecule of Oxygen Gas (O2), the two atoms of oxygen contribute a pair of electrons
each to be shared. This ensures that each of the two atoms attains an inert configuration of 8 electrons
in the valence shell.

Fig. 2.11: Formation of molecule of Oxygen Gas (O2)

Water is another common example of a covalent compound. It consists of atoms of hydrogen and
oxygen. In the formation of a molecule of water (H2O), two atoms of hydrogen are involved in sharing
electrons with an atom of oxygen. Each atom of hydrogen contributes its electron to be shared with
oxygen, the central atom. Sharing electrons with oxygen ensures that the two atoms of hydrogen both
gain an extra electron to enable them to attain stability. The oxygen atom with six valence electrons
gains two electrons (one from each of the two hydrogen atoms) to attain a stable octet configuration.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Fig. 2.12: Formation of molecule of water

Properties of Covalent compounds

Because they contain covalent bonds, covalent compounds exhibit the following properties:
• they normally exist as gases, liquid, or soft solids;
• their melting and boiling points are very low;
• they can be insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents;
• they are non-conductors of electricity in solid, molten, or aqueous state;
• they have weak intermolecular forces of attraction.

Experiment: Investigating Properties of Water (H2O)

Aim: To examine water’s electrical conductivity as a representative covalent compound.
Materials: Two electrodes (e.g., copper or graphite), electrical circuit with connecting wires,
ammeter, switch, batteries
Procedure
i. Set up an electrical circuit as shown by connecting two electrodes (e.g., copper or graphite) to
an ammeter, switch, and battery in series.
ii. Fill a beaker with distilled water and place the electrodes into the water, ensuring they do not
touch each other.
iii. Observe and record changes in the ammeter reading as the electrodes are submerged in the water.
iv. Repeat the experiment with other substances like salt (NaCl) dissolved in water and sugar
(sucrose) dissolved in water.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Fig. 2.14: Testing electrical conductivity of water

Take safety precautions while conducting the experiment, such as wearing safety goggles, lab coats,
and following standard laboratory practices.
Perform each test multiple times to ensure accuracy and reliability of results.
Use distilled water to maintain consistency and reduce the influence of impurities on the experiment.

Differences between ionic and covalent compounds

Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
1. These have high melting and boiling These have low melting and boiling points
points because the bonds are strong due because molecules are held together by
to electrostatic bonds. It takes a lot of heat weak forces that do not need much heat
energy to break the lattice. energy to separate them.
2. These are usually soluble in water. These are usually insoluble in water.
3. These are insoluble in organic solvents, These are usually soluble in organic
e.g., tetra chloromethane and petrol. solvents such as tetra chloromethane and
petrol.
4 They conduct electricity when they are These do not conduct electricity even when
melted or dissolved because the ions are melted
free

Learning Tasks

1. Explain the chemical composition of a binary compound.

2. Give an example and explain the bonding of ionic compound.
3. Explain how the chemical formulae for binary compounds can be written.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Pedagogical Exemplars
Using talk-for-learning approaches:
1. Guide learners to revise from the JHS curriculum B9.1.1.1.1 about the nature of compounds.
Provide opportunities for students to practice respecting others as they use the talk-for-learning
strategies.
2. With the aid of models, videos, charts, and the internet, learners discuss the relationship between
binary compounds (such as CO₂ NO₂ etc.), their composition, and chemical equations.
3. With the help of visuals, define each term: element, molecule, ion, and compound.
4. Have learners categorise a list of chemical examples such as H2O, NaCl, Fe, Ca2+ under the
correct headings: element, molecule, ion, or compound. Review and clarify misconceptions.
5. Explain what binary compounds are, focusing on their formation.
6. Using a Venn diagram or a chart, learners working in pairs can compare the properties of
different binary chemical compounds such as solubility, conductivity, melting point.
7. Engage learners in small group discussion about why certain compounds share properties and
why some are vastly different. Encourage each small group to feed back their conclusions to
the class.
8. Provide learners with modeling kits or craft materials like coloured balls (for atoms) and sticks
or Molymod (for bonds). Learners can practice building simple molecules.

Key assessment
Assessment Level 1: Identify at least four examples of binary compounds
Assessment Level 2 - Describe how magnesium oxide is formed.
Assessment Level 3: Explain the role of electron transfer in the formation of binary ionic compounds.
Assessment Level 3: Explain how covalent compounds are different from ionic compounds. Give
precise examples to support your explanation.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Week 7
Learning indicator: Discuss the relationship between binary compounds, the composition of
binary compounds and the names of compounds.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Naming of binary compounds

Naming of Binary Compounds

Naming compounds serves a crucial purpose in chemistry by providing a standardised way to identify
and communicate the composition of compounds. The naming conventions for compounds help to
convey vital information about the elements present and their respective charges. By following specific
naming rules, chemists can determine the exact combination of cations (positively charged ions) and
anions (negatively charged ions) within a compound. This knowledge is essential for understanding
chemical reactions, predicting the behavior of substances, and effectively communicating information
about the structure and properties of compounds.
Additionally, the proper naming of compounds allows for clear and unambiguous communication
within the scientific community. When scientists discuss chemical compounds in written or spoken
form using standardised names ensures that everyone understands the specific elements or ions
involved and their respective roles in the compound.

Writing of Chemical formula for binary compounds

1. Identify the two elements present in the compound.
2. Write the chemical symbols of the two elements that combine to make up the binary compound.
In an ionic compound, the atom that forms a positive ion is written first followed by the anion.
3. Then determine the valency of each of the atoms. Valency is the combining power of an element.
It refers to the number of electrons that an atom loses or gains to form a compound with a
different element. Valency has no charge. However, knowing the charge on an atom gives an
important clue about its valency. E.g., Mg2+ has a valency of 2, Na+ has a valency of 1, O2- has
a valency of 2 and Cl- has a valency of 1.
4. Exchange the valencies of the two different elements and write them as subscripts at the right-
hand side of the chemical symbol of each atom. In the example below, the cation of Magnesium
(Mg2+) has a valency of 2 which is exchanged with the valency of the anion of Chlorine (Cl-)
which is one (1).
5. Simplify the subscripts by finding the common factor. This step is often skipped if the values
are already simplified. Additionally, if the valency is one (1), it is not written.

Fig. 2.15: Formation of Magnesium chloride

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

For example, let us consider the compound formed between calcium (Ca) and oxygen (O):
Calcium is a metal and forms cations with a charge of +2. Oxygen is a non-metal and forms anions
with a charge of -2.
Based on their charges, it can be inferred that each of these atoms has a valency of 2.

Fig. 2.16: Formation of Calcium oxide

The valencies of the two atoms are exchanged as shown above.

Because 2 is a common factor to the two subscripts, the subscripts are simplified by dividing each of
them by two, giving us the chemical formula of the compound as CaO.
Another example is provided showing how to write the chemical formula of Aluminium chloride.
As is always the case the chemical symbols of the two elements are written, beginning with the
metallic element (Al).
Afterwards we infer the valencies of the two elements based on the charges on their ions (Al3+ and Cl-).
The valencies are then exchanged to give us the chemical formula of the compound Aluminium
Chloride as AlCl3.

Fig. 2.17: Formation of Aluminium chloride

Learning Tasks

A compound is formed by burning magnesium in the air.

1. What is the chemical name of the resulting compound and its chemical formula?
2. Explain how the compound is formed.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

Pedagogical Exemplars
1. Discuss with learners on the basic concepts of binary compound naming. Use leading questions
to engage students in conversations about the patterns and rules involved in naming binary
compounds. Encourage them to share their prior knowledge and build on it collaboratively.
2. Create a concept map on the board illustrating the connections between elements, ions, and
naming conventions for binary compounds. Encourage students to contribute to the map
throughout the lesson.
3. Provide models representing different elements and ions, demonstrating how they combine to
form binary compounds. Use interactive simulations or animations to illustrate the formation
and naming processes.
4. Incorporate real-world examples, such as common household compounds, to illustrate the
application of naming rules. For example, table salt, caustic soda, and baking soda.
5. In mixed groups, learners can research and prepare short presentations on specific aspects of
binary compound naming.
6. Provide a set of binary compounds for learners to name, encouraging them to work through the
naming rules independently or in groups. Offer feedback and discuss solutions collectively to
reinforce learning.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 1: Write the chemical formula of one compound formed between each of the
following elements:
i. Magnesium and chlorine
ii. Sodium and bromine
iii. Carbon and oxygen
Assessment Level 3: Compare a compound formed between Sodium and Chlorine with one formed
between Hydrogen and Nitrogen. Use this information to answer the question below:
a. Write down the name of each compound.
b. Write the chemical formula for each of the compounds you have named above.
c. Identify the type of bond in each compound and three differences between the compounds.

Section Review
Having completed the teaching session on the identification and practical applications of different
types of solids, along with exploring binary compounds and compound naming practices,
learners should have gained a comprehensive understanding of these fundamental concepts.
Through the initial assessment segment, learners should have successfully demonstrated
their ability to categorise solids and articulate their purposes, displaying a solid grasp of how
various characteristics define a solid’s utility in the real world. This phase not only evaluated
their knowledge of solid features but also encouraged critical thinking regarding practical
applications.
Moving forward to the subsequent section, students are now tasked with applying their
understanding of solid properties to real-life scenarios, displaying their proficiency in translating
theoretical knowledge into practical contexts. Furthermore, the exploration of binary compounds
and compound naming practices has deepened their comprehension of chemical structures and
nomenclature essentials, emphasising the significance of these concepts in scientific studies.

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Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

By participating in this comprehensive evaluation, learners are not only enhancing their
understanding of solids and compound compositions but are also developing vital skills that
they can apply in their daily lives. This knowledge will enable them to make informed decisions,
solve problems effectively, and approach scientific challenges with confidence and proficiency
in various scientific domains.

Extension Learning Suggestions

1. Create a visual presentation or poster board displaying various types of solids (e.g., crystalline,
amorphous, polymers) and their characteristics.
2. Conduct a hands-on experiment to identify unknown solids based on their physical properties
such as density, conductivity, and solubility.
3. Design and build a model demonstrating the properties of solids in construction materials (e.g.,
bridges, buildings).
4. Investigate the thermal conductivity of different solids and the practical implications in
insulation materials.
.5. Develop a guide on naming rules for binary compounds (ionic and covalent) with examples and
practice exercises.
6. Create a board game or flashcards to help reinforce the naming conventions of binary compounds
through interactive learning.
7. Research professions that use knowledge of solids and binary compounds in their operations.

Resources
1. Internet resources such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), for example
www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4MdZx1fgbA;
2. www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcF8E8aAOGs;
3. www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTq4sgGd2QU)
4. Data projector
5. Charts/pictures/drawings showing different solids.
6. Solid substances such as iron nails, plastic bottles, stones etc.,
7. Simulations/You Tube videos.
8. Connecting wires, ammeter, switch, beaker, electrodes, batteries, distilled water, Bunsen 8
burner or hot plate, thermometer.
9. Wood, plastic, aluminum, steel, etc., glass beaker, and a balance.
10. Vaseline copper, iron, brass and aluminium rod, stopwatch, drawing pins, tripod,
cardboard, matches.
Models for teaching chemical compounds such as Molymod https://molymod.com/

References
1. General science curriculum for Senior High Schools
2. https://tinyurl.com/2r82hv9m
3. https://tinyurl.com/zarca4ee
4. The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg)
5. Smith, W. F., & Hashemi, J. (2006). Principles of Materials Science and Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Education.

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 Section 2: Solids and Binary Compounds

6. Callister Jr., W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2017). Materials Science and Engineering: An
Introduction (10th ed.). Wiley.
7. Revie, R. W., & Uhlig, H. H. (2008). Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An Introduction to
Corrosion Science and Engineering (4th ed.). Wiley

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Section 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

SECTION 3: DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

Strand: Processes for Living

Sub-Strand: Essentials for Survival

Learning Outcome: Appreciate the movement of substances in biotic and abiotic media.

Content Standard: Demonstrate understanding, appreciation and model the movement of

substance in biotic and abiotic media.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

In this section, we explore the fundamental concepts of diffusion and osmosis, revealing their
significance in both scientific principles and everyday life. Diffusion, the spontaneous movement of
particles from high to low concentration, influences various natural phenomena from gas behaviour
in physics to cellular processes in biology. Its applications are omnipresent from the scent of flowers
to culinary arts, enhancing our understanding of biological systems and atmospheric interactions.
Interdisciplinary connections abound, with diffusion’s implications extending to physics, biology,
and environmental science.
Osmosis, a special form of diffusion, involves the movement of water molecules across selectively
permeable membranes. We model and explain osmosis, emphasising its applications in maintaining
cellular balance and impacting daily life - from preserving vegetable crispness to cellular functions.
Teachers can highlight the interdisciplinary relevance of osmosis in chemistry, healthcare, and
beyond. Together, we unravel the mysteries of diffusion and osmosis, appreciating their profound
impact on the world and the interconnectedness of scientific concepts across various disciplines.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 8: Concepts of diffusion and its application in life.
Week 9: Design, model and explain the osmosis process and indicate its application to everyday life.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Teachers are advised to adopt a collaborative and differentiated teaching approach for diffusion.
Grouping learners based on ability and gender with assigned positions promotes inclusive
collaboration and ensures equitable participation. The essential learning objectives encompass
understanding diffusion principles, observing compound changes over time, employing the think-pair-
share strategy, and engaging in discussions comparing diffusion rates. Assessment criteria include
effective communication of understanding, documentation of observations, and active participation
in collaborative discussions.
Learners are expected to summarise key concepts and explore real-world applications of diffusion.
Additional opportunities for gifted and talented students include exploring advanced diffusion
principles, conducting independent experiments, leading discussions, and presenting in-depth findings.
Various avenues, such as written reports, oral presentations, or multimedia projects, are provided for
learners to deliver their findings according to their preferences. The conclusion encourages learners to
summarise key points and apply their understanding to real-world scenarios, ensuring a comprehensive
grasp of the diffusion concept through diverse and inclusive teaching methods.

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ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section’s assessments will be formative, summative, and differentiated. Formative assessment
will involve laboratory work, practically demonstrating certain science aspects to improve learners’
science process abilities. Short exams, class exercises, assignments, group discussions, group projects,
and group presentations also exist. Written examinations, interviews, observations, or performance
assignments based on assessment indicators should be delivered along with graded outcomes.
Students should be issued with a list of the learning outcomes for each section and could review
their learning by coding each learning outcome red (not understood), amber (understood but not yet
secure) and green (securely understood). Summative assessments are due at the end of every lesson,
section, and semester. However, both formative and summative examinations contribute to learners’
cumulative records.
To foster a positive assessment environment, ensure learners are given clear instructions. Maintain
consistency in administering the formative assessment across all participants to ensure fairness and
impartiality.
Differentiated assessment focuses on learners’ learning needs, strengths, and interests. Teachers
should adjust assessment questions to different levels of readiness, learning styles, and preferences so
that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their competencies.

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Section 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

Week 8
Learning Indicator(s): Appreciate the movement of substances in biotic and abiotic media.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Concepts of diffusion and its application in life.

Concepts of Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration until the molecules are evenly distributed. The driving force behind diffusion is
the concentration gradient, which is the difference in concentration between two regions. Diffusion
always tends to equalise the concentration gradient leading to a uniform distribution of molecules and
equal concentration throughout space or solution.

Demonstration of diffusion of potassium permanganate

Title: Demonstrating the spread of permanganate ions in solution.
Aim: The purpose of this demonstration is to show how particles move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration - the process of diffusion.
Materials needed: Beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystal and spatula.
Procedure
1. Fill the beaker with water.
2. Put a piece of potassium permanganate crystal into the bottom of the beaker containing water
using a spatula. Be careful so the water is not overly disturbed and that the crystal is positioned
at the bottom of the beaker without much mixing.
3. Observe what happens over a few minutes.

Fig. 3.1: diffusion using potassium permanganate crystal.

Observation: when potassium permanganate crystal is placed in water, the crystal dissolves and the
permanganate ions are concentrated in one area.
As the crystal dissolves in the water, a net movement of permanganate ions occurs throughout the
beaker of water.
The water and the permanganate ions are eventually equally distributed throughout the beaker.
Conclusion: Permanganate ions move from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the ions are evenly distributed.

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NOTE:
The teacher could repeat the experiment with the potassium permanganate crystal in a beaker of cold
water and compare the rate of diffusion with a similar sized crystal in hot water. Diffusion should be
faster in hot water as the ions will be moving faster.

Demonstration of diffusion in gases using perfume.

Title: Observing Gas Diffusion
Aim: To investigate the diffusion of perfume molecules through air.
Material Needed: a bottle of inexpensive perfume.
Procedure:
1. Learners should be spread throughout the classroom;
2. Pour or spray a small volume of perfume onto a piece of tissue and leave it in one corner of the
classroom.
3. Learners should raise their hands when they can smell the perfume.
Observation: over a few minutes, the perfume will be smelled by pupils increasingly distant from the
perfume bottle as the perfume molecules diffuse throughout the classroom.
Conclusion: Diffusion of gas particles also occurs as the perfume evaporates forms a cloud of high
perfume concentration and diffuses throughout the classroom until at equal concentration throughout.

Factors that Affect Diffusion

Concentration gradient: The concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between two
regions. The greater the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion will occur.
Temperature: Temperature directly affects particle kinetic energy. Higher temperatures increase the
kinetic energy, causing particles to move more vigorously. As a result, diffusion happens at a faster
rate in higher temperatures. Conversely, lower temperatures lead to slower diffusion due to reduced
particle movement.
Particle size/molecular weight: Smaller particles diffuse more quickly than larger particles.
Collisions with other particles hinder smaller particles. Larger particles, on the other hand, have more
mass and experience greater resistance, leading to slower diffusion rates.
Nature of matter/substances: Diffusion occurs faster in less dense or viscous media. For example,
it occurs more rapidly in air than in a thick liquid.
Surface area: The available surface area for diffusion can affect the diffusion rate. A larger surface
area allows more particles to contact the interface, facilitating faster diffusion. This is especially
relevant in processes like gas exchange in the lungs or the transfer of nutrients across cell membranes.
Distance of Diffusion: The distance over which diffusion occurs also plays a role. The greater the
distance, the longer it takes for particles to diffuse across it.
Pressure: gases at low pressure have less density of particles, and therefore, the movement of particles
is less hampered by collision than similar gases at higher pressure. Diffusion is faster in low-pressure
situations than in high-pressure situations.

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Application of Diffusion in Everyday Life

Perfume/Cologne: When you spray perfume or cologne onto the skin, the scent particles evaporate
from the skin and diffuse through the air spreading from an area of high concentration (your skin) to
an area of low concentration (the surrounding space).
Cooking: During cooking, food particles diffuse through the kitchen and sometimes beyond, allowing
you to smell the food even if you are not standing directly over the stove. The food particles’ movement
in the air gives the food its aroma.
Room Fresheners: Air fresheners or diffusers release fragrance into the air. The fragrance molecules
disperse and diffuse throughout the room, creating a pleasant scent.
Tea/Coffee Brewing: When you place a tea bag or coffee grounds in hot water, the flavour compounds
diffuse from the concentrated source into the surrounding liquid resulting in a flavoured beverage.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Exchange: In the human body, diffusion is vital for gas exchange in
the lungs. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream, while carbon
dioxide diffuses into the lungs to exhale.

Learning Tasks

1. Explain diffusion in everyday life.

2. Give at least three examples of diffusion in everyday life.
3. How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
4. How does diffusion play a role in biological systems?

Pedagogical Exemplars
Collaborative Learning
1. Group learners based on mixed-ability and gender to encourage collaborative learning. Assign
roles within each group to ensure equitable participation.
2. Introduce the concept of diffusion and explain its use in domains such as chemistry, biology,
and physics.
3. Give each group a transparent container/beaker half-filled with water and potassium
permanganate crystals.
4. Let learners drop potassium permanganate crystals into the beaker containing water and observe
what happens. Ensure all learners actively participate in the activity and support learners with
difficulties.
5. Ask learners to reflect and cross share their findings for discussion through peer review.
6. Encourage groups to use the think-pair-share strategy to explain the diffusion process.
7. Ask learners to repeat the experiment using hot water, different sizes of potassium permanganate
crystals and compare the factors that may affect diffusion.
8. Guide learners to write their findings and present them to class for discussion.
9. Provide guided questions or prompts to facilitate the learning process and encourage gifted
learners to examine advanced diffusion principles or conduct their own experiments to learn
more about diffusion.

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10. Learners present findings in various ways, such as written reports, presentations, or multimedia
(PowerPoint).
11. Let learners in their groups explore the applications of diffusion in everyday life and present
their work using charts, concept maps, posters, and mind maps.
12. To conclude the lesson, guide learners in summarising the important points covered and
exploring real-world applications of diffusion.
This link is especially useful in showing diffusion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWByFMo32Qg

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 2: How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
Assessment Level 3: How does the molecular weight of particles influence the diffusion rate?
Assessment Level 4: In a lab experiment, two identical containers are filled with water, and a drop of
ink is added to each container. Container A is kept at room temperature while Container B is placed
in a refrigerator. Predict and explain the difference in the diffusion rate between the two containers.

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Week 9
Learning Indicator(s): Design, model and explain the process of osmosis and indicate its
application to everyday life.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Osmosis and its application in our daily life.

Explanation of Osmosis
Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules from an area of high-water concentration
to an area of low water concentration across a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis does not require
energy from the cell to occur. It takes place naturally to ensure the concentration of water molecules
on both sides of a semi-permeable membrane are equal.
The direction and rate of osmosis depend on the relative concentration of solutes on either side of the
membrane. If compartment A had a higher solute concentration than compartment B, water would
move from compartment B to compartment A until equilibrium is reached. Equilibrium simply means
the same concentration of water molecules in the two compartments. The diagram below shows that
there is a higher concentration of water molecules (small blue circles) on the right-hand side than on
the left-hand side. Therefore, the water will move from right to left until the concentration of water
molecules is equal on both sides.

B A
Fig. 3.2: Diffusion demonstration

Osmosis Model
Experiment: To investigate osmosis in a model cell using Visking tubing.
Title: Investigating osmosis in model cells with different internal water concentrations bathed in
pure water.
Aim: The aim of this investigation is to investigate the process of osmosis on model cells with
different internal water concentrations bathed in pure water. The model cells are made using Visking
tubing which is selectively permeable.
Materials needed: beakers, 3 solutions of sucrose; 5%, 10%, 15% (w/v), water, Visking tubing,
funnel, measuring tape (or string and a ruler).
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 Section 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

Procedure
1. Almost fill each beaker with pure water.
2. Cut equal lengths of Visking tubing about 12 cm long.
3. Tie one end of each piece of Visking tubing.
4. Use a funnel to pour pure water into the first piece of tubing. Tie the other end.
5. Measure the circumference of the filled tubing using string and the ruler.
6. Place this model cell into beaker 1.
7. In the same way fill the next piece of visking tubing with 5% sucrose solution and place
in beaker 2.
8. Repeat for 10% sucrose and 15% sucrose solutions and place into beaker 3 and 4.
9. Leave for 24 hours and re-measure the circumference of the model cells and feel the hardness
of the model cell. Record in the table below.
The model cells have different sucrose solutions and therefore different water concentrations. 0%
sucrose has the highest water concentration and 15% sucrose the lowest water concentration. Water
can move freely into or out of the Visking tubing but sucrose cannot.

Fig. 3.3: Investigating osmosis in a model cell using Visking tubing.

Results:
A sample table is shown below.

Beaker Visking tubing Circumference Circumference Firmness of

containing at start after 24hrs/mm model cell.
1 Water
2 5% Sucrose
3 10% sucrose
4 15% sucrose

Conclusion: The Visking tubing acts as a semi-permeable membrane akin to a cell membrane. If the
water concentration is higher in the beaker than inside the model cell, the water will move through
the tubing and the model cell will increase in circumference. If the water concentration is higher
inside the model cell than the surrounding water, water will move out of the model cell and the

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Section 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

circumference will reduce. If the water concentration is the same, then there will be no net movement
and therefore no change in circumference.

Experiment to investigate osmosis in plant tissue (living tissue)

Aim: To investigate osmosis in plant tissue
Materials needed: Potato, borer/knife, 3 different concentrations of sucrose solution, beakers,
measuring cylinder, ruler, weighing balance.
Procedure
i. Make up four concentrations of sucrose solution: for example, 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% (w/v)
ii. Pour 50cm3 of pure water into beaker 1, 50cm3 of 5% sucrose solution into beaker 2, 50cm3 of
10% sucrose solution into beaker 3 and 50cm3 of 15% sucrose solution into beaker 4.
iii. Use the borer to remove cylinders of potato from the whole potato
iv. Cut the potato cylinder into 3cm pieces and dry with a paper towel
v. Measure the mass, diameter, and length of each potato piece.
vi. Record the results.
vii. Place one potato cylinder into each beaker.
viii. Leave for 24 hours.
ix. Record the mass, diameter, and length of each potato cylinder.

Fig. 3.4: Investigating osmosis in plant tissue

Results: Record the results in a suitable table such as shown below

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 Section 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

The results from this investigation should be further analysed by calculating the percentage change
in mass, length, or diameter of the plant tissue. A line graph can also be drawn to present the results
with sucrose concentration on the X-axis and percentage change in mass (or length or diameter) on
the Y-axis.
Conclusion:The potato cell membrane acts as the semi-permeable membrane. There is a difference
in the concentration of water in the cells making up the potato tissue and the concentration of water in
the solution. In beaker 1 the highest concentration of water is outside the cell in the beaker. So, water
will move into the potato tissue. The cells will expand. Therefore, we should notice an increase in the
length, mass, and diameter of the potato cylinder.
In the next 3 beakers, the water will either move into the potato, increasing the measurements, or
out of them, decreasing them. If there is no change in the measurements, then water has not moved
because the concentrations on either side of the semi-permeable membrane are already equal.

Application of Osmosis in Everyday Life.

Food Preservation: Osmosis is utilised in food preservation techniques such as pickling and curing.
In these processes, salt or sugar is used to create a high concentrated solution, which draws water out
of the food and the microorganisms present in the food. This removal of water inhibits the growth of
bacteria and other spoilage-causing organisms, thus extending the shelf life of the food.
Kidney Function: Osmosis is integral to the functioning of the kidneys, which filter waste products
from the blood and regulate water and electrolyte balance. The movement of water and solutes across
the renal tubules occurs through osmosis, allowing the kidneys to concentrate urine and reabsorb
necessary substances back into the bloodstream.
Brining: Brining is a process used to enhance the flavour and juiciness of meat, poultry, and fish. It
involves soaking the food in a solution of salt and water. During brining, osmosis occurs as the salt
concentration in the brine is higher than the concentration of salt in the meat or fish. Water moves
from the meat or fish into the brine, resulting in decreased moisture content and improved flavour.

Learning Tasks

1. Define osmosis.
2. Describe how osmosis is apparent in everyday life.
3. Design an experiment to investigate osmosis.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Research and Discussion
a. Put learners into pairs and assign them the task of researching osmosis from books/internet/
science journals etc. Facilitate student research on osmosis through guiding questions and
reliable sources.
b. Encourage discussions on the meaning and significance of osmosis based on their findings.
c. Facilitate a whole-class discussion to consolidate key points and address any queries.
d. Encourage participation and collaboration among students, ensuring diverse perspectives
are valued.

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Activity-based learning/ Collaborative learning

a. Put learners in mixed-ability groups and guide them to design an experiment investigating osmosis.
b. Provide support and resources for students to plan and execute their experiments.
c. Encourage students to document their experimental procedures, observations, and results.
d. Organise mixed-sex and mixed-ability groups to prepare presentations on the practical
applications of osmosis. Offer feedback and evaluation of student presentations to reinforce
learning outcomes.
e. Emphasise the involvement of female students in key roles during the presentation.
f. Encourage discussions on how osmosis is utilised in everyday scenarios like cooking, plant
hydration, or medical processes.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 2: Explain three factors that affect osmosis.
Assessment Level 2: Describe three ways osmosis can be applied in the domestic setting.
Assessment Level 3: Design a model to explain the process of osmosis and report on it.

Additional Reading:
1. Read further other experiments to explain process of diffusion and osmosis.
2. Identify and incorporate educational technology tools or resources (such as interactive
simulations or virtual labs) to enhance students’ comprehension and engagement with diffusion
and osmosis concepts.
3. Research and compile examples of diffusion and osmosis in real-life situations, such as
biological processes, environmental phenomena, or industrial applications, and create case
studies or presentations for students.

Resources
1. Beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystals, spatulas, bottle of perfume, tea, coffee
2. Beakers, 3 solutions of sucrose; 5%, 10%, 15%, water, Visking tubing, funnel, string,
Visking tubing
3. Potatoes, borer/knife, 3 different concentrations of sucrose solution, beakers, measuring
cylinder, ruler, paper towel.
4. Charts, videos, simulations, pictures, diagrams, posters showing osmosis and diffusion.

References
1. Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., & Lightfoot, E. N. (2006). Transport Phenomena (2nd ed.). Wiley.
2. NewPath Learning. (2014). Osmosis and Diffusion Science Learning Guide. Life Science
Learning Guides. NewPath Learning

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 Section 4: Reproduction in Plants and Humans

SECTION 4: REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND

HUMANS

Strand: Processes for Living

Sub-Strand: Essentials for Survival

Learning Outcome: Illustrate the principles of reproduction.

Content Standard: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the principles of reproduction

and their application in addressing sexually related societal problems.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section focuses on providing learners with an understanding the concept of reproduction in
plants and humans; to understand and explain the concept of the menstrual cycle; how to calculate
the menstrual cycle, and the application of this knowledge to address reproduction-related issues.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 10: Explain reproduction in plants and humans.
Week 11: Explain reproduction in plants and humans.
Week 12: Explain the female menstrual cycle and show how that can be used to address reproduction-
related issues.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Teachers should lead students on a nature walk to observe various plants and identify their reproductive
parts. Using project-based learning approaches, put learners in mixed-ability groups to present on
sexual reproduction in plants using resources such as videos on pollination, fruits and seeds formation
and seed germination, and asexual reproduction in plants using vegetative parts such as corm, rhizome,
suckers, stem cuttings and bulbs.
Using models, videos, pictures, or charts of the male and female reproductive system, let learners
in mixed-ability groups describe the structure and explain the function of the parts of the structure.
Stereotypes should be addressed when using representatives of the human reproductive system.
Put learners into mixed ability groups and guide them to calculate the menstrual cycle using calendar/
pictures/charts/videos. Finally, using talk-for-learning strategies and reflections from Internet
resources/books, learners can compare global best practices of menstrual hygiene.
Assessment should focus on the understanding the concept of reproduction in plants and humans,
explaining the concept of the human menstrual cycle, how to calculate the menstrual cycle and its
application to address reproduction-related issues. Furthermore, it should also focus on hands-on
demonstration of artificial vegetative propagation practices such as budding, grafting and layering.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section focuses on DoK Level Three: strategic reasoning. Assessment will include formative
and summative approaches. Formative assessment during delivery of the lessons within the session
will include activities such as short tests, class exercises, assignments, group discussions, and project

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work where marks are awarded and recorded. Summative assessment should be done at the end of the
lesson, section, and end of the semester.
Moreover, learners also should be evaluated on their participation in discussions, project work and
presentations. However, both formative and summative assessments contribute to the cumulative
records of the learners.
To cater for gifted and talented learners, additional content could include demonstrations on vegetative
propagation practices such as budding and grafting, in-depth analysis of the menstrual cycle, and
opportunities for independent research projects to deepen their understanding and challenge their
abilities.

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Week 10
Learning Indicator(s): Explain reproduction in plants and humans.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Reproduction in plants

Reproduction
This is the process by which living things give rise to new individuals of their kind. Reproduction in
plants is a fundamental biological process that allows plants to propagate and ensure the continuation
of their species. Through these mechanisms plants can produce offspring, disperse their genetic
material, and colonize new habitats. There are two types of reproduction: sexual reproduction and
asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells or gametes. It
allows for genetic diversity and adaptation as it introduces new combinations of genetic material. The
key processes involved in sexual reproduction in plants are pollination, fertilisation, seed production
and dispersal, germination, and subsequent growth.

Fig. 4.1: Structure of a Flower

In flowering plants, male and female reproductive structures can often be found in the same individual
plant. The organ of a sexual reproduction is the flower.

Parts Structure Function

of a flower
Sepals The sepals are the outermost whorl Brightly coloured sepals attract pollinators
which is small and green in colour. to pollinate the flower and
Green sepals manufacture food for the
plant.
They protect the delicate flower bud before
it opens.
Petals Petals are large, brightly coloured Produces scent to attract pollinators.
and often scented to attract Produces nectar to attract insect pollinators.
pollinators

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Parts Structure Function

of a flower
Stamens This is male organ of the plant The male sex organs which produce pollen
and consists of the anther and the grains and help distribute them.
filament. The anthers produce
pollen which can be considered
the male gametes of the plant. The
filament holds the anthers.
Stigma The stigma is on the top of the Stigma collects pollen grains
style connected to the ovary. The
stigma, style and ovary can be
considered the female parts of the
flower.
Ovary A carpel has three parts; ovary, Produces ovules which will develop into
style, and stigma. The ovary is seeds once fertilised.
the enlarged base of the carpel. It The ovary develops into a fruit at the same
contains one or more ovules. time.
The ovary is where the female
gametes are located. The ovules
can be considered the female
gametes.

Pollination
Is the transfer of pollen grains from mature anthers to a mature stigma of flower.

Pollination

Fig. 4.2: Pollination of a flower

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Agents of Pollination
Pollination requires some agents or vectors to help transfer pollen from one flower to another. The
agents can be insects, other invertebrates, wind, bats, birds, mammals, birds, reptiles, and water.
Insects and wind are the major agents of pollination.

Importance of Wind Pollination

Wind pollination is highly efficient for plants in environments where other pollinators are scarce or
less reliable. Since wind is omnipresent, plants relying on wind pollination do not have to wait for
specific pollinators to visit.
Wind can carry pollen over significant distances, facilitating pollination between plants that might be
quite far apart. This is particularly useful in sparse or isolated populations, where insect pollinators
might not reach.
Wind pollination does not depend on the availability of specialised pollinators, making it advantageous
for plants in areas where pollinator populations are limited or unpredictable.
Wind-pollinated plants often exhibit specific adaptations to maximise their reproductive success.
These adaptations include producing large quantities of lightweight pollen grains that are easily
carried by the wind.
Unlike insect-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated flowers often lack nectar, scent, or bright colors
since they do not need to attract insects. This saves the plant energy that would otherwise be spent on
producing these attractants.
While some plants rely heavily on specific pollinators (like bees or butterflies), wind-pollinated plants
are less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations or changes in the environment that might
affect certain pollinators.

Importance of Insect Pollination

• Insect pollination efficiently facilitates plant reproduction by relying on specialised pollinators.
• It promotes cross-pollination as insects transport pollen between flowers during foraging.
• Plants attract insects with nectar, scent, and vibrant colors, enhancing pollination success.
• Insect-pollinated flowers often have specific structures to facilitate pollen transfer by insects.
• This strategy ensures reproductive success through mutualistic relationships with
pollinating insects.
• Insect pollination has evolved as a highly effective reproductive strategy especially in diverse
ecosystems.

Characteristics/Adaptations of Insect and Wind Pollinated Flowers Compared

Insect-pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers
Petals are brightly coloured to attract insects Petals, if present, are dull in colour
Flowers are scented Flowers are not scented
Have sticky stigma Have feathery stigma
Have short and stout filaments Have long filaments
Produces less pollen grains Produce abundant pollen grains

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Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete to
form a zygote. Fertilisation takes place in the ovule, which contains the female gamete - the ovum.
Ovules are found inside the ovary. Each ovule contains an egg. When a mature pollen grain lands on
a mature stigma, it absorbs water and nutrients from the stigma and swells up. The wall of the pollen
grain ruptures, and a pollen tube protrudes which penetrates the stigma and grows through its tissues
into the style. This is the germination of the pollen grain. The pollen tube nucleus moves to the tip
of the pollen tube. The pollen tube enters the ovule through the area called the micropyle. The pollen
grain travels to the egg and fuses with it resulting in fertilisation. The fertilisation results in zygote
formation which later develops into a seed. Following fertilisation, the zygote starts to divide, and it
eventually turns into an embryo within the seed. The embryo is kept latent in a seed capsule until the
right environmental factors allow it to germinate and grow into a new plant.
Following fertilisation, the ovary swells and forms the fruit. The role of fruit is in seed dispersal.
Fruit can be considered the mobile stage in a plant’s life cycle. Some fruits are carried by the wind,
others are explosive and fire seeds far from the mother plant, others are attractive to animals are eaten
and the indigestible seeds are transported and deposited in animal faeces, other fruits are sticky and
transported after sticking to animal’s fur.

Fig. 4.3: Fertilization in flowering plants

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Sexual reproduction leads to offspring with genetic diversity. Each parent contributes half of their
genetic material, resulting in unique combinations of traits in the offspring. Some individuals may
have advantageous traits that enable them to thrive in specific conditions, ensuring the survival of
the species.
Evolutionary Advantage: sexual reproduction accelerates the process of evolution by creating new
genetic combinations that can be subjected to natural selection. It enables plants to evolve and adapt
to new ecological niches over time.

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Genetic diversity within a population makes it less susceptible to widespread diseases or pests.
Seed Dispersal: sexual reproduction produces seeds that can be dispersed over wide areas, increasing
the chances of colonisation in new habitats, and facilitating the establishment of new plant populations.
Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Sexual reproduction in plants demands more energy and resources compared to asexual reproduction.
Many plants rely on pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, or other animals, to transfer pollen between
flowers. If pollinators are scarce or absent, sexual reproduction may be limited or entirely hindered.
The process of sexual reproduction, involving pollination, fertilisation, and seed development, can be
time-consuming. This slow reproduction rate may be a disadvantage in rapidly changing or unstable
environments.

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of male and female
gametes and produces individuals genetically identical to the parent. Asexual plant reproduction
occurs through many modes including suckers, runners, bulbs, tubers, and layering. No flowers are
required for this method. Asexual reproduction in plants is often termed vegetative propagation and
can take place naturally or artificially.

Natural Asexual Reproduction

Natural asexual reproduction, also known as vegetative reproduction, is a fascinating process observed
in various plants and organisms across the natural world. This method of propagation enables plants
to reproduce without the need for seeds or the involvement of external agents like pollinators. Instead,
new individuals are generated from specialised plant parts such as roots, stems, bulbs, or leaves.

Advantages of Natural Asexual Reproduction in Plants

1. Asexual reproduction in plants is efficient, as it does not require the time and energy needed for
pollination or the production of seeds.
2. Offspring produced through asexual reproduction are genetically identical to the parent plant,
ensuring consistency in desirable traits such as disease resistance or fruit quality.
3. Rapid propagation of plants with favorable traits occurs without the need for genetic
recombination.
4. Asexual reproduction allows plants to colonise new environments rapidly, enabling them to
spread even from a single individual.
5. Some plants can reproduce asexually under adverse conditions such as drought or nutrient
scarcity, serving as a survival strategy.
6. Genetic purity is maintained as there is no mixing of genetic material from different plants,
preserving specific traits that are well-adapted to environments.

Natural Methods of Asexual Reproduction

There are several mechanisms by which plants reproduce asexually.
Runners and Stolons: Some plants produce horizontal stems called runners or stolons that grow
along the soil surface. At certain intervals, nodes along these stems develop into new plants, forming
clones of the parent plant. Examples include strawberries and spider plants.

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Rhizomes: Rhizomes are underground stems that extend horizontally and give rise to new shoots
and roots at nodes along their length. Plants like ginger and bamboo propagate through rhizomes,
allowing them to spread and colonize large areas.
Bulbs and Tubers: Bulbous and tuberous plants store nutrients in specialised underground structures
like bulbs (e.g., onions) or tubers (e.g., potatoes). These structures can give rise to new plants through
budding or the growth of daughter bulbs or tubers.
Fragmentation: In fragmentation, a plant breaks into parts, and each can grow into a new individual.
For instance, pieces of certain succulent plants like aloe vera or jade plants can develop roots and
shoots when placed in suitable conditions.
Runners: These stems usually grow in a horizontal position above the ground. They have the nodes
where the buds are formed. These buds usually grow into a new plant.
Roots: When a new plant is developed from modified roots called tubers. Example: sweet potato
Leaves: In some plants, detached leaves from the parent plant can be used to grow a new plant.
They promote the growth of small plants, called plantlets on the edge of their leaves. Example:
Bryophyllum.

Artificial Propagation
Artificial propagation refers to the deliberate human intervention in the reproductive processes of
plants and animals to produce offspring under controlled conditions. These methods are employed in
various fields such as agriculture, aquaculture, horticulture.

Advantages of Artificial Propagation

Artificial propagation methods ensure the consistency of desirable cultivars’ traits, such as flower
color and disease resistance.
Techniques like tissue culture enable swift production of large numbers of uniform plants from a
single tissue sample.
Artificial methods offer the only means of multiplying sterile or hybrid plants that do not produce
viable seeds.
Artificial propagation allows for continuous plant production regardless of seasonal variations,
ensuring a steady supply.
Endangered plant species can be conserved through artificial propagation, preserving genetic diversity,
and preventing extinction.
Propagation methods like tissue culture start with sterilised plant material thus reducing the risk of
introducing pathogens and allowing to produce disease-free stock.

Artificial Propagation Methods

Cuttings: Portions of stems or roots are cut and planted in suitable conditions to grow into new plants.
Typically, cuttings are obtained from healthy, established plants while they are actively growing.
Rooting hormone is then applied to the cutting to promote the formation of roots. The cutting is
placed in a growing medium to facilitate further growth after the roots have formed.
In horticulture and agriculture, this technique is frequently employed to grow plants that have
desired traits, like disease resistance, flower colour, or fruit quality. It is useful for maintaining and
propagating plant kinds with special or exceptional qualities. Stem cuttings from these plants are used

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to cultivate a variety of plants including sugarcane, roses, Bougainvillea, Croton, Coleus, and money
plants. These plants can even be grown from cuttings in water where they will generate adventitious
buds and roots.
Advantages of Cuttings
Cuttings root quickly and can establish themselves as new plants in a short time.
Cuttings produce plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant, ensuring desirable traits are
maintained.
Cuttings allow for precise control over the size and growth habits of the resulting plants.
Cutting propagation is often cost-effective as it requires minimal materials and equipment.
Disadvantages of Cutting
Cuttings are more prone to disease and rot since they lack a developed root system and are more
vulnerable to environmental stress.
Some plant species are challenging to propagate from cuttings due to low rooting success rates.
Newly rooted cuttings may experience transplant shock when moved to a new environment, requiring
extra care and attention.
Grafting: Grafting is a technique in which the parts of two separate plants are connected so that they
develop as a single plant. During grafting, the stems of two separate plants are cut and joined together
in such a way that they grow as a single plant. One of the two cut stems has roots and is referred to as
stock. The other stem, known as the scion, is cut without roots. Scion and stock cut surfaces are fitted
and stitched together with a piece of cloth before being covered with a polythene cover. It guards the
stem against infections and other issues. Soon, the stock and scion combine to form a new plant. This
is often done where the delicate fruit bearing variety is grafted onto a hardier root stock.

Fig. 4.4: Grafting.

Advantages of Grafting
Grafting allows for the combination of different plant varieties or species, enabling the creation of
plants with desirable qualities such as disease resistance, improved yield, or unique characteristics.

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Grafted plants often exhibit faster growth rates and earlier fruiting compared to plants propagated by
other methods.
Grafted plants can benefit from the root system of a vigorous rootstock, providing improved nutrient
uptake, drought resistance, and overall resilience.
Grafting can be used to repair damaged plants or rejuvenate old or weak specimens by incorporating
them into a new, healthier root system.
Disadvantages of Grafting
Grafting success depends on genetic compatibility between the scion (upper portion) and the rootstock
leading to potential incompatibility issues.
Grafting can be a labour-intensive process requiring specialised skills and equipment leading to
higher production costs compared to other propagation methods.
Grafting can potentially transmit diseases from the rootstock to the scion especially if proper sanitation
practices are not followed.
Layering: This technique involves bending a lower branch of a plant and covering it with damp
soil leaving the developing tip exposed. Before the stem is bent down, a ring of bark is sometimes
removed. When it has rooted, it can be separated from the parent plant and grown as an independent
plant. In some species, long branches emanating from the tree trunk or bush stem can touch the
surrounding soil surface (or are pinned to the ground) and soon start to develop roots which anchor
the branch to the soil and start to draw water and nutrients. Once established, the layered branch
detaches (or can be cut) from the mother trunk and the rooted branch becomes an independent plant.
For instance, grapevine, strawberries, bougainvillea, and jasmine.
Advantages of Layering
Layering is a delicate and non-invasive method of growing new plants since it resembles natural plant
growth techniques.
Having established roots prior to being split off from their parent plant, layered plants have a better
chance of establishing themselves.
Layering encourages branching and general plant vigor, which results in stronger, healthier plants.
Plant species that are challenging to reproduce by cuttings can benefit from layering.
Disadvantages of Layering
Compared to cuttings, layering may result in established plants more slowly because roots need time
to grow while still connected to the parent plant.
In general, layering produces fewer young plants at a time than cutting propagation techniques.
To accommodate the expanding branches, layering might need additional room in the nursery
or garden.

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Fig. 4.5: Layering

Micropropagation (Tissue Culture): Involves the growth of plant cells, tissues, or organs in a
sterile nutrient medium under controlled conditions. A little portion of tissue, an organ, or even just
one cell is removed from the plant and placed in an aseptic, sterile container with nourishing medium.
The tissue quickly becomes an unorganized lump known as a callus. There is no limit to how long
the callus can persist and grow. Plantlets, or tiny plants, are created when little amounts of tissue are
transplanted to a different specialised media containing hormones. This process drives differentiation.
The plantlets are grown into mature plants and can be gradually transplanted into pots or soil.

Fig. 4.6: Steps involved in micropropagation

Advantages of Micropropagation
Micropropagation enables the rapid production of many plants from a small amount of plant material
making it an efficient method for commercial plant production.
Micro-propagated plants are grown in sterile conditions, reducing the risk of disease transmission,
and producing healthy stock free from pathogens.

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Micropropagation preserves the genetic integrity of plant varieties, ensuring the propagation of true-
to-type plants with desired traits.
Micropropagation allows for continuous production of plants regardless of seasonal limitations,
providing a consistent supply of plant material.
Disadvantages of Micropropagation
Micropropagation can lead to genetic uniformity among propagated plants, which may result in
reduced genetic diversity and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases.
Setting up and maintaining a tissue culture facility can be expensive, making micropropagation a
costly method of plant propagation.
Micro-propagated plants may require care and acclimatization post-propagation to transition
successfully from sterile laboratory conditions to outdoor environments.

Learning Tasks

1. Analyse the differences between the types of reproduction in plants.

2. Describe the stages of sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
3. Describe vegetative propagation practices such as layering, grafting, cutting etc. using
hands-on experiment.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Research and Collaborative Method
a. Put learners in groups to research and discuss the meaning of reproduction and types of
reproduction in plants.
b. Encourage reflection and sharing of findings with the class for a discussion on different
reproductive strategies in plants. Facilitate research activities, discussions, and presentations
within mixed-ability groups.
Nature Walk and Observations
a. Lead students on a nature walk to observe various plant species and identify reproductive parts.
b. In groups, students can write down their observations and discuss their findings with the class,
focusing on the diversity of plant reproductive structures. Provide guidance during the nature
walk and encourage meaningful observations.
Research method
a. Put learners in mixed-ability groups to search for information on sexual reproduction in plants,
including pollination and its role in plant reproduction.
b. Learners cross-share findings through presentations and facilitate group discussions to reflect
on key themes and encourage critical thinking about pollination and sexual reproduction in
plants. Encourage critical thinking, reflection, and peer interaction during group discussions.
c. Utilise a research-based learning approach where learners research and present on asexual
reproduction in plants using vegetative parts like corms, rhizomes, suckers, stem cuttings,
and bulbs.

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Activity-based Learning Approach

Engage students in hands-on activities related to asexual reproduction to reinforce learning through
active participation. Support hands-on activities and promote engagement through experiential learning.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 1: Explain the importance of reproduction.
Assessment Level 2: Describe the process of fertilisation in flowering plants.
Assessment Level 3: write a report on a hand-on activity of at least two artificial propagation methods
from the lesson.

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Week 11
Learning Indicator(s): Reproduction in plants and animals

Theme or Focal Area(s): Female reproductive system

The female reproductive system is responsible for the production of eggs (ova), the reception of
sperm for fertilisation, and the support of embryo development. It consists of several structures each
with unique functions contributing to the reproductive process.

Fig. 4.7: Structure of female reproductive system

Processes of reproduction in humans

Copulation: Also known as sexual intercourse, copulation involves the insertion of the erect penis
into the vagina. During this process, semen is ejaculated into the vagina.
Fertilisation: Fertilisation is fusion of male and female sex cells in the oviduct.
This forms a zygote, the single-cell embryo with a complete set of chromosomes from both parents.
Implantation: Implantation is the attachment of embryo to the uterine wall for nourishment.
After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes several divisions to form a blastocyst. The blastocyst moves
down through the oviduct until it enters the uterus, it then implants itself into the lining of the uterus
(endometrium), where it continues to grow and develop.
Foetal Development: Following implantation, the blastocyst develops into an embryo, and then into
a fetus. During foetal development, organs and systems begin to form and differentiate. This stage

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spans three trimesters (each three months long), with distinct milestones such as the development of
limbs, organs, and the nervous system.
Role of the Placenta: The placenta forms from tissues of both the embryo and the mother. It serves
as the interface between the maternal and foetal circulatory systems facilitating the exchange of
nutrients, oxygen, and waste products. Moreover, toxins such as nicotine and alcohol can cross the
placenta from the mother’s blood stream and damage the foetus. The placenta also produces hormones
essential for pregnancy maintenance.
Birth: Labour is the process by which a foetus is expelled from the uterus through the birth canal
(vagina). It involves uterine contractions coordinated by hormonal signals. After birth, the umbilical
cord is typically clamped and cut, separating the newborn from the placenta.
Breastfeeding: Breastfeeding is the process of feeding a newborn with breast milk produced by the
mother’s mammary glands. Breast milk provides essential nutrients, antibodies, and other factors
crucial for the baby’s growth, development, and immune system function. It also fosters bonding
between the mother and infant.
The main reproductive structures and their functions in the female reproductive system:
Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of small, almond-shaped organs in the pelvic cavity.
Functions
1. Egg Production
2. Hormone Production
Oviducts: The oviducts are two narrow tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus.
Functions
1. The oviduct is the site of fertilisation where the egg meet sperm;
2. The oviduct subsequently carries the fertilised egg (zygote) to the uterus
Uterus: The uterus, or the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ in the pelvis. It is lined with tissue with
an enhanced blood supply called the endometrium.
Functions
1. Site for implantation
2. The uterus wall supplies nourishment and oxygen to the developing foetus
3. Provides protection and support to the developing foetus
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects it to the vagina.
Functions
1. Muscular entrance and exit of the uterus
2. Allows the entry of sperm and the exit of menstrual blood, and through which the baby passes
from the uterus to the vagina in childbirth
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that serves as the birth canal during childbirth and as the site
for sexual intercourse.
Functions
1. Accepts the penis during sexual intercourse
2. Allows the exit of menses during menstruation
3. The birth canal allowing the baby to pass through into the outside World

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Vulva: the external parts of the female reproductive system comprised of the labia majora, labia
minora, and clitoris. Labia minora are folds of skin protected by the outer labia. The clitoris is the
main site of female sexual pleasure located above the urethra.
Functions
1. The labia protect the opening of the urethra and vagina.
2. The labia and clitoris provide sexual sensations making sex pleasurable.

Structure of the Male Reproductive Organs

The male reproductive system is responsible for the production and delivery of sperm which are
necessary for the fertilisation of the egg.

Fig. 4.7: Structure of Male reproductive system

The male reproductive system consists of organs that work together to produce, store, and deliver
sperm. Key components include the testes, where sperm and testosterone are produced; the epididymis,
where sperm mature and are stored; the vas deferens, which transports sperm from the epididymis to
the urethra; the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, which produce fluids that
mix with sperm to form semen; and the penis, which delivers semen into the female reproductive tract
during sexual intercourse. Hormones such as testosterone play a crucial role in regulating the male
reproductive system’s functions.
Testes: The testes, or testicles, are the primary reproductive organs in males.
Functions
1. Sperm Production
2. Hormone Production – especially testosterone.
Epididymis
The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It functions as a storage and
maturation site for sperm cells.
Functions
1. Sperm Maturation
2. Temporary storage of sperm

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Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that connects the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
Functions
1. Sperm Transport.
2. Provides sensation.
Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands:
These accessory glands produce fluids that combine with sperm to form semen.
Function: The seminal vesicles and glands produce a fluid rich in fructose and other nutrients that
provide energy for sperm. The fluid also contains prostaglandins, which help in sperm motility and
fertility. They make up a significant volume of semen.

Learning Tasks

1. Draw the structure of male reproductive system and label at least five parts.
2. Describe the structure of female reproductive system and give at least one function of at
least five parts.
3. Describe the processes of reproduction in humans from copulation to birth

Pedagogical Exemplars
Talk for Learning.
1. Engage learners to observe models, videos, pictures, or charts of female and male reproductive
systems. Encourage learners to document their observations.
2. Assign roles within the mixed-ability groups to help learners present their observations from the
videos, pictures, and charts. Use open-ended questions through talk for learning to encourage
all learners to participate actively.
3. Offer scaffolding or additional support for learners who may struggle with vocabulary
or concepts.
4. Let learners describe the parts of the female and male reproductive systems, provide visual aids
and diagrams to help learners visualise the parts.
5. Ask learners to explain the function of each part in pairs and share their ideas.
6. Encourage learners to think critically about why each part is important for the structure to
work properly.
7. Ask each group to identify any potential issues or concerns related to the structure and function.
Have learners in groups present their findings to the class and discuss how these concerns can
be addressed or improved.
i. For learners who need extra support, provide simplified objects with fewer parts to describe
and explain. For gifted and talented learners, challenge them to analyse more complex structures
with difficult parts and functions. Offer additional resources such as videos or supplementary
reading materials for learners to deepen their understanding.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 2: Draw and label the structure of female reproductive system.
Assessment Level 2: Describe any 3 parts of female reproductive system and their function.
Assessment Level 2: Describe the structure of male reproductive system and it function.

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Week 12
Learning Indicator: Explain the female menstrual cycle and show how that can be used to address
reproduction-related issues.

Theme or Focal Area(s): Menstrual cycle

Overview of the Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur in a reproductive- age woman’s body
every month. It involves a series of hormonal, physiological and behavioural changes the body that
prepare it for potential pregnancy. Menstruation starts at puberty between 8 and 15 (average age of
12). It usually begins two years after breasts and pubic hair start to develop and ends at menopause.
However, the cycle stops while a woman is pregnant.
The menstrual cycle typically lasts around 28 days although it can vary from woman to woman
between 20 and 40 days and cycle to cycle. It is counted from the first day of a period (appearance of
vaginal bleeding) to the first day of the next period. The menstrual cycle is regulated by the complex
interplay of hormones which are produced by the ovaries and pituitary.

Fig. 4.8: Menstrual cycle chart

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 Section 4: Reproduction in Plants and Humans

Significance in Reproduction
The menstrual cycle plays a crucial role in reproduction as it regulates ovulation and the release of an
egg from the ovaries. Additionally, the menstrual cycle prepares the uterus for potential pregnancy
by thickening its lining. If fertilisation occurs, this lining provides a nourishing environment for the
embryo to implant and develop. If fertilisation does not occur, the lining is shed during menstruation
making way for a new cycle to begin.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

The female reproductive system includes a cycle of events called the menstrual cycle. There are four
key phases of the menstrual cycle: follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation It is
tightly controlled by the release and interplay of four main hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system and released into
the bloodstream. They regulate various physiological functions in the body, including growth and
development, metabolism, mood, sexual function, and reproduction. Hormones interact with specific
target cells or organs, where they exert their effects by binding to hormone receptors.

Hormones involved in the menstrual cycle

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the growth and development of follicles (fluid-
filled sacs) in the ovaries. Within each follicle is an immature egg. FSH is produced in the pituitary.
Oestrogen: As the ovarian follicles grow and mature, they produce increasing amounts of oestrogen.
Oestrogen plays a key role in thickening the uterine lining (endometrium) in preparation for potential
implantation of a fertilised egg.
Luteinising hormone (LH): LH surge triggers ovulation, the release of a mature egg from the ovary.
LH is also produced in the pituitary.
Progesterone: After ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into a structure called the corpus
luteum which produces and secretes progesterone. Progesterone helps maintain the uterine lining and
prepares it for implantation of a fertilised egg. If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks
down, leading to a decline in progesterone levels.
Menstruation: The cycle begins with menstruation which is the shedding of the endometrium (uterine
lining) with other secretions from the body through the vagina. This phase lasts an average of 3-7
days, but this could change from month to month and depending on each woman. The endometrium
thickens in readiness for pregnancy and if this does not occur, the endometrium breaks down to form
the menses or blood released in menstruation.
Follicular phase: Start on first phase of the menstrual cycle, typically lasting around 10-14 days.
It begins on the first day of menstruation when the endometrium sheds. During this phase, follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) is released from the pituitary, stimulating the development of a follicle
in one of the ovaries. FSH stimulates growth and development of the follicle. The follicle produces
oestrogen, which thickens the uterine lining (endometrium) in preparation for implantation.
Ovulation: The term “ovulation” indicates the release of a mature egg from the follicle into the
oviduct. Ovulation occurs midway through the menstrual cycle, usually around day 14 in a 28-day
cycle. Peak levels of oestrogen stimulate a surge in Luteinising hormone (LH) from the pituitary. This
causes the mature egg to be released from the follicle into the oviduct.
Luteal phase: After ovulation, the ruptured follicle forms the corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone. Progesterone is a hormone which promotes further development of the endometrium for

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Section 4: Reproduction in Plants and Humans

potential implantation of a fertilised egg. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates,
progesterone levels decrease, and menstruation begins.
Hormonal Regulation
Hormone levels are controlled by the pituitary and ovaries. Progesterone and oestrogen are produced
in the ovaries whilst Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) are produced
in the pituitary.

Importance of Ovulation
Ovulation is crucial in the menstrual cycle because it marks the release of a mature egg from the
ovary, making pregnancy possible. Tracking ovulation is essential for those trying to conceive or
avoid pregnancy as it indicates the most fertile window of the cycle.
Methods of Tracking the Menstrual Cycle
Such methods include monitoring basal body temperature, monitoring cervical mucus (vaginal
discharge) and ovulation predictor kits to identify the fertile window.
Tracking basal body temperature (BBT): Tracking BBT can be useful for monitoring ovulation
patterns and fertility. To do this, you would measure your temperature first thing in the morning
just after waking. Consistent tracking over time can help predict ovulation and optimise chances
of conception if that is your goal. There are various apps available to help track BBT and the
menstrual cycle.
Cervical mucus changes: Hormonal variations cause the consistency of cervical mucus to fluctuate
during the menstrual cycle. During most of the menstrual cycle, cervical mucus is very thick and
viscous and forms a plug blocking the cervix. As ovulation draws near, the cervical mucus becomes
runnier, thinner, and much less viscous (like egg white) as the cervical mucus plug breaks down
potentially allowing sperm to enter the uterus. This less viscous cervical mucus promotes sperm
motility and survival which makes conception easier. It gets thicker and less abundant again after
ovulation. It is possible to anticipate ovulation and fertility by monitoring these changes in the vaginal
discharge (which is cervical mucus).
Ovulation Predictor Kits: Ovulation predictor kits (OPKs) are tools used to predict ovulation to
maximise the chances of pregnancy. They work by detecting levels of luteinising hormone (LH) in
urine which surges just before ovulation. OPK’s can help women identify their most fertile days aiding
in conception or in contraception. It is essential to follow the instructions carefully and consider other
fertility signs for accurate predictions.
How to use the ovulation predictor kits (OPKs)
Understand your cycle: Determine the length of your menstrual cycle. Typically, ovulation occurs
around 14 days before your next period starts, but this can vary.
Start testing: Begin testing a few days before you expect to ovulate based on your cycle length. For
example, if you have a 28-day cycle, start testing around day 10.
Choose the time of day: Most kits recommend testing with your first morning urine, as the LH surge
(which indicates ovulation is about to occur) is usually most concentrated then.
Follow the instructions: Read the instructions provided with your OPK carefully. They typically
involve either urinating on a stick or dipping it into a cup of urine.
Interpret the results: Look for the appearance of a test line. If it is as dark or darker than the control
line, it indicates a positive result meaning you are likely to ovulate within the next 12-36 hours.

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Time intercourse: Plan to have intercourse over the next couple of days after receiving a positive
result to maximise your chances of conception.
Continue testing: Keep testing daily until either you detect ovulation or your cycle ends. Some kits
come with multiple strips to cover your entire fertile window.
Record your results: Keep track of your results and the days you had intercourse to better understand
your fertility pattern over time.

Contraception
Contraception refers to methods or techniques used to prevent pregnancy. There are many methods
used to prevent pregnancy from hormonal pills, inter-uterine devices, condoms, and hormonal
implants. The above methods of tracking ovulation (OPKs, cervical mucus monitoring and BBT) can
also be used to plan periods of sexual abstinence when fertilisation is most likely. This can be used as
a method of contraception though it is unreliable in younger women when periods are unpredictable
and vary from month to month.
Menstrual Disorders
Issues affecting a woman’s regular menstrual cycle are referred to as menstrual disorders, these come
in a variety of forms. Issues can vary from painful, heavy periods to no periods at all. Menstrual
patterns vary widely, but women should be concerned if their periods continue longer than 10 days
or if they occur less frequently than 21 days or more. Such occurrences could be a sign of ovulation
issues or other illnesses. Below are some examples of menstrual disorders:
Dysmenorrhea: dysmenorrhea is severe, frequent cramping during menstruation. Pain occurs in the
lower abdomen but can spread to the lower back and thighs.
Menorrhagia: the medical word for noticeably heavier periods is menorrhagia. There are numerous
reasons for menorrhagia. An average woman sheds 30 ml of blood during a typical menstrual cycle
and changes her sanitary items three to five times a day.
Amenorrhea: amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation and can result from malnutrition or from
heavy sustained exercise. Many female athletes have periods of amenorrhea
Oligomenorrhea and Hypomenorrhea: the disorder known as oligomenorrhea causes menstrual
cycles to be irregular and spaced apart by more than 35 days. Early adolescence is a common time for
it to occur, and it typically does not signify a medical issue. Before menopause and in the first years
following menarche, light, or insufficient flow (hypomenorrhea) is also typical.
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): PMS is a collection of behavioural, emotional, and physical
symptoms that often appear a week before menstruation in the final week of the luteal phase.
Usually, the symptoms do not appear until at least day 13 of the cycle and go away four days after
the bleeding starts.

Reproductive Health Issues

Reproductive health refers to the state of physical, mental, and social well-being in all matters relating
to the reproductive system. It encompasses a broad range of issues, including fertility, contraception,
sexually transmitted infections (STI’s), menstrual health, pregnancy, childbirth, and reproductive
cancers. It is crucial to address these issues through education, access to healthcare, and support
services to ensure individuals can make informed decisions and maintain their reproductive health.
Good menstrual health and hygiene practices can prevent infections, reduce odours, and help stay
comfortable during your period. Some menstrual products that can be used to absorb or collect
blood during your period, including sanitary pads, tampons, menstrual cups and menstrual discs,

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The following tips can be used to promote good health using menstrual products, in addition to
instructions that come with the product:
1. Wash your hands before and after using the restroom and before using a menstrual product.
2. Discard used disposable menstrual products properly: wrap them with toilet paper, a tissue, or
other material and then toss it in a trash bin. Do not flush menstrual products down the toilet.
3. Sanitary pads: Change sanitary pads every few hours, no matter how light the flow. Change
them more frequently if your period is heavy.
4. Tampons: Change tampons every 4 to 8 hours. Do not wear a single tampon for more than 8
hours at a time.
5. Use the lowest-absorbency tampon needed. If you can wear one tampon for up to 8 hours
without changing, the absorbency may be too high.
6. Sanitise menstrual cups after your period is over by rinsing them thoroughly and then placing
them in boiling water for one to two minutes.
7. Wear lightweight, breathable clothing (such as cotton underwear). Tight fabrics can trap
moisture and heat, allowing germs to thrive.
8. Change your menstrual products regularly. Trapped moisture provides a breeding ground for
bacteria and fungi. Wearing a pad or period underwear for too long can lead to a rash or an
infection.
9. Keep your genital area clean. Wash the outside of your vagina (vulva) and bottom every day.
When you go to the bathroom, wipe from the front of your body towards the back, not the other
way. Use only water to rinse your vulva. The vagina is a self-cleaning organ. Changing the
natural pH balance of your vagina by washing or using chemicals to cleanse out the vagina can
be harmful and may result in a yeast infection or bacterial vaginosis.
10. Use unscented toilet paper, tampons, or pads. Scented hygiene products can irritate the skin and
impact your natural pH balance.
11. Drink enough liquids. This can help wash out your urinary tract and help prevent infections,
like vaginal candidiasis.
12. Track and monitor your period. Your menstrual cycle is a valuable marker for your overall
health. Irregular periods can be a sign of conditions like diabetes, thyroid dysfunction, and
celiac disease. You can track your period on a calendar or with an app on your phone designed
for this purpose.
13. Talk to a doctor if you experience a change in odour, have extreme or unusual pain, or have
more severe period symptoms than usual (such as a heavier flow or longer period).
14. Avoid using chemical products.
15. Try to avoid a pad rash: A heavy flow can cause a pad rash. This will happen as the pad can be
wet for a longer time. Try to change the pad by staying dry and using an ointment, as suggested
by an expert after a bath and before bed, this will heal the rash. Pad lining may cause irritation
to sensitive skin too. If rashes persist, the skin can be sensitive and indicate high blood sugar or
allergy to the product.
16. Do not forget to take a shower: Take a shower at least twice a day. This can help you to keep
yourself clean, stay fresh, get rid of that unpleasant odour down there, and prevent infections.

Adolescent Reproductive Health.

It is essential to understand the menstrual cycle to understand reproductive health. Menstrual cycle
irregularities may indicate underlying medical conditions such thyroid abnormalities, polycystic

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 Section 4: Reproduction in Plants and Humans

ovarian syndrome (PCOS), or hormone imbalances. Recognising the menstrual cycle facilitates
conception or family planning by enabling the prediction of fertile periods.
Understanding the menstrual cycle contributes to awareness of the value of safe sexual behaviours.
Teenagers who are aware of the menstrual cycle are better equipped to choose suitable contraception
methods. Learners should be informed of the many forms of birth control and their efficacy. Emphasis
should be given to the importance of using contraception consistently and appropriately particularly
during the days in the menstrual cycle where conception is most likely. Medical professionals can be
engaged to provide advice on contraception.
Menstrual cycle education should be a part of any school program for reproductive health education.
Talk about issues like menstruation cleanliness, fertility awareness, reaching out for reproductive
healthcare services, and puberty. To guarantee inclusivity and accessibility, provide education that is
both age and culturally appropriate.
Education and access to care might be hampered by societal stigmas and cultural taboos regarding
menstruation and reproductive health. Encourage candid conversation and dispel common
misconceptions about the menstrual cycle. Encourage the adoption of policies within the school that
de-stigmatise reproductive health concerns and advance menstruation fairness.
Access to resources for reproductive health, healthcare, and education is impacted by gender
disparities. Encourage learners to speak up in favour of initiatives that advance gender parity and
provide female learners with the freedom to make their own decisions regarding their bodies and
reproductive health.

Learning Tasks

1. Explain menstrual cycle and identify at least two stages involved.

2. Describe the phases of menstrual cycle
3. Describe at least three (3) ways reproduction-related issues can be addressed by an
understanding of the menstrual cycle.
4. Analyse the differences among the phases of menstrual cycle

Pedagogical Exemplars
Think-Pair-Share
• Provide charts, diagrams, videos/ animations illustrating and explaining the menstrual cycle.
• Use color-coded calendars to represent separate phases of the menstrual cycle.
• Present a scenario related to menstrual health and hygiene to the entire class.
• Have learners individually respond to the scenario. Pair learners to discuss their ideas and
perspectives. Learners share understandings and solutions with the larger group, fostering
cross-learning and peer learning.
Gallery Walk
• Display various visual aids, articles, and resources around the classroom related to menstrual
health and hygiene.
• Encourage learners to engage with the materials and share insights and reflections gathered
from the gallery walk. Invite a health professional to share experiences with the learners on

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good menstrual hygiene practices. Encourage males to play leading roles in supporting female
experiences and participate fully in the activities for menstrual hygiene day
• Ask learners to write summaries or reports on global best practices in menstrual hygiene.

Key Assessment
Assessment Level 1: Briefly explain the menstrual cycle.
Assessment Level 2: Explain the term menstrual hygiene.
Assessment Level 2: Describe at least four (4) ways good menstrual hygiene can be practiced.
Assessment Level 2: Describe how menstrual cycle can be determined using ovulation predictor kits.
Assessment Level 3: Compare and contrast luteal phase and follicular phase of menstrual cycle.

Section Review
These lessons were structured to provide a holistic learning experience. Learners should now
possess a comprehensive understanding the concept of reproduction in plants and humans and
explain the concept of menstrual cycle, how to calculate the menstrual cycle and its application
to address reproduction-related issues. The aim is for each student to have not only gained
theoretical knowledge but to apply in real-life situation and solve societal problems.

Additional Reading
• Determination of menstrual cycle using ovulation predicting kits, reproductive health-
related issues.
• Organise debates or role-playing scenarios where learners discuss different approaches to
menstrual hygiene.

Resources
1. Charts/videos/pictures /diagrams, posters, or images of menstrual cycle.
2. Internet resources such as https://www.webmd.com/baby/healthtool-ovulation-calculator;
https://www.always.com/en-us/period-calculator
3. Charts/videos/pictures of menstrual cycle.
4. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/subjects/zhstqp3
5. Internet resources such as https://www.webmd.com/baby/healthtool-ovulation-calculator;
https://www.unfpa.org/resources/adolescent-sexual-and-reproductive-health; https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=lBHRwkZPNac
6. Journals on reproductive health

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 Section 4: Reproduction in Plants and Humans

References
1. Curriculum document
2. https://www.always.com/en-us/period-calculator
3. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/subjects/zhstqp3
4. Internet resources such as https://www.webmd.com/baby/healthtool-ovulation-calculator;
https://www.unfpa.org/resources/adolescent-sexual-and-reproductive-health;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBHRwkZPNac
5. https://crickethillgarden.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/bt-base.jpg
6. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (15th
ed.). Wiley.
7. Ramawat, K. G., Merillon, J.-M., & Shivanna, K. R. (2016). Reproductive Biology of
Plants. CRC Press.
8. Jones, R. E. (1997). Human Reproductive Biology, Second Edition (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

93
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

General
Science



 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

GENERAL SCIENCE
For Senior High Schools
TEACHER MANUAL

YEAR 1 - BOOK 2
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

REPUBLIC OF GHANA

General Science
For Senior High Schools
Teacher Manual
Year One - Book Two
GENERAL SCIENCE TEACHER MANUAL

Enquiries and comments on this manual should be addressed to:

The Director-General
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)
Ministry of Education
P.O. Box CT PMB 77
Cantonments Accra
Telephone: 0302909071, 0302909862
Email: [email protected]
website: www.nacca.gov.gh

©2024 Ministry of Education

This publication is not for sale. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced without prior written permission from the Ministry of
Education, Ghana.
 CONTENTS

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
Learner-Centred Curriculum 1
Promoting Ghanaian Values 1
Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies 1
Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations 1
An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum 2
SUMMARY SCOPE AND SEQUENCE 3
SECTION 5: SOLAR PANELS 4
Strand: Vigour behind life 4
Sub-Strand: Powering the future with energy forms. 4
Theme or Focal Area: How Solar Panels Reduce the Reliance on Fossil Fuels in Ghana 6
Theme or Focal Area: How Solar Panels are Set Up in Ghana 8
Theme or Focal Area: Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy
to the Economy of Ghana 12

SECTION 6: FORCE 17
Strand: Vigour behind life 17
Sub-Strand: Forces acting on substances and mechanisms 17
Theme or Focal Area: Identification and Explanation of Concepts
Associated with Forces 19

SECTION 7: BASIC ELECTRONICS 28

Strand: Vigour Behind 28
Sub-Strand: Consumer Electronics 28
Theme or Focal Area: Uses of Electronic Components in Household
Electronic Devices 30

SECTION 8: PROMOTING HEALTH AND SAFETY 38

Strand: Relationships with the Environment 38
Sub-Strand: The Human Body and Health 38
Theme or Focal Area: Hazards and How to Manage them in the Environment 40
Theme or Focal Area: Causes, Effects and Prevention of Lifestyle Diseases 55
Theme or Focal Area: Recreational Drugs and the Negative Effects these
have on the Body and Society in General 61

iii
SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY 69
Strand: Relationships With the Environment 69
Sub-Strand: Relationship with the environment 69
Theme or Focal Area: Production of Local Soap 71
Theme or Focal Area: Experiment to Produce Different Types of Soap 74
Theme or Focal Area: Identify the Science Underlying the Stages of Production. 77
Theme or Focal Area: Science Processes in the Stages of Production of Kenkey 82

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 88

iv
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) has developed a new Senior High
School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Curriculum. It aims to ensure that all learners achieve their potential by equipping
them with 21st Century skills, competencies, character qualities and shared Ghanaian values. This will
prepare learners to live a responsible adult life, further their education and enter the world of work.
This is the first time that Ghana has developed an SHS Curriculum which focuses on national values,
attempting to educate a generation of Ghanaian youth who are proud of our country and can contribute
effectively to its development.
This Book Two of the Teacher Manual for General Science covers all aspects of the content, pedagogy,
teaching and learning resources and assessment required to effectively teach Year One of the new
curriculum. It contains information for the second 12 weeks of Year One. Teachers are therefore to use
this Teacher Manual to develop their weekly Learning Plans as required by Ghana Education Service.
Some of the key features of the new curriculum are set out below.
Learner-Centred Curriculum
The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum places the learner at the center of teaching and learning by
building on their existing life experiences, knowledge and understanding. Learners are actively
involved in the knowledge-creation process, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. This involves
using interactive and practical teaching and learning methods, as well as the learner’s environment
to make learning exciting and relatable. As an example, the new curriculum focuses on Ghanaian
culture, Ghanaian history, and Ghanaian geography so that learners first understand their home and
surroundings before extending their knowledge globally.

Promoting Ghanaian Values

Shared Ghanaian values have been integrated into the curriculum to ensure that all young people
understand what it means to be a responsible Ghanaian citizen. These values include truth, integrity,
diversity, equity, self-directed learning, self-confidence, adaptability and resourcefulness, leadership
and responsible citizenship.

Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum integrates 21st Century skills and competencies. These are:
• Foundational Knowledge: Literacy, Numeracy, Scientific Literacy, Information Communication
and Digital Literacy, Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurship, Cultural Identity, Civic Literacy
and Global Citizenship
• Competencies: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, Innovation and Creativity, Collaboration
and Communication
• Character Qualities: Discipline and Integrity, Self-Directed Learning, Self-Confidence,
Adaptability and Resourcefulness, Leadership and Responsible Citizenship

Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum promotes a balanced approach to assessment. It encourages
varied and differentiated assessments such as project work, practical demonstration, performance
assessment, skills-based assessment, class exercises, portfolios as well as end-of-term examinations
and final external assessment examinations. Two levels of assessment are used. These are:
• Internal Assessment (30%) – Comprises formative (portfolios, performance and project work)
and summative (end-of-term examinations) which will be recorded in a school-based transcript.

1
INTRODUCTION

• External Assessment (70%) – Comprehensive summative assessment will be conducted by

the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) through the WASSCE. The questions posed
by WAEC will test critical thinking, communication and problem solving as well as knowledge,
understanding and factual recall.
The split of external and internal assessment will remain at 70/30 as is currently the case. However,
there will be far greater transparency and quality assurance of the 30% of marks which are school-
based. This will be achieved through the introduction of a school-based transcript, setting out all
marks which learners achieve from SHS 1 to SHS 3. This transcript will be presented to universities
alongside the WASSCE certificate for tertiary admissions.

An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum ensures no learner is left behind, and this is achieved through
the following:
• Addressing the needs of all learners, including those requiring additional support or with special
needs. The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum includes learners with disabilities by adapting
teaching and learning materials into accessible formats through technology and other measures
to meet the needs of learners with disabilities.
• Incorporating strategies and measures, such as differentiation and adaptative pedagogies
ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities for all learners.
• Challenging traditional gender, cultural, or social stereotypes and encouraging all learners to
achieve their true potential.
• Making provision for the needs of gifted and talented learners in schools.

Social and Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning skills have also been integrated into the curriculum to help learners to
develop and acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge essential for understanding and managing their
emotions, building healthy relationships and making responsible decisions.

Philosophy and vision for each subject

Each subject now has its own philosophy and vision, which sets out why the subject is being taught
and how it will contribute to national development. The Philosophy and Vision for General Science is:
Philosophy: The next generation of learners can be empowered to acquire scientific knowledge and
develop science process skills in scientific concepts through 21st Century Skills and Competencies
that create opportunities that leverage practical activities in a learner-centred environment to make
Science functional, leading to Global relevance
Vision: A learner equipped with scientific knowledge through 21st Century Skills and Competencies
who understands and applies scientific principles, solving daily scientific problems in an increasingly
complex society.

2
 SUMMARY SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

SUMMARY SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

S/N STRAND SUB-STRAND YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3

CS LO LI CS LO LI CS LO LI
1. Exploring Science and
Materials Materials in 2 2 6 1 1 3 2 2 4
Nature
2. Processes For Essentials for
2 3 5 2 2 6 2 2 6
Living Survival
3. Vigour Behind Powering the
Life future with energy 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
forms
Forces acting on
substances and 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
mechanisms
Consumer
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
Electronics
4. Relationships The Human Body
3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 4
With The and Health
Environment Technology in our
2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1
Local Industries
TOTAL 12 13 22 8 8 18 10 10 21

Overall Totals (SHS 1 – 3)

Content Standards (CS) 30
Learning Outcomes (LO) 31
Learning Indicators (LI) 61

3
SECTION 5: SOLAR PANELS

SECTION 5: SOLAR PANELS

Strand: Vigour behind life

Sub-Strand: Powering the future with energy forms.

Learning Outcome: Relate forms of energy to their sources and their generation

Content Standard: Demonstrate understanding of forms of energy, sources, their generation

and effects on the environment.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Harnessing solar energy to generate power through solar cells or panels is at the forefront of
environmentally friendly energy options. The method entails absorbing sunlight and transforming it
into electricity using photovoltaic technology. Individuals can play an important role in promoting
renewable energy sources and environmental conservation by learning about the complexities of
solar electricity generation and taking on the challenge of designing and building solar panels out of
locally accessible materials.
This section comprehensively describes power generation using solar cells or panels. It dives into the
fundamentals of solar energy conversion and emphasises the need to employ sustainable methods
in the set-up of solar panels. This section hopes to promote creativity and innovation in renewable
energy initiatives by understanding the principles underpinning solar panels. Individuals can learn
about solar power’s environmental and societal benefits through practical participation and hands-on
learning experiences. By increasing people’s understanding of solar energy technology, we enable
them to contribute to a greener, more sustainable future.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 13: Describe the generation of electricity from solar cells/panels.
Week 14: Design and build Solar panels using locally available materials.
Week 15: Design and build Solar panels using locally available materials.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Pedagogical Exemplars stress the role of teachers in providing dynamic learning experiences through
individualised instruction. Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of instructional methods to meet
the requirements of individual pupils, ensuring fair access to essential knowledge, understanding, and
skills. The determination of core learning goals that serve as evaluation benchmarks is important to
this example, which includes not just content mastery but also the development of critical cognitive
and practical skills required for learners’ overall growth and lifelong learning.
Furthermore, Pedagogical Exemplars advocate for the creation of supplementary curricula and
opportunities tailored to the exceptional abilities of gifted and talented learners. Teachers can help
high-achieving learners develop their unique abilities and potential by giving enriched challenges and
extensions that go beyond the limits of the curriculum.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section’s assessments can be formative, summative, or differentiated. Formative assessment
will include activities such as laboratory work that demonstrates certain science features to improve

4
 SECTION 5: SOLAR PANELS

students’ science process abilities. Short tests, class exercises, assignments, group debates, group
projects, and group presentations are also available. Written exams, interviews, observations, or
performance assignments based on assessment indicators are presented, along with graded results.
Learners could be issued with a list of the learning outcomes for each section, and they could review
their learning by coding each learning outcome in red (not understood). amber (understood but not
yet secure) and green (securely understood). Summative assessments are due at the end of every
lesson, section, and semester. However, both formative and summative exams contribute to learners’
cumulative records.
To create a good assessment atmosphere, make sure learners are given clear instructions. Maintain
consistency in administering the evaluation to all participants to ensure fairness. To create a good
assessment atmosphere, make sure that learners are given clear instructions. Maintain uniformity
when evaluating all participants to ensure fairness and impartiality. Assessment should focus on
learners’ ability to apply knowledge, think critically, solve problems, and communicate effectively.
Differentiated assessments cater to individual learner needs and talents. Gifted and talented learners
may require additional challenges, enrichment activities, or accelerated learning opportunities.
Transcript recording entails recording pertinent information such as the learner’s characteristics,
assessment date, assessment components, and scores. Include any extra observations or notes that
may provide useful information about the evaluation outcomes.
Differentiated assessment considers each learner’s unique learning needs, strengths, and interests.
Teachers should tailor assessment questions to varied levels of readiness, learning styles, and
preferences to ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their competencies.

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WEEK 13
Learning Indicator: Describe the generation of electricity from solar cells/panels

Theme or Focal Area: How Solar Panels Reduce the Reliance on Fossil Fuels in Ghana

Overview of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are nonrenewable resources derived from the remains
of ancient plants and animals that have experienced geological processes over millions of years. For
decades, these energy sources have served as the foundation of global energy production because of
their high energy density and accessibility. However, the combustion of fossil fuels emits greenhouse
gases and hazardous chemicals into the atmosphere, causing climate change, air pollution, and
environmental degradation.
Ghana, like many other countries, is facing issues due to its reliance on fossil fuels for electricity
generation, transportation, and industrial activities. Imported oil and locally mined coal are among
the principal fossil fuels utilised in Ghana, fuelling economic growth while raising environmental and
energy security issues.
The limited availability of fossil fuel supplies and their negative impact on the environment underscores
the need for sustainable energy alternatives to lessen reliance on these nonrenewable resources.

Solar panels
Solar panels provide a clean, renewable energy source that can drastically reduce Ghana’s reliance on
fossil fuels. Solar panels, which harness sunlight and transform it into electricity, present a sustainable
option that emits no greenhouse gases or air pollutants. Switching to solar power in Ghana can help
minimise the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels, resulting in better air quality, lower carbon
emissions, and increased environmental sustainability.
In Ghana, the adoption of solar panels can play a crucial role in diversifying the country’s energy
mix and reducing its carbon footprint. By investing in solar energy infrastructure, Ghana can tap
into its abundant sunlight resources to generate electricity without relying heavily on fossil fuels.
Solar panels can be deployed on rooftops, in solar farms, and in decentralised systems to provide
clean energy for residential, commercial, and industrial applications, thereby reducing the demand
for fossil fuels in various sectors.
Furthermore, the implementation of solar power in Ghana can contribute to energy security and
resilience by reducing the country’s dependence on imported oil and mitigating the impact of fluctuating
fuel prices. Solar panels offer a stable and predictable source of energy that can complement existing
energy sources and reduce the risk associated with supply chain disruptions or price volatility in the
global fossil fuel market.
By embracing solar panels as a clean energy solution, Ghana can also stimulate economic growth,
create job opportunities, and drive technological innovation in the renewable energy sector. The
development of a local solar industry in Ghana can lead to investments in manufacturing, installation,
maintenance, and research, fostering a sustainable transition towards a greener and more resilient
energy system.
The use of solar panels gives Ghana a transformative opportunity to reduce its dependency on fossil
fuels, combat climate change, improve air quality, increase energy security, and promote long-term
economic development. Understanding the meaning of fossil fuels and their environmental impact

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allows Ghana to use solar power as a key enabler of a cleaner, more sustainable energy future and
contribute to global efforts to transition to a low-carbon economy.

Learning Tasks

1. Identify at least four (4) examples of fossil fuels.

2. In what way is solar energy different from energy from fossil fuels?
3. Explain ways solar panels can reduce reliance on fossil fuels in Ghana.

Pedagogical exemplars
Collaborative learning
• Engage learners in mixed groups for an organised discussion by revising various forms of
electricity generation from the junior high school curriculum (B7.4.2.1.1) related to solar energy.
• Encourage active participation, question and answer sessions, and peer-to-peer explanations to
consolidate understanding and enhance retention.
• Organize learners into mixed groups to research and deliver presentations on solar energy.
• Provide guidelines on content, format, and presentation skills to ensure clarity and engagement.
• In groups, learners research how solar panels can reduce reliance on fossil fuels in Ghana.
• Learners reflect and cross-share their findings for peer review and critique.
• Offer alternative presentation formats for learners with difficulties.

Key Assessment
Level 1: State three examples of fossil fuels.
Level 2: Explain the term fossil fuel.
Level 3: Describe how solar panels reduce the reliance on fossil fuels in Ghana.
Level 4: Analyse how the impact of the use of solar panels on Ghana’s economy.

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WEEK 14
Learning Indicator: Design and build Solar panels

Theme or Focal Area: How Solar Panels are Set Up in Ghana

Overview
In contrast to finite fossil fuels, solar energy is a clean and renewable energy source that is abundant
and infinite. Using solar power decreases reliance on non-renewable resources, which helps mitigate
climate change.
Installing solar panels in Ghana is based on worldwide best practices, with some local peculiarities.
The following is an outline of how solar panels are generally erected in Ghana:

Solar panel installation in Ghana

Solar panel installation in Ghana starts with a thorough site assessment considering solar irradiation,
shading, roof orientation, available space, and electrical infrastructure. These criteria are evaluated to
determine the best location and design for the solar panel system.
Engineers install solar panel systems based on on-site evaluation to suit the energy needs of the
property or facility. The design process involves establishing the number of solar panels, inverter
capacity, battery storage (if applicable), mounting structure, and wiring arrangement.
Permits and approvals are essential in Ghana to follow local legislation, building norms, and electric
grid connection guidelines. This process may include interacting with key authorities to get grid
connection permissions and safety certificates.
Experiment: Installation of Solar Panel Using Solar Panel Kits for Senior High School
• Aim: To install a solar panel kit, understand its components, and measure the output voltage
and current under different lighting conditions.
• Apparatus: Solar panel kit (designed for educational purposes), multimeter (to measure
voltage and current), Connecting wires, Load (e.g., small motor or light bulb), Mounting stand
(optional), Sunlight or artificial light source, Notebook and pen for recording data
Procedure
• Carefully unpack the solar panel kit and identify all components. Common components include
the solar panel, connecting wires, a load (such as a small motor or light bulb), and a stand.
• If your kit includes a stand or frame, assemble it according to the instructions provided.
• Mount the solar panel onto the stand, ensuring it is secure.
• The connecting wires attach the load (motor or light bulb) to the solar panel terminals. Ensure
correct polarity (positive to positive and negative to negative).
• Set the multimeter to measure voltage (V) and connect the probes to the output terminals of the
solar panel.
• To measure current (I), you must set the multimeter to the current setting and connect it in series
with the load.
• Outdoor in Sunlight: Place the solar panel in direct sunlight and record the voltage and current
readings from the multimeter.
• Partial Shade: Move the panel to a shaded area and record the new readings.

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• Artificial Light: Bring the panel indoors and use a strong artificial light source (e.g., a desk
lamp). Record the readings.
Record Observations: For each lighting condition, note the following:
• Voltage (V)
• Current (A)
• Power (P = V × I)
Analyse Data: Compare the voltage and current outputs under different lighting conditions.
Discuss how the intensity and type of light affect the solar panel’s performance.
Example of Data
Table1.1:

Lighting Condition Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (W) = V × I

Direct Sunlight 18.5 0.5 9.25
Partial Shade 10.2 0.3 3.06
Artificial Light 3.5 0.1 0.35

Roof Preparation and Mounting Structure: Rooftop installations may need strengthening or repair
to accommodate the weight of solar panels. A strong mounting system is then placed on the roof to
secure the solar panels and optimise sunlight exposure for optimal energy generation.
Install solar panels securely and at the right angle for the best sunlight throughout the day. The panels
are wired correctly and safely to prevent shadowing and limit energy losses.
Inverter Installation: Solar panels are wired to an inverter, which converts DC electricity to AC
for residential or commercial consumption. The proper installation of the inverter provides effective
energy conversion. The AC electricity generated by the solar panels is routed through a meter and
connected to the property’s electrical infrastructure. In off-grid installations or systems with battery
storage, the connection includes a battery bank and a charge controller for energy storage and
management.

Fig. 1: A labeled diagram of inverter installation

Testing and commissioning: After installation, the solar panel system is thoroughly tested to ensure
performance, safety, and operation. Testing entails inspecting electrical connections, measuring
voltage output, and ensuring that the system works as intended. Maintaining and monitoring solar
panel systems is crucial in Ghana for optimal performance and efficiency. Regular inspections,
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cleaning of panels, and monitoring of energy production assist in optimising system output and
quickly resolving any difficulties.
Caring for solar panels: Caring for solar panels in Ghana is essential to maintain optimal performance
and longevity of the system, especially in the country’s climate conditions. Here are some key tips on
how to care for solar panels in Ghana:
Regular Cleaning: Dust, dirt, bird droppings, and other debris can accumulate on the surface of solar
panels, reducing their efficiency. Regularly clean the panels with water and a non-abrasive cleaning
solution to remove dirt and maintain maximum sunlight absorption.
Monitor Shading: Keep an eye on shading patterns on the solar panels, especially from nearby trees,
buildings, or structures. Trim back vegetation or remove obstacles that cast shadows on the panels to
ensure uninterrupted sunlight exposure throughout the day.
Check for Damage: Inspect the solar panels periodically for any signs of physical damage, such as
cracks, scratches, or loose connections. Address any damage promptly to prevent further issues and
ensure the panels continue to operate efficiently.
Test System Performance: Monitor the energy output of the solar panel system regularly to ensure
it is producing the expected amount of electricity. Compare energy production figures with historical
data to identify any anomalies that may indicate a problem with the system.
Maintain Electrical Components: Check the wiring, connections, and electrical components of the
solar panel system for signs of wear, corrosion, or overheating. Ensure that all electrical connections
are secure and functioning correctly to prevent breakdowns or safety hazards.
Protect Against Lightning: Ghana’s climate can experience lightning storms, posing a risk to solar
panel systems. Install surge protectors and grounding systems to safeguard the system from electrical
surges and lightning strikes.
Schedule Professional Inspections: Consider scheduling regular maintenance checks by a qualified
solar technician to inspect the system, perform detailed assessments, and address any issues proactively.
Professional inspections can help identify potential problems early and optimise system performance.
Monitor Battery Health (if applicable): If your solar panel system includes battery storage, monitor
the health of the batteries regularly. Check the charging levels, electrolyte levels (if applicable), and
overall battery performance to ensure efficient energy storage.
Keep Records: Maintain detailed records of maintenance activities, energy production data,
inspections, and any repairs done on the solar panel system. Keeping accurate records helps track
system performance, troubleshoot issues, and plan for future maintenance.

Learning Tasks

1. Identify factors to be considered when setting up solar panels in Ghana.

2. Describe the Impact of environmental factors on solar panel installation.
3. Explain why regular cleaning of the solar panels is important.

Pedagogical exemplars
Demonstration
• Provide visual aids such as detailed maps showing the geographical distribution of solar panel
installations across Ghana to learners.

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• Use diagrams and concept maps illustrating the setup process of solar panels, including
placement, orientation, and connection to the electrical system.
• Show pictures of existing solar projects in different regions of Ghana to demonstrate real-world
applications and inspire visual learners.
Collaborative learning
• Put learners into mixed-ability groups to collaboratively analyse and interpret the detailed maps
showcasing solar panel installations in Ghana, encouraging teamwork and information sharing.
• Provide opportunities for group discussions to create concept maps illustrating the setup process
of solar panels, allowing for diverse perspectives and solutions.
• Provide criteria to help learners do group presentations where learners showcase pictures of
existing solar projects in Ghana, fostering collaborative learning and collective insight into
real-world solar applications
Research-based learning
• Learners explore the environmental factors unique to Ghana in mixed ability groups, such as
weather patterns, sunlight intensity, and terrain, and how these impact the effectiveness of solar
panel installations. Learners reflect and share their findings for peer review.
• Engage learners in group present where learners work in teams to design a solar panel installation
plan for a hypothetical Ghanaian community.
• Assign specific roles within the group, such as project manager, technical expert, and financial
analyst, to simulate a real-world collaborative environment.
• Encourage learners to consider sunlight exposure, energy demand, budget constraints, and
community engagement when developing their solar panel installation proposal.
• Through hands-on activities, put learners in mixed-ability groups where learners clean and
maintain a small-scale solar panel setup, simulating the conditions and challenges faced in Ghana.
• Assign projects to investigate the impact of Ghana’s climate, dust levels, and maintenance
practices on the longevity and efficiency of solar panels in the region. Task learners to develop
and present educational materials on solar panel maintenance to raise awareness and promote
sustainable energy practices in local communities.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Explain at least three routine maintenance tasks required to keep solar panels clean and
functioning effectively.
Level 2: Describe the step-by-step procedures for installing solar panels.
Level 3: Create a visual diagram or flowchart illustrating the installation process of solar panels,
highlighting key components and safety protocols.

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WEEK 15
Learning Indicator: Design and build Solar panels using locally available materials.

Theme or Focal Area: Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy to the Economy
of Ghana

General advantages of solar energy/panel

Renewable and Sustainable: Solar energy is a renewable resource, meaning it is inexhaustible and
can be harnessed for power generation without depleting natural reserves. This sustainability ensures
a reliable energy source for current and future generations.
Environmentally Friendly: Solar energy production has minimal environmental impact compared
to traditional fossil fuels. It reduces greenhouse gas emissions, lowers air and water pollution, and
helps combat climate change, promoting a cleaner and healthier environment for all living beings.
Cost-Effective: Over time, solar energy systems prove to be cost-effective due to lower energy bills
and minimal maintenance requirements. This affordability makes solar power accessible to a wider
population, driving energy independence and economic growth.
Energy Independence: By utilising solar energy, individuals and communities can reduce their
dependence on traditional energy sources, contributing to energy security and resilience in the face of
disruptions or price fluctuations in the energy market.
Versatility and Accessibility: Solar energy can be harnessed in various forms, from small-scale
residential installations to large-scale utility projects. Its accessibility makes it a versatile solution for
powering homes, businesses, and even remote areas with limited access to traditional power grids.
Job Creation and Economic Growth: The solar energy industry creates job opportunities in
manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and research sectors, stimulating economic growth and
bolstering local economies.
General disadvantages of solar energy/ Panel: Solar energy availability depends on sunshine,
making it sporadic and unpredictable, particularly on overcast days or at night. This fluctuation can
make it difficult to supply continuous energy demands without storage options.
Energy Storage Limitations: Storing solar energy for use during periods of low sunlight can be
expensive and technically difficult. Capacity and efficiency limits are common in solar battery
storage systems.
The initial cost of installing solar panels and accompanying equipment might be prohibitive for
many people and communities. The initial expenditure necessary for solar energy installations may
discourage some people from using this renewable energy source.
Aesthetic Considerations: Some people may find solar panels physically unpleasant or detrimental
to the aesthetics of a neighbourhood, raising issues about property values and community appearance.
System Integration issues: Integrating solar energy into existing power networks can bring issues
relating to system stability, energy distribution, and balancing supply and demand, necessitating
improvements and expenditures in grid infrastructure.

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Advantages of solar panels to the environment

Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Solar energy systems provide electricity without emitting
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide or methane, which are significant contributors to climate
change. By utilising solar energy, we may considerably lower our carbon footprint and alleviate the
effects of global warming.
Air Quality Improvement: Traditional energy sources, such as coal and natural gas, emit dangerous
pollutants into the environment, contributing to air pollution and respiratory ailments. Solar energy
generation is clean and does not release pollutants, which benefits general air quality and public health.
Water Conservation: Unlike fossil fuel power plants, which require a lot of water to cool and operate,
solar energy systems use very little water. Water conservation is important for regions facing water
scarcity or drought conditions, safeguarding this critical resource.
Solar energy generation has a limited environmental impact because it does not require the extraction,
transportation, or combustion of fossil fuels. Solar electricity contributes to the conservation of
biodiversity and natural landscapes by lowering environmental disturbances and habitat degradation.
Resource Conservation: Solar energy is derived from sunlight, a nearly infinite resource that does
not deplete or require extraction from the planet. By using solar electricity, we lessen our reliance on
scarce resources such as coal, oil, and natural gas, supporting resource conservation and sustainable
energy practices.
Climate Resilience: Switching to solar energy decreases reliance on nonrenewable energy sources
susceptible to supply disruptions, price volatility, and geopolitical conflicts. Solar power improves
energy security and resilience to climatic hazards, resulting in a stable and sustainable energy future.
Energy Independence: By using solar energy, communities and nations can lessen their reliance on
imported fossil fuels, thereby increasing energy independence and security. Localised solar power
generation allows people to take control of their energy production, promoting self-sufficiency
and autonomy.

Disadvantages of solar panel

Land Use: Large-scale solar energy projects require significant land area for installation, which
can result in habitat disruption and land-use conflicts. Clearing land for solar farms may lead to
biodiversity loss and natural ecosystems, particularly in sensitive or undeveloped areas.
Resource Extraction: Producing solar panels involves mining raw materials such as silicon,
cadmium, and rare earth elements. Extracting these resources can have environmental consequences,
including habitat destruction, water pollution, and energy consumption in the manufacturing process.
Waste Generation: When solar panels reach the end of their usable life span, they must be disposed
of. Improper disposal of solar panels can lead to electronic waste, potentially releasing hazardous
materials into the environment if not managed responsibly.
Transportation Impact: Solar energy systems and components are often manufactured in different
locations and transported to installation sites. The transportation of solar panels and equipment can
contribute to carbon emissions and environmental pollution if not optimised for energy efficiency.
Visual Impact: The visual appearance of solar panels, especially in residential or scenic areas, can
be perceived as unsightly or intrusive. Concerns about the aesthetics of solar installations may arise,
impacting community acceptance and willingness to adopt solar energy technologies.

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Heat Island Effect: Solar panels can absorb and retain heat, leading to localised warming in urban or
densely populated areas with high solar panel density. This heat island effect can alter microclimates,
increase energy consumption for cooling, and affect thermal comfort near solar installations.

Learning Tasks

1. Identify three advantages of solar energy to life in Ghana.

2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy/panels.
3. Analyse how the implementation of solar energy/panel initiatives impacts the country’s
economic growth and sustainability.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Collaborative learning
• Put the learners into small groups and assign each group a specific advantage of solar energy
to the economy of Ghana, such as increased energy access or reduced reliance on fossil fuel
imports. Have each group research and discuss their assigned advantage, then present their
findings to the class. This activity encourages collaboration, critical thinking, and in-depth
exploration of the economic benefits of solar energy.
• Engage learners in mixed-ability groups to focus on disadvantages such as high initial costs
or intermittent sunlight exposure. Have learners become experts on their assigned topic, then
reshuffle the groups so each new group has an expert from every initial expert group. This way,
students can share their knowledge and insights on the disadvantages of solar energy before
presenting a comprehensive overview to the class.
Case study
• Provide case studies showcasing the successful implementation of solar energy projects in
Ghana, highlighting the economic benefits experienced by communities and businesses. Assign
different case studies to individual learners or small groups based on their interests or learning
styles. Students can analyse the economic impact, challenges faced, and lessons learned
from each case study. This differentiated approach allows students to engage with real-world
examples at their own pace and depth, catering to their diverse learning preferences.
• Present a variety of case studies on grid integration challenges or maintenance issues in solar
energy adoption in Ghana, each with varying levels of complexity and allow learners to choose
a case study based on their interest and familiarity with the topic.
• Let learners critically evaluate the economic drawbacks presented in their chosen case study
and develop innovative solutions to address the challenges.
• Provide support materials, such as research articles, diagrams, or videos, tailored to each case
study to help different learning abilities.
• Encourage learners to present their proposed solutions through written reports, presentations,
or visual representations, allowing for individual expression and showcasing varied strengths
among learners.

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Key assessment
Level 2: Skills of conceptual understanding
Level 1: Identify at least four disadvantages of solar panels.
Level 2: Explain at least four advantages of solar panels.
Level 3: Investigate and describe the environmental benefits of utilising solar energy as a renewable
alternative in Ghana.

Section review
Learning about power generation from solar cells/panels and understanding how solar panels
are set up will provide learners numerous benefits beyond renewable energy technology.
Understanding the basics of solar energy fosters an appreciation for sustainable practices and
enables people to make informed decisions about their energy use and environmental impact.
This knowledge gives learners the tools to advocate for clean energy initiatives and contribute
meaningfully to reducing climate change and creating a greener future.
Solar energy has both advantages and downsides in Ghana’s economy. Advantages include
improved energy access and reliability, particularly in remote locations without grid
connections. Solar power can help to stimulate economic growth, increase productivity, and
reduce dependency on expensive fossil fuel imports, boosting energy security and conserving
foreign exchange reserves. Despite initial constraints such as high costs and sporadic sunshine
exposure, the long-term benefits of solar energy in terms of sustainability, affordability, and job
creation surpass the initial barriers.
Learners can use their knowledge by investigating strategies to overcome obstacles and maximise
the benefits of solar electricity in Ghana. Learners can contribute to sustainable development
activities and positively impact Ghana’s economy by conducting feasibility studies, making
policy recommendations, or working on community projects. Understanding the economic
implications of solar energy provides students with critical thinking skills for navigating energy
difficulties and promoting sustainable practices in Ghana and elsewhere.

Additional activities
1. Create a visual presentation or poster board displaying various types of solar panels.
2. Overview of Solar Energy in Ghana: Examining the significance of solar energy as a renewable
resource in Ghana’s energy landscape.
3. Detailed steps and considerations for setting up solar panels in different regions of Ghana,
including site assessment, mounting, wiring, and connection to the electrical grid.
4. Real-world examples of successful solar panel installations in Ghana, highlighting different
approaches and outcomes. The critical role of regular care and maintenance in preserving the
performance and lifespan of solar panels in Ghana’s challenging environmental conditions.
5. Best practices for cleaning solar panels, conducting system inspections, and troubleshooting
common issues to ensure optimal efficiency.
6. Strategies for sustainable solar panel maintenance, including water-saving cleaning methods,
eco-friendly materials, and community engagement initiatives.
7. Explore locally available materials that can be used to design solar panels

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Resources
• Projectors
• Charts/pictures/drawings showing different solar panels.
• Simulations/YouTube videos.
• Prototypes of solar panels
• Charts, pictures, and simulations of various forms of electricity generation.
• Internet resources such as (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BgDt407uQc; https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=lxoHqV2fMK4)
• Different appropriate materials from the environment.

References
• Curriculum
• https://academic.oup.com/ce/article/6/3/476/6606003
• Ragwitz, M., Haas, R., Huber, C., Resch, G., Faber, T., & Huber, A. (2014). How to measure
the disruption of energy systems? An evaluation of multiple indicators. Environmental
Research Letters, 6(3), 476.

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SECTION 6: FORCE

Strand: Vigour behind life

Sub-Strand: Forces acting on substances and mechanisms

Learning Outcome: Apply various forces according to their effects on motions.

Content Standard: Recognise the various forms of forces and their effects on motions.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Forces play a pivotal role in shaping the behaviour of objects and explaining the phenomena we
observe in our daily lives. In this immersive exploration, we will delve into the fundamental concepts
associated with forces, from the foundational principles of Newtonian mechanics to the nuanced
understanding of various force types such as friction, tension, and gravitational forces. We will
uncover the underlying mechanisms that drive the physical world through engaging discussions and
practical examples. Join us as we find the mysteries of forces and unveil the beauty of their influence
on the world around us.
This section offers a comprehensive examination of the diverse forces-related concepts, providing
participants with a deeper understanding of the fundamental principles governing object interactions.
By exploring key theories such as Newton’s laws of motion and gravitational forces, individuals will
gain insights into how forces shape motion, equilibrium, and stability. The discussions encompass a
broad spectrum of force types, illustrating their effects through real-world scenarios and interactive
activities. Through this exploration, participants will enhance their knowledge of forces and develop
a profound appreciation for the intricate mechanisms underlying the physical phenomena we meet
daily. This section aims to empower individuals to recognise the pervasive influence of forces and
leverage this understanding to navigate the complexities of the natural world with clarity and insight.
The week covered by the section is:
WEEK 16: Identify and explain concepts associated with forces.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Pedagogical Exemplars emphasise instructors’ critical role in providing personalised and dynamic
learning experiences via individualised instruction. teachers can adjust their approaches to student’s
needs using various teaching strategies, ensuring fair access to critical knowledge, understanding,
and skills. This approach is centred on establishing core learning objectives that serve as evaluative
benchmarks, encompassing content proficiency and the cultivation of critical cognitive and practical
competencies required for learners’ holistic development and ongoing education.
Furthermore, Pedagogical Exemplars emphasise the significance of developing additional curricula
and customised chances for extraordinarily brilliant and talented children. Teachers are urged to
cultivate high-achieving students’ unique abilities and potential by offering enriched challenges and
extensions that go beyond the conventional curriculum. Teachers play an important role in meeting
the different educational needs of their students and developing a culture of lifelong learning and
sustainable development by creating an atmosphere that encourages individualised growth and
enrichment.

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ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Assessments within this framework encompass formative, summative, and differentiated approaches
to evaluate student learning comprehensively. Formative assessments encompass activities such as
lab work, short tests, group projects, and presentations to enhance science process skills and gauge
understanding. Conversely, summative assessments are conducted at the end of the lesson, section, or
semester, contributing to cumulative records. Learners can self-assess learning outcomes by coding
them red (not understood), amber (partially understood), or green (well understood). This system aids
in tracking progress and addressing areas for improvement effectively.
Creating a conducive assessment environment entails providing clear instructions and maintaining
consistency for all participants to uphold fairness. Emphasising the application of knowledge, critical
thinking, problem-solving, and effective communication in assessments ensures a holistic evaluation
of students’ aptitudes. Differentiated assessments cater to individual learner needs, with gifted
students receiving challenging tasks, enriching activities, or accelerated learning options. Transcript
recording is vital to document learner characteristics, assessment details, and additional observations
for a comprehensive evaluation overview.
Tailoring assessments to accommodate diverse learning needs, strengths, and interests ensures that
all students can showcase their skills equally. By adapting assessment content to various readiness
levels and preferences, teachers foster an inclusive learning environment that nurtures each student’s
capabilities to their fullest potential.

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WEEK 16
Learning Indicator: Identify and explain concepts associated with forces

Theme or Focal Area: Identification and Explanation of Concepts Associated with

Forces

Overview of forces
• Forces are fundamental concepts in physics that describe interactions between objects and can
cause changes in their motion. Here are some key concepts associated with forces: Force is a
push or pull that can change the state of motion or the shape of an object.
• Force is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude (size) and direction.
• Forces are measured in Newtons (N).

Experiment on frictional force

Title: Exploring the effects of different surfaces on the frictional forces they generate.
Aim: To investigate the effects of friction on the distance an object can slide along a surface
Materials:
• Wooden block or any object with a flat surface (e.g., a book, a toy car)
• Smooth surface (e.g., a glass table, a plastic tray)
• Rough surface (e.g., sandpaper, a carpet)
• Ruler or measuring tape
• Weighing scale (optional)
Procedure:
• Start by placing the smooth surface (e.g., glass table) on a flat, stable table or floor.
• Take the wooden block (or the object with a flat surface) and place it on a smooth surface.
• Push the block gently with a constant force and measure the distance it travels before coming
to a stop. You can mark the block’s motion’s starting and ending points.
• Record the distance in a table.
• Repeat the above steps for the rough surface (e.g., sandpaper) and record the distance the block
travels before stopping.
Observations and Analysis: Now that you have experimented, you can analyse the results. Compare
the distance the block travelled on the smooth surface with the distance it travelled on the rough
surface. You will likely notice that the block travelled a shorter distance on the rough surface than on
the smooth surface.
Conclusion: The difference in the distances travelled is due to friction. Friction is a force that opposes
the relative motion or tendency of such motion of two surfaces in contact. In this experiment, the
rough surface created more friction between the block and the surface, which caused it to slow down
and stop sooner. Frictional Forces: These forces arise when two objects physically touch each other.
Examples include normal force (force exerted by a surface perpendicular to the object’s surface).
Frictional force resists motion between two surfaces in contact. Friction is a force that opposes
the relative motion or attempts at motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts parallel to the

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surfaces and can be beneficial (e.g., walking without slipping) and detrimental (e.g., slowing down a
moving car).
Evaluation: Is there any aspect of the experiment that could be improved? Which variable is poorly
controlled and could undermine the validity of the experiment and the quality of the conclusions?

Gravitational Force
This is the force of attraction between any two objects with mass. It is responsible for keeping planets in
orbit around stars and objects anchored to the Earth’s surface. The force is proportional to the product
of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass.
Title: Investigating Gravitational Force
Aim: To understand the concept of gravitational force and explore its relationship with mass
and distance.
Materials:
• Two objects of different masses (e.g., a small ball and a heavier object like a book)
• Spring scale
• Meterstick or measuring tape
• Stopwatch
Procedure:
• Set the spring scale on a flat surface and zero it.
• Using a string, attach a lighter object, such as a little ball, to the spring scale.
• Take note of the weight shown on the spring scale for this object.
• Repeat with a heavier object, such as a book, and record the weight.
• To calculate the gravitational force on an item, use the formula F = mg, where F represents
the gravitational force, m represents the object’s mass, and g represents the acceleration due to
gravity (9.8 ms2).
• Discuss any observed trends or variations between the computed gravitational forces of
two objects.

Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity that represents the rate of change of an object’s position concerning time.
It includes both magnitude (speed) and direction, making it different from speed, which is a scalar
quantity. Scalar quantities have magnitude only.
The formula for calculating velocity is:
Velocity = (distance/time).
The word equation for velocity is:

displacement
velocity =
(time taken)
Displacement is the distance travelled in a particular direction
Velocity is measured in units such as metres per second (m/s) or per hour (km/h).

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Positive velocity indicates motion in the forward direction, while negative velocity indicates motion
in the reverse direction.
Title: Exploring Velocity
Aim: The concept of velocity and how it relates to everyday life.
Materials: Stopwatch, measuring tape, toy cars, markers, chart paper
Procedure
• Explain the difference between speed and velocity.
• Watch a brief video to see velocity in action.
• Calculate the car’s velocity by measuring its distance over a specific time.
• Experiment with various surfaces and angles to see how velocity changes.
• Note findings on a chart paper.
• Explain how variables such as distance and time affect velocity.
• Share real-world examples where velocity is important.
• Highlight the relevance of velocity in various industries, including sports, transportation, and
technology.

Distance
Distance is a scalar quantity representing the total path length an object covers during its motion. It
measures the total amount of ground covered, regardless of the direction taken. Distance is always
positive or zero, as it only considers the magnitude of motion. It is measured in units such as metres
(m), kilometres (km), miles (mi), etc.

Speed
Describes how fast an object is moving. Speed is a scalar quantity representing the rate of change
of distance concerning time. It only considers the magnitude of motion and does not consider the
direction. The formula for calculating speed is: speed = (distance travelled) / (time taken).
Speed is measured in units like metres per second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h), or miles per hour
(mph). Unlike velocity, speed does not involve direction and can be positive or zero.
Worked examples
1. A runner covers a distance of 400 meters in 60 seconds. Calculate the average velocity of
the runner.
Solution:
Velocity = Distance/Time Velocity
= 400 m / 60 s
Velocity = 6.67 m/s
The average velocity of the runner is 6.67 meters per second.
2. A car covers a distance of 300 miles in 5 hours. Calculate the average speed of the car in
miles per hour.
Solution
Given: Distance = 120 km, Time = 3 hours
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Velocity = Distance / Time Velocity

= 120 km / 3 hours
= 40 km/h

Acceleration
• When something is accelerating, its velocity is changing.
• Acceleration = change in velocity/ time taken
(v – u)
a=
t
• Where u is the initial velocity. v is the final velocity, and t is the time taken (in seconds).
• Acceleration (a) is measured in metres per second square (ms2)
• A negative acceleration means deceleration. A uniform acceleration means a constant (steady)
acceleration.
Calculating Force from Acceleration
Worked examples
1. PA car with a mass of 1500 kg accelerates from 0 to 20 m/s in 10 seconds. What is the net force
acting on the car?
Solution:
Calculate the acceleration:
V = u + at
(v – u)
=
t

20 – 0
= 2.0m/s2
10

Use Newton’s second law

F = ma:
F=1500kg×2m/s2
=3000N
A car travels 200 kilometres in 2 hours. Calculate the speed of the car.
Solution:
Speed = Distance/Time
Speed = 200 km / 2 hours
Speed = 100 km/h
.: The speed of the car is 100 kilometres per hour.
2. A car accelerates from 0 m/s to 20 m/s in 5 seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the car.
Solution:
Acceleration = Change in Velocity/Time taken

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Acceleration = (20 m/s - 0 m/s) / 5 s

Acceleration = 4 m/s2
The acceleration of the car is 4 meters per second squared.
Experiment on acceleration (Gravity)
Aim: To investigate the concept of acceleration using simple materials.
Materials: Toy car or small object that can roll, Smooth flat surface (such as a tabletop or floor),
Measuring tape or ruler, Stopwatch or timer, Notebook and pen.
Procedure:
• Set up the smooth, flat surface for the experiment. Ensure there is enough distance for the toy
car to accelerate and come to a stop.
• Set the toy car at one end of the surface and indicate its starting point.
• Mark uniform distances along the surface with a measuring tape or ruler.
• Start the stopwatch when you release the toy car from its starting place.
• Measure the time it takes for the toy car to reach each marked spot on the surface.
• To calculate the average speed of the toy car between intervals, use the formula Speed =
Distance / Time.
• Analyse speed data to determine if the toy car is accelerating, decelerating, or at a constant pace.
• To compute acceleration, apply the formula: Acceleration = (Final Velocity - Initial
Velocity)/Time.
• Repeat the experiment and make adjustments to see how surface smoothness and inclination
affect acceleration.
• Document your observations, measurements, and conclusions in the notebook.
Conclusion: Our experiment showed that the toy car exhibited consistent acceleration on a smooth
surface. The acceleration varied when changes were made to the surface’s smoothness and inclination.
These findings highlight the importance of surface conditions in affecting acceleration

Overview of Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

Cohesive force is the attraction between molecules of the same substance that causes them to stick
together. This force helps to keep molecules of a substance together, such as water molecules adhering
together to create droplets.
Adhesive force refers to the attraction of molecules from dissimilar substances, which causes them
to cling together. For example, the adhesive force causes water to adhere to surfaces such as glass
or paper. Understanding these forces is useful in many domains, including chemistry, physics, and
material science
Title: Understanding Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
Aim: To differentiate between cohesive and adhesive forces through a series of interactive experiments.
Materials: Small containers or cups, water, oil, salt, spoon, small objects (e.g., paper clips, coins),
droppers, paper towels
Procedure:
Experiment 1: Cohesive Forces
• Fill 2 small containers with water.

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• Stir a pinch of salt into one container until dissolved.

• Drop water from each container onto a clean, flat surface and compare the behaviour of plain
and saltwater droplets.
Explain how saltwater’s cohesive forces hold droplets together compared to ordinary water.
Cohesion is water’s attraction to itself, caused by its polarity, which makes water molecules act like
magnets and stick together. This force can be observed in experiments like dropping water onto
a penny, where cohesion and surface tension allow multiple drops to accumulate before spilling
over. Saltwater has lower cohesion than plain water, affecting the number of drops that can stay on
the penny.
Experiment to demonstrate capillary action and water’s adhesion to the surface of a capillary tube
Aim: To show how water molecules adhere to the surface of capillary tube
Materials:
• Capillary tubes (thin, borosilicate glass tubes), water, food coloring (optional), a tall
glass or beaker
Procedure:
1. Fill the tall glass or beaker with water, adding a few drops of food coloring if desired.
2. Dip one end of the capillary tube into the water, making sure not to touch the sides of the glass.
3. Observe how the water rises up the capillary tube, seemingly defying gravity.
4. Measure the height of the water column in the capillary tube.
Explanation
• Water molecules are attracted to the glass surface (adhesion) and to each other (cohesion).
• The narrow diameter of the capillary tube increases the relative surface area, allowing the water
molecules to spread out and climb up the tube.
• The combination of adhesion and cohesion creates a “capillary force” that pulls the water
up the tube.
Precaution:
• Use a clean capillary tube to ensure proper adhesion.

Real-life applications of force

• Gripping: Friction allows us to hold objects.
• Writing: Force creates friction for ink transfer.
• Opening doors: Pushing/pulling on knob creates force to rotate door.
• Transportation:
• Cars: Engine force propels car forward, friction allows control.
• Airplanes: Wings generate lift (counteracts gravity), engines provide thrust.
• Rockets: Force from burning fuel propels through space.
• Construction & Manufacturing:
• Lifting objects: Cranes & forklifts use levers/hydraulics to exert large forces.
• Building structures: Beams/columns/trusses designed to withstand various forces.

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• Shaping materials: Forces used in forging, pressing, cutting processes.

• Sports & Recreation:
• Kicking a ball: Force from foot transfers energy to the ball.
• Jumping: Pushing off ground propels you upwards.
• Throwing a ball: Force transfers from muscles to ball for movement.
• Gravity: Keeps us grounded, influences celestial bodies.
• Buoyancy: Upward force by fluid allows objects to float.
• Wind: Pressure variations in air create wind forces.

Learning Tasks

1. Create a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting acceleration and velocity. Label the
similarities in the intersecting section and differences in the outer sections. Discuss examples
of each concept and how they relate to motion.
2. What is the relationship between velocity, time, and acceleration?
3. Research and prepare a short presentation on two real-life applications of force.

Pedagogical exemplars
Collaborative learning
• Place learners in mixed-ability/mixed-sex groups to discuss concepts of distance, displacement,
speed, velocity, and acceleration with contextual examples.
• Provide visual aids and real-world examples for visual or hands-on learners.
• Assign roles within each group to ensure equal participation and understanding among all
learners. Allow for peer teaching and collaboration, where learners can explain concepts to
each other in their own words.
• Guide learners in developing task sheets to explore real-life applications of the concepts
of speed, displacement, velocity, and acceleration through hands-on activities in various
experiments. Encourage learners to choose real-life scenarios that interest them, creating a
personal connection to the concepts, such as cars on the road, athletes in a race, or objects in
motion to make the concepts relatable.
• Provide support in researching and analysing the data for learners who may need additional help.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Differentiate between acceleration and velocity.
Level 2: If an object starts from rest (initial velocity = 0 m/s) and reaches a velocity of 20 m/s in 5
seconds, calculate the acceleration of the object.
Level 3: Explain two applications of force in real-life situations.

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Section Review
Throughout this insightful investigation of forces, participants gained a thorough comprehension
of the fundamental laws that govern motion and interactions in the physical world. By
immersing themselves in the study of Newton’s laws of motion, investigating the impacts of
numerous force types such as friction and gravitational forces, and dissecting the dynamics
of tension and normal forces, learners have established a firm foundation in appreciating the
complexity of forces
The knowledge learned from this section transcends theoretical physics, having practical
applications that can aid individuals in many ways in their real-world pursuits. Armed with
the capacity to understand and interpret forces, participants are better equipped to manage
everyday settings that entail motion, balance, and stability. From calculating the forces required
to move items efficiently to maximising the performance of mechanical systems, the learned
understanding of forces helps learners make educated decisions and solve complicated issues
with precision and confidence.
The knowledge learned from this section transcends theoretical physics, having practical
applications that can aid individuals in many ways in their real-world pursuits. Armed with
the capacity to understand and interpret forces, participants are better equipped to manage
everyday settings that entail motion, balance, and stability. From calculating the forces required
to move items efficiently to maximising the performance of mechanical systems, the learned
understanding of forces helps learners make educated decisions and solve complicated issues
with precision and confidence.

Additional reading
• The relevance of force, pressure and momentum in technology.
• How acceleration, velocity and speed are used in preventing accidents in cars

Resources
• Projectors
• Charts/pictures/drawings showing different concepts associated with forces.
• Simulations/YouTube videos.
• Stopwatch,
• measuring tape,
• toy cars,
• chart paper
• Toy car or small object that can roll
• Smooth, flat surface (such as a tabletop or floor)
• Measuring tape or ruler
• Stopwatch or timer

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References
• General Science curriculum for Senior High Schools
• Smith, J., & Johnson, M. (2021). Teaching Forces: Strategies for Engaging Students in Physics
Concepts. Journal of Science Education, 15(2), 45-56.
• Brown, A., & Williams, R. (2019). Interactive Approaches to Teaching Forces in Middle
School Science. Journal of STEM Education, 8(3), 112-125.
• Oxford University Press. (Year). Complete Physics for Cambridge IGCSE, Third Edition.
• Newall, J., Gardner, S., & Bone, G. (Year). Student Textbook Grade 11

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SECTION 7: BASIC ELECTRONICS

Strand: Vigour Behind

Sub-Strand: Consumer Electronics

Learning Outcome: Identify selected electronic components and their uses in household electronic
gadgets and amplifiers.

Content Standard: Demonstrate knowledge and recognition of selected electronic components

and their uses in Household Electronic devices.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section aims to develop learners’ understanding of household electronic devices, their electronic
component composition, the uses of these components, and their ability to design a basic amplifier.
Learners will be introduced to household electronic devices such as old/spoilt/abandoned televisions,
radios, microwaves, and refrigerators where appropriate or watch videos about their internal electronic
components. They will explore the internal electronic components of these devices where appropriate,
including resistors, capacitors, transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Additionally, learners will
research the functions and applications of these electronic components within different devices using
the internet/books.
Furthermore, learners will be guided through designing a basic amplifier using electronic components.
This hands-on exercise will enhance their knowledge of circuit design principles and deepen their
practical skills in electronics. By the end of this section, learners will have gained a comprehensive
understanding of household electronic devices, their constituent components, their functions, and the
ability to apply this knowledge in designing simple electronic circuits.
The week covered by the section is:
Week 17: Explain the uses of electronic components in household electronic devices and
amplifiers.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Pedagogical exemplars should include a comprehensive approach that incorporates differentiated
instruction to help learners gain a comprehensive understanding of household electronic devices, their
constituent components, their functions, and the ability to apply this knowledge in designing simple
electronic circuits and building a simple amplifier. Teachers should use a variety of teaching strategies
and techniques to meet learners’ diverse learning abilities and skills in the classroom. Differentiated
instruction is essential for addressing individual needs and ensuring that all learners have effective
access to the focus area of study. Clearly define the learning outcomes and expectations for all learners,
including the fundamental knowledge, understanding, and application of the knowledge they must
acquire during the learning process.
Assessments should be aligned with the learning outcomes to appropriately evaluate learning progress.
Give gifted and talented learners more challenges, extensions, and enrichment opportunities to help
them learn more effectively. This could include more challenging classwork, independent research
projects, or opportunities for creative expression outside of the traditional curriculum.

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By employing these strategies, teachers can foster a supportive learning environment that encourages
academic improvement for all learners while giving advanced chances for gifted and talented learners
to attain their full potential.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section’s assessments may be formative, summative, or differentiated. Formative assessment will
involve laboratory work demonstrating certain science aspects to improve learners’ science process
abilities. Short exams, class exercises, assignments, group discussions, group projects, and group
presentations also exist. Written examinations, interviews, observations, or performance assignments
based on assessment indicators are delivered, along with graded outcomes. Summative assessments
are due at the end of every lesson, section, and semester.
To foster a positive assessment environment, ensure learners are given clear instructions. Maintain
consistency in administering the evaluation across all participants to ensure fairness.
Transcript recording requires relevant information such as the learner’s characteristics, assessment
date, components, and scores. Include any additional observations or notes that may provide valuable
insights into the evaluation results.
Differentiated assessment focuses on each learner’s learning abilities. Teachers should adjust
assessment questions to different levels of assessment and learning abilities so that all students have
an equal opportunity to demonstrate their competencies.

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WEEK 17
Learning Indicator: Explain the uses of electronic components in household electronic devices and
amplifiers.

Theme or Focal Area: Uses of Electronic Components in Household Electronic Devices

Overview of electronics
Electronics deals with the behaviour and control of electrical currents and the flow of electrons
through various components.
In simple terms, electronics involves manipulating electrical signals to perform specific functions
or tasks. It covers many areas, including designing, developing, and manufacturing electronic
devices and systems. Electronics has revolutionised the world, enabling the creation of devices and
technologies that have transformed our lives. Electronics is present in almost every aspect of modern
life, from smartphones and computers to televisions, kitchen appliances, and medical equipment. The
core elements of electronics include electronic components, such as resistors, capacitors, transistors,
and integrated circuits, which are combined to create complex electronic systems. These systems
can perform amplification, signal processing, data storage, communication, and control tasks.
Furthermore, electronics is closely related to digital circuits, analogue circuits, microelectronics,
telecommunications, power electronics, and embedded systems. It is a continuously evolving field
with regular advancements and innovations.

Electronic components and their uses

Resistors: These components restrict the flow of electric current in a circuit, helping to control voltage
levels and protect sensitive parts.

Symbol

Fig. 1: A resistors

Capacitors: These store electrical energy and release it when needed. They are commonly used for
smoothing voltage fluctuations and filtering noise in power supplies. Noise as used in a power supply
refers to unwanted electrical signals or fluctuations superimposed on the DC output voltage.

Fig. 2: Diagram of a capacitors

Diodes: These allow electric current to flow in only one direction and are often used to convert
AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current) in power supplies. Alternating current (AC) is an

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electric current that periodically reverses direction, unlike direct current (DC) which flows in only
one direction. AC is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and businesses because it can be
easily transmitted over long distances and can be converted to different voltages with transformers. It
is generated by power plants and delivered to consumers through power lines.
Direct current (DC) is an electric current that flows in one direction only, typically from a positive
to a negative terminal. It is commonly produced by batteries, solar cells, and rectifiers, and is used in
various applications such as electronics, transportation, and power distribution.

Symbol

Fig. 3: A Diode

Transistors: These amplify or switch electronic signals. They are crucial in amplifiers, computers,
and various digital devices.

Symbol

Fig. 4: Transistors

Inductors: These store energy in a magnetic field and are commonly used in filters, transformers,
and power supplies. In electronics, a filter is a circuit or device designed to selectively pass or block
certain frequencies while allowing others to pass through. Filters are used to remove unwanted noise
or signals from a desired signal or to isolate specific frequency components. They are commonly used
in audio systems, communication systems, and signal-processing applications.

Symbol

Fig. 5: Inductors

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LEDs: LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes): They that convert electrical energy into light energy. They are
extensively used in household electronics for indicators.

Symbol

Fig. 6: Diagram of a LEDs

Some common examples of Household electronic devices

Examples are televisions, refrigerators, washing machines, microwave ovens, air conditioners,
vacuum cleaners, gaming consoles, etc.

Designing circuits involving transistors and switches

A circuit is a closed loop or pathway through which electric current flows. It typically consists of
components like resistors, capacitors, inductors, and power sources connected by conductive wires or
traces on a circuit board.
Experiment on how to build an electrical circuit
Aim: To build a light-dependent resistor circuit
Apparatus: Breadboard, LDR (light-dependent resistor,10k ohm resistor, LED, 330 ohm resistor, 9V
battery and battery clip, Jumper wires
Procedures:
• Connect one end of the LDR to the battery’s positive terminal.
• Connect the other end of the LDR to one end of the 10k ohm resistor.
• Connect the other end of the 10k ohm resistor to the battery’s negative terminal.
• Connect the junction of the LDR and the 10k ohm resistor to the base of an NPN transistor
(if using).
• Connect the transistor emitter to the battery’s negative terminal.
• Connect the collector of the transistor to one end of the 330 ohm resistor.
• Connect the other end of the 330-ohm resistor to the anode of the LED.
• Connect the cathode of the LED to the negative terminal of the battery.
• The LED should light up when the ambient light levels fall below a certain threshold
Experiment on LED circuit
Aim: To build LED circuit
Apparatus: Breadboard, LED (Light Emitting Diode), resistor (330 ohms or appropriate value for
the LED), 9V battery and battery clip (or a suitable power supply, connecting wires (jumper wires),
multimeter (optional, for testing), switch (optional, to control the LED)
Procedures:
• Place the breadboard on a flat surface for easy component insertion.

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• Place the LED on the breadboard with the anode (longer leg) in one row and the cathode (shorter
leg) in another row.
• Connect one end of the resistor to the same row as the anode of the LED.
• Connect the other end of the resistor to an empty row.
• Attach the battery clip to the 9V battery.
• Connect the red wire (positive) from the battery clip to the row with the free end of the resistor.
• Connect the black wire (negative) from the battery clip to the row with the cathode of the LED.
• Insert the switch into the breadboard.
• Connect one terminal of the switch to the row with the free end of the resistor.
• Connect the other terminal of the switch to the row with the red wire from the battery clip.
• Double-check all connections.
• Connect the battery clip to the 9V battery.
• If using a switch, toggle it to the “on” position.
• Observe the LED lighting up, indicating a successful circuit.
NB: if the LED doesn’t light up:
Check all connections for loose wires.
Ensure the LED is correctly oriented (anode to positive, cathode to negative).
Verify the resistor value is appropriate for the LED and power supply.
Use a multimeter to check for continuity and correct voltage levels.
Designing circuits involving transistors and switches typically involves several steps. The following
is the general outline of the process:
Define the Objective: Clearly define the purpose of your circuit Eg. LED circuit. Determine what
functionality or task you want the circuit to accomplish. This will guide your design decisions.

Fig. 7: circuit diagram of transistor as a switch

Circuit Analysis: Analyse the requirements of your circuit and identify the components and their
connections needed to achieve the desired functionality. Consider the input and output requirements,
power supply, voltage levels, and specific constraints.
Transistor Selection: Select the appropriate transistor type (s) for your design based on your circuit
analysis. Common types include bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs).
Consider factors such as current handling capacity, voltage ratings, speed, and other specifications
relevant to your circuit.

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Component Sizing: Determine the values of resistors, capacitors, and other components required to
bias and drive the transistors properly. Calculate or choose appropriate component values based on
the desired performance and the transistor’s datasheet specifications.
Circuit Simulation: Utilise circuit simulation software such as Linear Technology Spice (LTspice)
or Proteus to simulate and validate your circuit’s performance. This can help identify potential issues,
optimise component values, and achieve the desired functionality.
Printed circuit board (PCB) Layout: If you plan to create a (PCB) for your design, create a layout
incorporating the components, their connections, and proper trace routing. Consider factors such as
component placement, signal integrity, and thermal considerations.
Prototype and Testing: Build a physical prototype of your circuit using the designed PCB or a
breadboard. Test the circuit’s functionality, performance, and reliability. Make any necessary
adjustments or modifications based on the test results.
Documentation: Document your circuit design, including schematics, component values, and any
specific design considerations. This documentation will be useful for future reference, troubleshooting,
or sharing your design with others.

Method of building an amplifier

An amplifier is a device that increases the strength (amplitude) of a signal. It takes a weak input
signal and produces a stronger output signal, usually with the same waveform but a larger amplitude.
Amplifiers are essential in various electronic devices such as audio systems, radios, televisions, and
telecommunications equipment to boost signals for better transmission.
Building an amplifier involves the following process:
Determine the Amplifier Type: Decide on the type of amplifier you want to build, such as a class
A, class AB, class D, or a specific audio amplifier design. Each type has its characteristics and
applications.
Select Components: Choose the necessary components for your amplifier design. This typically
includes transistors (bipolar junction transistors or MOSFETs), resistors, capacitors, and possibly
transformers or inductors, depending on the amplifier type. Refer to an amplifier circuit diagram or
schematic for component values and specifications.
Design the Amplifier Circuit: Create a circuit diagram or schematic based on the selected amplifier
type and component choices. This diagram will illustrate how the components are connected and the
flow of signals through the amplifier.
Calculate Component Values: Determine the values of resistors, capacitors, and other components
based on the desired performance and the amplifier design specifications. This may involve biasing,
gain, stability, and frequency response calculations.
PCB Layout: If you plan to create a printed circuit board (PCB) for your amplifier, design the layout
incorporating the components and their connections. Pay attention to proper trace routing, ground
planes, and thermal considerations to ensure optimal performance and reliability.

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Audio frequency (AF) Amplifiers

Fig. 8: Diagram of Audio Frequency Amplifier

Experiment on how to Build a Simple Audio Amplifier

Apparatus: LM386, 10 µF electrolytic capacitor (2 pieces), 0.047 µF ceramic capacitor (1 piece),
10 ohm resistor (1 piece), 1k ohm resistor (1 piece), Potentiometer (10k ohm, for volume control),
Speaker (8 ohms, small size), Audio Input Jack (3.5mm stereo jack), Battery (9V battery with battery
clip), Breadboard or PCB (Printed Circuit Board), Connecting Wires, Soldering Kit (if using PCB)
Procedure:
• Place the LM386 IC in the middle of the breadboard or PCB for easy wiring.
• Connect the 9V battery clip to the breadboard or PCB.
• Connect the positive terminal of the battery clip to pin 6 of the LM386.
• Connect the negative terminal of the battery clip to the ground rail on the breadboard or PCB.
• Connect the audio input jack’s ground (sleeve) to the ground rail on the breadboard.
• Connect the audio input jack’s left or right channel (tip or ring) to one terminal of the 10k ohm
potentiometer.
• Connect the wiper (middle terminal) of the potentiometer to pin 3 of the LM386.
• Connect a 10 µF electrolytic capacitor between pin 7 and the ground. Ensure the negative leg
of the capacitor goes to the ground.
• Connect a 10 µF electrolytic capacitor between pin 1 and pin 8 of the LM386 to set the gain to
200. Ensure the negative leg is on pin 1.
• Connect a 0.047 µF capacitor between pin 5 of the LM386 and one terminal of the 10
ohms resistor.
• Connect the other terminal of the 10-ohm resistor to the speaker’s positive terminal.
• Connect the negative terminal of the speaker to the ground rail on the breadboard or PCB.
• Connect a 220 µF capacitor’s positive leg to pin 5 of the LM386 and its negative leg to the
junction between the 0.047 µF capacitor and the 10-ohm resistor.
• Double-check all connections to ensure they are correct.
• Attach the 9V battery to the battery clip.
• Plug an audio source into the input jack and adjust the potentiometer to control the volume.

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• You should hear the amplified audio through the speaker.

NB: The concentration should be on the audio amplifier.

Learning Tasks

1. Identify electronic components in household devices

2. Explain the uses of electronic components in household devices
3. Design circuits involving transistors and switches.
4. Build an amplifier using electronic components.

Pedagogical exemplars
Talk-for-learning:
• Guide learners to revise the basic electronics components from the JHS curriculum using talk-
for-learning approaches and internet resources.
• Guide the learners in mixed groups through the process of building amplifiers using transistors
and other components using talk-for-learning.
Activity-based learning/Demonstration:
• Let learners in mixed-ability groups watch simulations from websites such as CircuitLab or
Tinkercad to visually demonstrate how circuits use components. Let each group do a whole-
class discussion based on the group findings.
• Provide materials such as breadboards, resistors, capacitors, transistors, and switches to each
group where available.
• Organise hands-on demonstrations where students can observe the functionality of electronic
components and devices in action. For example, demonstrate how a transistor can be used as a
switch or an amplifier, and allow learners to interact with the circuit to see the results firsthand.
• Divide the learners into mixed-sex and differentiated groups. Asks learners to share ideas in
their mixed groups, research using online resources/books for guidance, and sketch out their
circuit designs on paper before moving to build them.
• Let learners cross-share and reflect their findings to their peers and present for a whole class
discussion. Encourage constructive feedback and discussions on their findings.
• Provide each group with a task to design a specific circuit involving transistors and switches.
For example, designing a simple amplifier circuit.
• Provide assistance and guidance as needed but allow learners to take ownership of their designs
and problem-solving process.
• Encourage all learners to actively participate in hands-on activities and discussions,
emphasising the value of diverse perspectives in problem-solving. This fosters an inclusive
learning environment by addressing stereotypes related to electronics that anyone can excel in
electronics regardless of gender or background.
• Allow learners to reflect and cross-share their work and present their simple circuit built to their
peers. Encourage constructive feedback and whole class discussions on the results.
Project-based learning:
• Assign tasks that require learners in mixed-ability groups to apply their knowledge of electronic
components to solve real-world problems or design innovative solutions. For instance,

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challenge them to design and build a simple electronic device, such as a simple amplifier using
the components they have learned about.
• Encourage learners to apply their knowledge by designing and building electronic devices
outside the classroom, perhaps as a homework assignment or a long-term project.
• Provide opportunities for learners to present their projects to the class for peer review and
presentation. This fosters confidence and public speaking skills.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Identify at least four (4) electronic components and draw their circuit symbols.
Level 2: Explain the function of at least five electronic components in electrical household appliances.
Level 3: Design simple electrical circuits involving transistors and switches.
Level 4: Design and build a simple amplifier.

Section Review
These lessons were structured to provide a holistic learning experience. It focuses on
helping learners gain a comprehensive understanding of household electronic devices, their
constituent components, their functions, and the ability to apply this knowledge in designing
simple electronic circuits and building a simple amplifier. The aim is for each learner to gain
theoretical knowledge and develop practical skills that can be applied to design and build their
own electronic devices outside of the classroom for the world of work.

Additional Reading
1. Encourage learners to explore their homes for electronic devices and identify the components
within them.
2. Search internet resources such as Khan Academy, All About Circuits, or Electronics Hub for
self-study and exploration.
3. Draw different circuit diagrams involving LEDs, capacitors, connecting wires, dry cells,
diodes, and resistors.

Resources
1. Breadboards, resistors, LEDs, capacitors, transistors, switches, diodes, inductors, etc.
2. Internet, simulations/videos on electronic components.
3. Pictures/charts/videos of simple amplifiers.

References
• Curriculum
• https://www.instructables.com/Simple-Audio-Amplifier-Using-Single-Transistor/
• Instructables. (n.d.). Simple audio amplifier using a single transistor
• Electronicsandyou.com. (n.d.). Basic Electronics.
• Bellis, M. (n.d.). Electronics: How It Works. Explain that Stuff.

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SECTION 8: PROMOTING HEALTH AND SAFETY

SECTION 8: PROMOTING HEALTH AND SAFETY

Strand: Relationships with the Environment

Sub-Strand: The Human Body and Health

Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss everyday hazards and how to manage them in the environment.
2. Distinguish various types of lifestyle diseases.
3. Clarify the concept of drugs and reflect on their effects on humans

Content Standards:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of hazards in everyday life and how to manage them.
2. Show understanding of lifestyle diseases, their causes, symptoms and prevention.
3. Exhibit understanding of the concept of drugs and reflect on their effects on humans and
their control

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

This section delves into various aspects of health and safety, aiming to equip learners with the
knowledge necessary to navigate common environmental risks and hazards. It begins by examining
prevalent risks and hazards, providing insights into their identification and mitigation strategies.
Learners are encouraged to develop an awareness of potential dangers in their surroundings and learn
how to address them effectively.
Additionally, the section explores lifestyle diseases, offering a comprehensive understanding of their
causes, effects, and preventive measures. This helps learners to gain insight into the importance of
healthy habits and lifestyle choices in disease prevention.
Furthermore, the attributes of recreational are analysed in depth, offering learners an understanding
of their effects on the human body and mind. Moreover, the section emphasises the importance of
responsible drug usage and the potential consequences of substance abuse.
Overall, this section provides an all-inclusive approach to health and safety education, equipping
learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to identify and address risks in their environment,
adopt healthy lifestyle practices, and make informed decisions regarding drug usage. Through
acquiring this knowledge, learners are empowered to prioritise their well-being and make positive
choices for themselves and their communities.
The weeks covered by the section are:
Week 18: Explore common risks and hazards in the environment and how to address them.
Week 19: Describe lifestyle diseases, their causes, effects and prevention
Week 20: Analyse the attributes of drugs

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

When designing pedagogical exemplars, teachers should use a comprehensive approach that integrates
differentiated instruction to help learners identify and manage common risks and hazards present in

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their environment, offering learners insight into potential dangers and strategies to mitigate them
effectively. Furthermore, emphasises the importance of understanding lifestyle diseases, their origins,
impacts, and preventive measures to promote healthier living. Finally, it provides a comprehensive
analysis of drugs, exploring their attributes and effects to foster informed decision-making regarding
their use.
Teachers should use various teaching strategies and techniques to meet learners’ diverse learning
abilities and skills in the classroom. Differentiated instruction is essential for addressing individual
needs and ensuring that all learners have effective access to the focus area of study. Clearly define
the learning outcomes and expectations for all learners, including the fundamental knowledge,
understanding, and application of the knowledge they must acquire during the learning process.
Assessments should be aligned with the learning outcomes to appropriately evaluate learning progress.
Give gifted and talented learners more challenges, extensions, and enrichment opportunities to help
them learn more effectively. This could include more challenging classwork, independent research
projects, or opportunities for creative expression outside of the traditional curriculum.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section’s assessments may be formative, summative, or differentiated. Formative assessment
will involve activities such as laboratory work that demonstrate certain aspects of science to improve
learners’ science process abilities. There are also short exams, class exercises, assignments, group
discussions, group projects, and group presentations. Written examinations, interviews, observations,
or performance assignments based on assessment indicators are delivered, along with graded
outcomes. Summative assessments are due at the end of every lesson, section, and semester.
To foster a positive assessment environment, ensure that learners are given clear instructions. Maintain
consistency in administering the evaluation across all participants to ensure fairness.
Transcript recording requires recording relevant information such as the learner’s characteristics,
assessment date, assessment components, and scores. Include any additional observations or notes
that may provide valuable insights into the evaluation results.
Differentiated assessment focuses on each learner’s learning abilities. Teachers should adjust
assessment questions to different levels of assessment as well as learning abilities so that all students
have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their competencies.

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WEEK 18
Learning Indicator: Explore common risks and hazards in the environment and how to address
them.

Theme or Focal Area: Hazards and How to Manage them in the Environment

Overview of hazard
A hazard is an activity, action, inaction or any dangerous situation that is likely to cause damage or
accidents. Hazards can occur in the school, workplace and home environment. Environmental hazards
refer to any physical, chemical, or biological agents in the environment that can harm human health.
These hazards can be natural or synthetic and occur in various settings, including the workplace,
school, home and community. Examples of environmental hazards include exposure to hazardous
chemicals such as lead or asbestos; biological hazards such as infectious diseases or mould; physical
hazards such as noise or radiation; and psychosocial hazards such as job stress or workplace violence.
Other environmental hazards include natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, and
wildfires. Environmental hazards can have short-term and long-term effects on human health, ranging
from minor injuries to chronic illnesses and even death. To protect individuals from environmental
hazards, it is essential to identify and manage potential hazards, implement safety protocols and
regulations, and provide education and training to help individuals minimise their exposure to these
hazards. Common hazards/accidents in science classes and during science lessons include heat burns,
scalds, chemical burns, cuts, fire outbreaks, shock, electrical shock, and poisoning.
Causes of Hazards during Science Lessons/Classes
• Water poured on a polished floor.
• Explosion (gas or chemical).
• Chemicals being poured above eye level.
• Flammable solvents being heated with a naked flame.
• Placing heavy apparatus on a weak support.
• Using tools such as chisels, knives, saws, etc. during lessons without wearing appropriate
protective clothes.
• Leaving sharp and pointed tools on the floor.
• long/overgrown fingernails.
• Keeping long hair.
• Overcrowding materials on a bench or floor.
• Playing and running in the laboratory.
• Ignorance of safety rules in the laboratory.

Types of hazard causes and prevention

Chemical Hazards
Many workplaces use chemicals such as solvents, acids, and pesticides that can harm human health.
These chemicals can be found in manufacturing, laboratories, and cleaning services. Those exposed
to chemicals may develop respiratory problems, skin irritation, or even cancer if exposed for
prolonged periods.

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Chemical hazards can occur in various forms, including airborne particles, spills, and leaks. Exposure
can happen through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion.
Causes of Chemical Hazards
• Mishandling of chemicals or improper storage of chemicals can leak or spill.
• Accidents during transportation, such as crashes or leaks, can spread hazardous chemicals.
• Some chemicals react unexpectedly, causing explosions or fires.
• Chemicals can contaminate the air, water, soil, or food, harming people and nature.
• Accidental exposure to chemicals by breathing them in or swallowing them can cause harm.

Fig. 9: Diagram of some hazard symbols

Prevention of chemical hazard

• Proper safety protocols must be implemented, such as providing protective equipment and
training workers on handling and disposing of hazardous chemicals.
• Store hazardous chemicals in a designated, well-ventilated area.
• Clearly label all containers with their contents.
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE) when handling chemicals.
• Follow manufacturer instructions and safety guidelines.

Biological Hazards
Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms
that can cause infections and illnesses. We call these disease-causing
organisms pathogens. These hazards are commonly found in workplaces
such as healthcare facilities, laboratories, and farms, where workers are
exposed to infectious diseases or contaminated materials. Workers exposed
to biological hazards may experience symptoms such as fever, coughing,
and skin irritation.
Fig. 10: A symbol of
Causes of Biological Hazard biological hazard
• Exposure to biological hazards such as bloodborne pathogens, airborne diseases and waste
contaminated with pathogens.
• Handling of infectious specimens or experiments with biological materials.

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• Exposure to animal-borne diseases or contaminated soil in farms and other agricultural settings.
• Bodily fluids carry pathogens that can infect workers.
• Poor sanitation can lead to the spread of diseases
• Exposure to bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or biological toxins increases the risk of infection
Prevention of Biological Hazard
• Practice good hand hygiene with regular handwashing.
• Follow strict protocols for disposal of contaminated waste and specimens.
• Implement regular training programs on infection control and biohazard safety procedures.
• Maintain a clean and sanitised work environment to minimise the risk of contamination.
• Monitor and enforce proper hand hygiene practices among workers.
• Provide vaccinations and immunisations against relevant diseases where applicable.
• Implement engineering controls such as ventilation systems to minimise airborne exposure.
• Regularly inspect and maintain equipment to ensure proper functioning and safety.
• Establish emergency response protocols in case of accidental exposure or spills.

Fire Hazard
These hazards can result from faulty wiring, flammable liquids, and combustible materials. Fires can
cause serious injuries and even death.
Flammable liquids, such as gasoline or cleaning solvents, can be found in many places, including
manufacturing facilities, homes, schools and auto repair shops. In addition, combustible materials,
such as paper or wood, can be found in offices or construction sites. Faulty wiring can also pose a
significant fire hazard in any workplace.

Fig. 11: Some hazard

Causes of Fire hazard

• Electrical faulty wiring can lead to fires.
• Open flames pose a risk of ignition.
• Overheating equipment may trigger fires.

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• Combustible materials increase the severity of fires.

• Smoking in prohibited areas can start fires.
• Improper storage of flammable substances heightens fire risk
Prevention of fire hazard
• Install smoke detectors and regularly check their functionality.
• Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
• Have fire extinguishers in easily accessible areas.
• Develop and practice a fire escape plan with all occupants.
• By implementing safety protocols such as fire safety training, proper storage and handling of
flammable liquids, regular inspections of electrical equipment, and working fire extinguishers
and smoke detectors in the workplace.

Electrical Hazards
An electrical hazard is where a person can contact’” live” electrical components, wires, or objects that
may have become “live” due to some failure.
An electrical hazard can be defined as a serious workplace hazard that exposes workers to burns,
electrocution, shock, arc flash/arc blast, fire, or explosions.

Fig. 12 : Sign of electrical hazards

Causes of Electrical Hazard

• Faulty wiring can cause electric shocks or fires.
• Overloaded circuits may lead to overheating and electrical fires.
• Damaged electrical equipment increases the risk of electric shock.
• Exposure to live wires poses a direct threat of electrocution.
• Improper use of electrical devices can result in accidents

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Preventing electrical hazards involves several measures

• Educate personnel on electrical safety procedures, including proper use of equipment and
awareness of hazards.
• Regularly inspect and maintain electrical equipment to ensure it is in safe working condition.
• Install Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) in areas where water and electricity may come
into contact to prevent electric shocks.
• Ensure wiring is installed correctly and meets safety standards to prevent electrical fires
and shocks.
• Implement procedures to de-energise and lock out machinery during maintenance to prevent
accidental startup.
• Provide appropriate PPE such as insulated gloves and mats for workers handling electrical
equipment.
• Maintain adequate clearance around electrical panels and equipment to allow for safe operation
and maintenance.
• Clearly label hazardous areas and equipment with warning signs to alert personnel of
potential dangers.
• Conduct routine inspections of electrical systems to identify and address any potential
hazards promptly.

Transportation Hazard
Transportation hazards include accidents, mechanical failures, adverse weather conditions, and
human error. It is essential to follow safety protocols, maintain vehicles properly, and stay informed
about road conditions to mitigate risks.

Fig. 13: Sign of transportation hazard

Causes of Transportation Hazards

• Vehicle collisions occur due to factors such as speeding and reckless driving.
• Poor road conditions, such as potholes, contribute to accidents.
• Driver fatigue leads to reduced reaction times.
• Impaired driving from alcohol or drugs increases the likelihood of accidents.
• Mechanical failures in vehicles can lead to unexpected breakdowns.
• Hazardous cargo can spill or leak, posing environmental and health risks.
• Adverse weather conditions.

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Prevention of transportation hazards

• Ensure vehicles undergo regular maintenance checks to identify and address any potential
issues before they become hazards.
• Provide comprehensive training for drivers, including defensive driving techniques, handling
adverse weather conditions, and proper vehicle operation.
• Equip vehicles with safety features such as seat belts, airbags, anti-lock braking systems (ABS),
and electronic stability control (ESC).
• Train drivers on emergency procedures and equip vehicles with emergency kits, including first
aid supplies, reflective vests, and warning triangles.
• Stay informed about weather conditions along planned routes and adjust travel plans to avoid
hazardous conditions.
• Ensure cargo is properly secured to prevent shifting during transit, affecting vehicle stability
and leading to accidents.
• Stay up-to-date with transportation regulations and industry standards to ensure compliance
and promote safety in all operations.

Hazardous Air Pollution

Air hazards can arise from various pollutants or contaminants present in the atmosphere, both indoors
and outdoors.

Fig. 14: Hazardous Air Pollution

Causes of Hazardous Air Pollution

• Industrial processes emitting pollutants during manufacturing and production.
• Vehicle exhaust releases harmful gases and particulate matter into the air.
• Burning of fossil fuels for energy production, heating, and transportation.
• Agricultural activities, such as livestock farming and crop burning, release pollutants.
• Improper waste management practices lead to the release of pollutants into the air.
• Natural events such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions also contribute to air pollution.
Prevention of hazardous air pollutants
• Preventive measures of hazardous air pollutants
• Implement and enforce regulations to limit emissions from industrial sources and vehicles.

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• Promote using cleaner energy sources such as renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro) and natural
gas to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
• Enforce strict vehicle emission standards and promote the use of electric vehicles.
• Encourage public transportation and carpooling to reduce the number of vehicles on the road.
• Educate the public about the health risks associated with air pollutants and promote behaviours
that reduce emissions, such as reducing idling and proper waste disposal.
Invest in research and developing new technologies and strategies for effectively reducing air pollution.

Physical hazards
Physical hazards are one of the most common environmental hazards in the workplace. These
hazards can be found in various industries, such as manufacturing, construction, and transportation.
Exposure to physical hazards can cause various health problems, including hearing loss, eye damage,
burns, and other injuries. Examples of physical hazards include noise, which can harm workers’
hearing if exposed to high decibel levels for extended periods. Vibration from equipment can cause
musculoskeletal disorders such as carpal tunnel syndrome or hand-arm vibration syndrome. Extreme
temperatures can cause heat stress or hypothermia, and radiation exposure can cause skin damage or
increase the risk of cancer.

Fig. 15: some example of health hazards

Causes of Physical Hazards

• Failure to provide adequate safety equipment exposes workers to unnecessary risks.
• Insufficient training leaves workers unable to recognise and mitigate physical hazards.
• Neglecting to implement safety protocols increases the likelihood of exposure to dangerous
situations.

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• Disregarding the importance of wearing appropriate PPE compromises worker safety

during tasks.
• Poorly stored objects pose a threat of falling and causing injury to workers.
• Ignoring safe distances from moving machinery and equipment increases the risk of accidents.
• Non-compliance with safety protocols and procedures when operating machinery increases the
probability of accidents.
Prevention of Physical Hazards (e.g., Falling Objects, Moving Machinery):
• Provision of proper safety equipment.
• Training workers to identify physical hazards.
• Implementing safety protocols to reduce exposure.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for the task.
• Securely store objects to prevent them from falling.
• Keep a safe distance from moving machinery and equipment.
• Follow safety protocols and procedures when operating machinery.

Wildlife and Pest Hazards

Wildlife and pest hazards involve risks and dangers from animals, including threats to human safety,
property damage, and disease transmission. These hazards can arise from encounters with wildlife in
natural environments or from infestations of pests such as insects and rodents in urban or rural areas.
Causes of Wildlife and Pest Hazards
• Animal attacks.
• Venomous bites or stings.
• Transmission of diseases.
• Collisions with vehicles.
Preventive measures
• Implementing integrated pest management techniques, including traps, baits, and eco-friendly
pesticides, effectively managing pest populations.
• Installing barriers, fencing, or repellents to discourage wildlife from entering human habitats or
agricultural areas.
• Ensuring proper disposal of food waste and garbage to prevent attracting pests such as rodents
and insects.
• Providing information to communities about wildlife behaviour, pest prevention, and proper
waste management practices to encourage proactive measures.
• Implementing vaccination programmes for pets and livestock to prevent the spread of diseases
carried by wildlife or pests.
• Conduct routine inspections of properties and agricultural fields to promptly detect and address
pest or wildlife infestations.

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Construction and Renovation Hazards

Construction and renovation hazards refer to risks or dangers present during the building or
remodelling of structures.
Causes of Construction and Renovation Hazards
• Lack of proper training, inadequate supervision, and failure to follow safety procedures.
• Exposure to toxic substances such as asbestos, lead, or mould can pose serious health risks to
workers and occupants.
• Working at heights without proper fall protection measures is a common cause of injuries in
construction and renovation projects.
• Improper wiring, overloaded circuits, and damaged electrical equipment can lead to electrical
shocks, fires, and other accidents.
• Heavy Machinery and Equipment: Mishaps involving construction machinery such as cranes,
forklifts, and power tools can result in severe injuries or fatalities.
• Weak or unstable structures may collapse during construction or renovation, endangering
workers and nearby individuals.
• Welding, hot work, and flammable materials can increase the risk of fires on construction sites.
• Exposure to chemicals used in construction, such as solvents, paints, and adhesives can cause
respiratory problems, skin irritation, and other health issues.
• Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise and vibrations from construction activities can lead
to hearing loss and other health problems.
Preventive Measures of Construction and Renovation Hazards
• Implement comprehensive safety training programs for all workers, emphasising proper
procedures and hazard awareness.
• Conduct regular inspections to identify and address potential hazards, including those related to
hazardous materials.
• Provide adequate personal protective equipment (PPE) such as respirators, gloves, and safety
harnesses, and ensure they are used correctly.
• Follow proper handling, storage, and disposal protocols for hazardous materials to minimise
exposure risks.
• Install and maintain appropriate fall protection systems, such as guardrails, safety nets, and
personal fall arrest systems.
• Inspect and maintain electrical systems and equipment regularly to prevent malfunctions
and hazards.
• Ensure proper training and certification for heavy machinery and equipment operators, and
enforce safety protocols.
• Conduct structural assessments and reinforcement to prevent collapses and ensure stability.
• Implement fire prevention measures, including properly storing flammable materials, using
fire-resistant materials, and adhering to hot work procedures.
• Substitute hazardous chemicals with safer alternatives whenever possible and provide adequate
ventilation in work areas.
• Implement noise control measures and provide hearing protection to workers exposed to high
noise levels.

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Lifting and Manual Handling Hazards

Manual hazard refers to any situation or condition in the workplace that poses a risk of injury or harm
due to manual labour or physical exertion.
Causes of Lifting and Manual Handling Hazard
• Lack of proper training in lifting techniques.
• Absence of mechanical aids or equipment to assist with lifting heavy objects.
• Failure to assess the worksite regularly for potential hazards.
• Inadequate rotation of tasks and insufficient rest breaks.
• Lack of an open reporting environment for employees to communicate hazards or discomfort.
• Insufficient supervision and monitoring to ensure compliance with safe lifting practices
Preventive measures
• Provide comprehensive training on proper lifting techniques, including knee bending, keeping
the back straight, and using leg muscles to lift.
• Encourage using mechanical aids such as dollies, carts, forklifts, or conveyor belts to assist with
lifting heavy objects whenever possible.
• Conduct regular worksite assessments to identify potential hazards and implement appropriate
control measures, such as rearranging storage areas to reduce the need for heavy lifting.
• Rotate tasks and provide opportunities for rest breaks to reduce the cumulative strain on
employees’ muscles and joints.
• Create an open environment where employees feel comfortable reporting hazards, near misses,
or discomfort related to manual tasks, allowing for timely intervention and corrective action.
• Implement regular supervision and monitoring to ensure that safe lifting practices are being
followed and to identify any emerging hazards or issues.

Psychosocial Hazards (e.g., Stress, Workplace Violence)

Psychological hazards in society can stem from various sources, including:
Causes of Psychological Hazards
• Natural disasters, accidents, or violent incidents can lead to trauma and psychological distress
among individuals and communities.
• Loneliness, lack of social support, and disconnectedness can contribute to mental health issues
such as depression and anxiety.
• Systemic discrimination based on factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or
religion can have profound psychological impacts, including feelings of inferiority, stress, and
low self-esteem.
• Financial insecurity, poverty, and unemployment can lead to chronic stress, anxiety, and
depression.
• Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, whether experienced directly or witnessed, can cause
long-term psychological harm.
• Substance misuse and addiction can lead to various mental health disorders and worsen existing
psychological issues.
• Exposure to graphic or distressing content in media, including social media, can contribute to
anxiety, fear, and desensitisation.

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• Political instability, oppressive regimes, or civil unrest can create an atmosphere of fear,
mistrust, and anxiety among the population.
• Negative attitudes and misconceptions about mental illness can discourage individuals from
seeking help and lead to feelings of shame and isolation.
Preventive Measures of Psychological Hazards
• Educate the public about mental health issues, reduce stigma and encourage help-seeking
behaviours.
• Foster social connections, support networks, and community resilience to mitigate the effects of
isolation and loneliness.
• Implement anti-discrimination policies, promote diversity and inclusion, and provide training
to combat prejudice and bias.
• Implement policies that promote job security, fair wages, and access to resources to alleviate
financial stress and poverty.
• Enforce laws against violence and abuse, provide support services for victims, and promote
healthy relationship dynamics.
• Offer education on substance misuse, provide accessible treatment programmes, and implement
harm reduction strategies.
• Teach critical thinking skills and media literacy to help individuals navigate and interpret media
content responsibly.
• Advocate for peaceful conflict resolution, promote democratic values, and support initiatives
that foster political stability and social cohesion.
• Ensure access to affordable mental health services, including counselling, therapy, and crisis
intervention.

Natural Disasters (e.g., Earthquakes, Floods, Hurricanes)

Natural hazards are a type of environmental hazard that can pose a serious risk to lone workers. These
hazards, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, and avalanches can cause injury or trap
lone workers in confined spaces. While many natural hazards can be impossible to predict, it is the
employer’s responsibility to ensure that lone workers can communicate their location and status in the
case of a natural disaster or emergency.
Causes of Natural Hazards
• Insufficient awareness or preparation for potential disasters.
• Failure to anchor heavy items, leading to hazards during earthquakes.
• Electrical gear at ground level is vulnerable to flood damage.
• Failure to monitor weather updates and heed evacuation notices.
• Insufficient means tracking lone workers’ locations in real-time increases risk.
Prevention of natural disasters
• Develop and practice emergency plans for different types of disasters.
• Secure heavy furniture and objects to prevent injury during earthquakes.
• Elevate electrical equipment and utilities above flood levels.
• Stay informed about weather conditions and evacuate if necessary.

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• Personal safety devices, such as GPS-enabled devices or mobile apps, can allow employers or
other team members to monitor the location of lone workers in real-time.

Radiation and EMF Hazards

Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy through waves or particles through space or a
material medium. It can be categorised into ionising radiation (X-rays and gamma rays) and non-
ionizing radiation (radio waves, microwaves, and visible light).
EMF (Electromagnetic Field) hazard refers to potential health risks associated with exposure to
electromagnetic fields, particularly from devices such as mobile phones, Wi-Fi routers, and power
lines. While research is ongoing, some studies suggest that prolonged exposure to high levels of
EMF may have adverse health effects, including increased risk of cancer, neurological disorders, and
reproductive issues.
Causes of Radiation and EMF Hazards
• Proliferation of radiation-emitting devices such as mobile phones and laptops.
• Increased dependence on wireless technologies leading to prolonged exposure.
• Potential health concerns associated with prolonged exposure to electromagnetic radiation.
• Lack of widespread awareness of the risks of radiation and EMF exposure.
• Absence of universally adopted safety standards for the use of radiation-emitting devices.
• Limited understanding of the long-term effects of EMF exposure on human health.
• Rapid technological advancements leading to increased use of devices emitting radiation.
• Environmental factors contributing to the generation and propagation of electromagnetic fields.
Preventive measures for minimising radiation and EMF hazards
1. Maintain a safe distance from radiation-emitting devices whenever possible. For example, hold
your mobile phone away from your body when making calls.
2. Limit the time spent using devices emitting radiation, such as mobile phones and laptops.
3. Use shields or cases designed to reduce exposure to radiation from devices such as mobile
phones and laptops.
4. Use wired connections whenever feasible instead of relying solely on wireless technologies,
such as wired internet connections instead of Wi-Fi.
5. Minimise exposure by avoiding unnecessary use of radiation-emitting devices and keeping
them away from your body while sleeping.
6. Consider using EMF protection devices, such as specialised cases or shields, to reduce exposure
to electromagnetic fields.
7. Adhere to safety guidelines provided by regulatory bodies and manufacturers for using radiation-
emitting devices safely.
8. Stay informed about the potential risks associated with radiation and EMF exposure and take
appropriate precautions to mitigate them.

Water Contamination
Water contamination refers to harmful substances or pollutants in water sources, making them unfit
for their intended use, such as drinking, irrigation, or recreation. Contaminants can include chemicals,
microorganisms, heavy metals, and other pollutants that threaten human health and the environment.

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Causes of Water Contamination

• Inadequate wastewater treatment leading to water body contamination.
• Improper disposal of hazardous materials such as chemicals and oils contaminating water sources.
• Unregulated agricultural practices cause runoff of pollutants into water bodies.
• Insufficient monitoring and testing, allowing contamination to go unnoticed.
• Lack of public awareness of water conservation and pollution prevention.
• Weak enforcement of regulations against industrial and agricultural pollution.
• Neglecting proper disposal of hazardous waste, leading to water contamination.
• Failure to maintain plumbing, increasing the risk of leaks and contamination.
• Inadequate testing of drinking water for contaminants.
• Improper disposal practices, such as pouring harmful substances down drains, contributing to
pollution.
Preventive measures to mitigate water contamination
1. Ensuring proper wastewater treatment before it is discharged into water bodies, including
sewage treatment plants and industrial effluent treatment.
2. Implementing safe disposal practices for hazardous materials, including chemicals, oils, and
other pollutants, to prevent them from contaminating water sources.
3. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices to reduce runoff of fertilisers, pesticides, and
animal waste into water bodies.
4. Conduct regular monitoring and testing of water quality to detect contamination early and take
corrective actions promptly.
5. Educating the public about the importance of water conservation and pollution prevention and
providing information on safe water usage and disposal practices.
6. Enforcing strict regulations and policies to control pollution from industrial activities,
agriculture, and other sources, including penalties for non-compliance.
7. Ensure proper disposal of chemicals and hazardous waste.
8. Regularly check and maintain plumbing to prevent leaks.
9. Test drinking water for contaminants regularly.
10. Be cautious about what you put down the drain or flush.

Factors of hazard management

• Risk Assessment: Identifying and evaluating potential hazards and their associated risks.
• Hazard Identification: Recognising and understanding the hazards present in a given
environment or situation.
• Mitigation Strategies:Developing and implementing measures to reduce or eliminate hazards
and their associated risks.
• Preparedness Planning: Creating plans and procedures to respond effectively to hazards,
including emergency response and evacuation plans.
• Training and Education: Providing training and education to individuals involved in hazard
management to ensure they understand their roles and responsibilities.

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• Communication: Establishing effective communication channels to disseminate information

about hazards and emergency procedures to relevant stakeholders.
• Monitoring and Review: Continuously monitoring hazards and evaluating the effectiveness of
hazard management strategies to make necessary adjustments and improvements over time.

Learning Tasks

1. Explain and identify hazards in the environment.

2. Describe the causes of Hazards in the environment
3. Describe three (3) ways each how to manage hazards in school laboratories and construction
sites etc.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Think-Pair-Share Activity:
• Let learners research using books/internet to analyse the root causes of hazards, and types
and explore possible preventive measures. Facilitate a whole-class discussion based on the
pairs’ findings.
• Divide the class into pairs/ mixed-ability groups and provide each group with a list of common
areas in the home and workplace (e.g., laboratory, kitchen, construction site).
• Encourage critical thinking by asking questions such as “How can these hazards be minimised
or eliminated?” and “What role do regulations and safety protocols play in managing risks?”
• Ask learners to write down potential hazards and risks associated with each area. Encourage
them to consider physical, chemical, biological, and ergonomic hazards.
• Ask each group to share their findings with the class to foster discussion and presentation.
• Provide scaffolding for learners with difficulties.
Field Trip:
• Choose a local industry that is accessible and relevant to the students, such as a sawmill, palm
kernel oil production facility, or gari processing plant.
• Before the visit, provide learners with background information about the industry and its
potential hazards.
• Ask learners to observe the activities taking place and identify potential hazards and risks.
• Engage with industry workers or managers to gain insights into their safety practices and
measures in place to mitigate risks.
• Encourage learners to actively observe their surroundings and identify potential hazards, such
as moving machinery, chemicals, noise, and ergonomic risks.
• Provide them with a checklist or worksheet to document their observations and assessments.
• After the visit, reconvene as a class to discuss their findings and reflections on the risks and
hazards present in the industry.
Project-based Learning:
• Assign individual or mixed-ability group projects where students develop safety plans or hazard
assessments for specific home or workplace scenarios such as school laboratory, construction
site etc. using the Internet/videos/books. Provide support for learners who have difficulties.

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• Facilitate cross-sharing sessions where learners present their findings to their peers. Encourage
constructive feedback and discussions on their findings.
Collaborative Learning:
• Divide the learners into mixed-ability groups and invite a resource person from relevant
industries or safety organisations to share their expertise and experiences. Provide the resource
person with guidelines on the key points to cover, including risks and hazard management.
• After the talk, encourage learners to discuss and share their understanding of the key points
with their group members. This discussion allows for peer learning and comprehension
reinforcement.
• Assign each group the task of preparing a group presentation summarising what they learned
from the talk. Emphasise that each member should contribute according to their abilities, and
provide support and guidance as needed.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Explain the term hazard and identify at least four (4) types of hazards in our environment.
Level 2: Describe five (5) possible causes of hazards in the science laboratory in the school.
Level 3: Describe three (3) ways each how to manage hazards in school laboratories and construction
sites etc.
Level 4: Analyse the differences among the differences among physical and psychological hazards.
Level 5: Design a comprehensive hazard management plan for a proposed local industry facing
multiple hazards.

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Week 19
Learning Indicator: Describe lifestyle diseases, their causes, effects and prevention

Theme or Focal Area: Causes, Effects and Prevention of Lifestyle Diseases

Overview of lifestyle
Lifestyle diseases are non-communicable diseases and resulted from lifestyle choices that individuals
make. Examples are lung cancer from smoking, heart disease from lack of exercise and poor diet, and
type 2 diabetes from poor diet, etc.
Causes of lifestyle disease/ Non-Communicable disease
The causes of lifestyle diseases are lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating, alcohol, substance use
disorders and smoking tobacco, which can lead to heart disease, stroke, obesity, type II diabetes and
lung cancer.
• Fatigue: Sleep is a fundamental component of a healthy lifestyle. Sleep disturbances have
several negative effects on one’s health, finances, society, and psychology. Sleep directly
impacts one’s physical and emotional well-being, and lifestyle choices can influence sleep
quality. Serious medical conditions such as high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, obesity,
and mental impairment are linked to sleep deprivation.
• Diet and Body Mass Index (BMI): The most important lifestyle component is that diet has a
clear, positive correlation with health. In metropolitan societies, poor eating and its aftereffects,
such as obesity are prevalent health issues. BMI is a useful tool for measuring unhealthy
lifestyles. Certain metropolitan lifestyles cause issues with nutrition. An imbalanced diet and
excessive fast food intake worsen conditions like cardiovascular disease.
• Exercise: Exercise is a part of a healthy lifestyle and is used to treat general health issues.
Regular exercise and a balanced diet improve general health and well-being. Several research
emphasise the link between happiness and leading an active lifestyle.
• Substance abuse: Addiction is viewed as a bad way of life. In addition to numerous health issues,
smoking and substance use can cause brain damage, cancer, asthma, and cardiovascular disease.
• Medication abuse: Adverse medication-related behaviours include self-medication, sharing
medications, using medications without a prescription, prescribing excessive amounts of drugs,
prescribing large quantities of each drug, prescribing unnecessary drugs, writing prescriptions
incorrectly, ignoring contradictory medication, ignoring the negative effects of drugs, and
failing to explain the effects of drugs.
Effects of Lifestyle Diseases
Heart disease, diabetes, cancer, stroke, arthritis, migraines/headaches, sleep disorders, musculoskeletal
disorders, nerve compression disorders, carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, degenerative neck, back
disorders, pulmonary disease, osteoporosis, arteriosclerosis, gallbladder disease, kidney and liver
disease, Alzheimer’s and dementia are a few examples of the effects of lifestyle diseases.
Some of the effects of lifestyle diseases are diabetes, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and
cardiovascular diseases are the four main lifestyle diseases.

Cardiovascular Diseases
• Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels.
They include:

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• Coronary Heart Disease:

• Coronary heart disease is a condition that affects the blood arteries that provide blood to the
heart muscle.
• Cerebrovascular Disease:
• Cerebrovascular disease is a condition that affects the blood arteries that feed the brain Peripheral
Arterial Disease:
• Peripheral arterial disease is a condition that affects the blood arteries that provide blood to the
arms and legs.
Causes of Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)
• Unhealthy diet: Diets high in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, and sodium can increase the
risk of CVDs.
• Physical inactivity: Lack of regular physical activity can lead to obesity and other risk
factors for CVDs.
• Tobacco use: Smoking and exposure to second-hand smoke can damage blood vessels and
increase the risk of CVDs.
• Excessive alcohol consumption: Heavy drinking can raise blood pressure, contribute to obesity,
and increase the risk of heart disease.
• High blood pressure: Hypertension puts extra strain on the heart and blood vessels,
leading to CVDs.
• High cholesterol levels: Elevated levels of Low Density- Lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (“bad”
cholesterol) can lead to plaque buildup in the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease
and stroke.
Symptoms
• Chest pain or discomfort (angina)
• Shortness of breath
• Pain, numbness, or weakness in the arms or legs
• Irregular heartbeat
• Fatigue
• Swelling in the legs, ankles, or feet
• Sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm, or leg (especially on one side of the body)
indicating stroke
Prevention
• Eat a heart-healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins.
• Exercise regularly (at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity per week).
• Avoid smoking and limit alcohol consumption.
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques, adequate sleep, and mental health support.
• Regularly monitor blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels.

Chronic Respiratory Diseases

Airflow from the lungs is blocked as a result of chronic respiratory disorders. Breathing difficulties,
cough, mucus production, and wheezing are all symptoms. Long-term exposure to irritating gases

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or particulate matter, most often cigarette smoke, is the most common cause. People with chronic
respiratory disorders are more likely to have heart disease, lung cancer, and other illnesses. The
following are two more prevalent chronic respiratory diseases:
Causes of chronic respiratory diseases
• Poor Nutrition: The immune system is weakened by insufficient consumption of important
nutrients.
• The body’s ability to fight respiratory infections might be hampered, and lung function might
be compromised by inadequate nutrition. A diet deficient in vitamins and antioxidants may
make people more vulnerable to respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD).
• Lack of Exercise: Living a sedentary lifestyle is linked to respiratory problems. Frequent
exercise increases lung capacity and strengthens the respiratory muscles, which improves
lung function. In addition to lowering the incidence of obesity-related respiratory conditions,
including sleep apnoea and asthma, physical activity also aids in maintaining a healthy weight.
• Exposure to Second-hand Smoke: Inhaling second-hand smoke exposes individuals to
harmful toxins and irritants. Second-hand smoke can exacerbate existing respiratory conditions
and increase the risk of developing new ones. Children exposed to second-hand smoke are
particularly vulnerable, with higher rates of asthma, bronchitis, and respiratory infections.
• Smoking: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer are two main
respiratory disorders that are primarily caused by smoking tobacco.
Symptoms:
• Chronic cough
• Shortness of breath, especially during physical activities
• Wheezing
• Chest tightness
• Frequent respiratory infections
• Fatigue
Prevention:
• Avoid smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke.
• Minimise exposure to air pollutants and occupational hazards.
• Maintain a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise to strengthen respiratory
muscles.
• Use protective equipment in workplaces with dust, chemicals,

Symptoms of some lifestyle diseases.

• Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD)
Symptoms: Chest pain or discomfort (angina), shortness of breath, irregular heartbeat, fatigue,
dizziness, leg swelling, and sudden cardiac arrest.
• Type 2 Diabetes
Symptoms: Increased thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision,
slow healing of wounds, tingling or numbness in the extremities.

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• Obesity
Symptoms: Excessive body weight, difficulty in physical movement, fatigue, shortness of
breath, joint pain, and an increased risk of developing other health issues such as diabetes and
heart disease.
• Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)
Symptoms: Often, hypertension has no noticeable symptoms, but some people may experience
headaches, dizziness, blurred vision, or nosebleeds in severe cases.
• Respiratory Diseases (e.g., Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - COPD)
Symptoms: Chronic cough, wheezing, shortness of breath, frequent respiratory infections, and
chest tightness.
• Lung cancer
Symptoms: Lung cancer symptoms may vary but common ones include persistent coughing,
coughing up blood, chest pains, shortness of breath, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, etc.

Prevention of Lifestyle Diseases

Quit Smoking: Stopping smoking (or never starting) lowers the risk of serious health problems,
such as heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, and lung disease, as well as premature death—even for
longtime smokers.
Eat Healthy: Eating healthy helps prevent, delay, and manage heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and
other chronic diseases. A balanced, healthy dietary pattern includes various fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, lean protein, and low-fat dairy products and limits added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium.
Get Regular Physical Activity: Regular physical activity can help you prevent, delay, or manage
chronic diseases. Aim for moderate-intensity physical activity (such as brisk walking or gardening)
for at least 150 minutes a week, with muscle-strengthening activities 2 days a week.
Avoid Drinking Too Much Alcohol: Over time, excessive drinking can lead to high blood pressure,
various cancers, heart disease, stroke, and liver disease. By not drinking too much, you can reduce
these health risks.
Take Care of Your Teeth: Regular dental visits at least annually, regardless of natural teeth presence
or dentures, are essential for early detection and treatment of oral health issues, ensuring overall
dental well-being
Get Enough Sleep: Insufficient sleep has been linked to the development and poor management of
diabetes, heart disease, obesity, and depression. Adults should get at least 7 hours of sleep daily.
Know Your Family History: If you have a family history of chronic diseases, like cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, or osteoporosis, you may be more likely to develop that disease yourself. Share
your family health history with your doctor who can help you take steps to prevent these conditions
or catch them early.
Make Healthy Choices in School and at Work: By making healthy behaviours part of your daily
life, you can prevent conditions such as high blood pressure or obesity, which raise your risk of
developing the most common and serious chronic diseases. Learn more about healthy actions you or
your loved ones can take.

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Learning Tasks

1. Identify at least four lifestyle diseases.

2. Explain at least four causes of lifestyle diseases.
3. Describe at least four preventive measures of lifestyle diseases.

Pedagogical exemplars
Collaborative Learning Approach:
• Divide the learners into mixed-ability groups and invite a resource person such as a healthcare
giver, medical practitioner, or public health nurse to talk about lifestyle diseases. Provide the
resource person with guidelines on the key points to cover, including common lifestyle diseases,
their causes, effects, prevention strategies, and the impact of stigma.
• After the talk, encourage learners to discuss and share their understanding of the key points
with their group members. This discussion allows for peer learning and comprehension
reinforcement.
• Assign each group to prepare a group presentation summarising what they learned from the
talk. Emphasise that each member should contribute according to their abilities and provide
support and guidance as needed.
Research-Based Learning
• Task learners with assessing lifestyle diseases within their environment. Provide guiding
questions to help them identify diseases that are often stigmatised due to societal perceptions or
misconceptions.
• Encourage learners to conduct research-based inquiries into the identified diseases, focusing on
factors such as prevalence, causes, symptoms, treatment options, and societal attitudes towards
those affected.
• Facilitate cross-sharing sessions where learners present their findings to their peers. Encourage
constructive feedback and discussions on the impact of stigma on individuals and communities
affected by these diseases.
Talk-for-Learning Approaches:
• Use talk-for-learning to guide learners to analyse the differences between various lifestyle
diseases based on causes, effects, preventive measures, and strategies for managing stigma.
• Assign mixed-ability groups to demonstrate the differences between various lifestyle diseases
based on causes, effects, preventive measures, and strategies for managing stigma.
• Provide resources such as articles, case studies, and real-life examples to support their
discussions. Facilitate cross-sharing sessions where learners present their findings to their peers
and presentations. Encourage a supportive and inclusive learning environment where learners
feel comfortable expressing their ideas and perspectives.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Identify at least four lifestyle diseases.
Level 2: Explain at least three causes of lifestyle diseases.
Level 3: Analyse the effects of smoking and alcohol consumption on the prevalence of lifestyle diseases.

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Level 4: Reflect on your own lifestyle choices and habits, considering factors such as diet, physical
activity, stress management, and sleep hygiene, and develop a personalised action plan for reducing
your risk of developing lifestyle diseases based on evidence-based recommendations and behavioural
change techniques.

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WEEK 20
Learning Indicator: Analyse the attributes of drugs.

Theme or Focal Area: Recreational Drugs and the Negative Effects these have on the
Body and Society in General

Overview of drugs
Drugs are chemicals and substances that affect both your mind and your body. The prolonged use of
drugs may lead to physical and/or psychological dependence. Drugs are substances that can alter the
normal functioning of the body when introduced into it. The term drug is also used for substances
which are habit-forming and are often abused, for example, narcotics such as cocaine, morphine,
heroin, marijuana, etc. The term “drugs” can apply to therapeutic drugs and recreational drugs. Some
recreational drugs are legal, and others are illegal. An overdose of any drug may lead to death. They
can be classified into various categories based on their effects and uses.
Classes of drugs:
• Narcotics
• Depressants
• Stimulants
• Hallucinogens
• Anabolic steroids

Narcotics (“opioids”)
Overview
The term “narcotic” comes from the Greek word for “stupor” and originally referred to a variety of
substances that dulled the senses and relieved pain. Though some people still refer to all drugs as
“narcotics,” today “narcotic” refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes.
A more current term for these drugs, with less uncertainty regarding its meaning, is “opioid.”
Examples include the illicit drug heroin and pharmaceutical drugs such as OxyContin, Vicodin,
codeine, morphine, methadone, and fentanyl.
Physiological Effects
Besides their medical use, narcotics/opioids produce a general sense of well-being by reducing
tension, anxiety, and aggression. These effects are helpful in a therapeutic setting but contribute to
drug abuse. Narcotic/opioid use comes with a variety of unwanted effects, including drowsiness,
inability to concentrate, apathy, slowed physical activity, constriction of the pupils, flushing of the
face and neck, constipation, nausea, vomiting, slowed breathing, constricted (pinpoint) pupils, cold,
clammy skin, confusion, convulsions, extreme drowsiness, and slowed breathing.
Narcotics are highly addictive substances. They act on the brain’s reward system, causing a surge of
dopamine, which reinforces drug use and makes quitting difficult. Prolonged use can lead to physical
dependence, where the body adapts to the presence of the drug and requires it to function normally.
Withdrawal symptoms may occur when drug use is discontinued. With continued use, the body may
develop tolerance, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effects. This can increase the risk of
overdose. Narcotics can depress the central nervous system, leading to respiratory depression, coma,
and death in cases of overdose.

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Societal risks from recreational drugs

• Substance abuse, including narcotics, imposes significant costs on society, including healthcare
expenses, lost productivity, and criminal justice expenditures.
• Addiction to narcotics can strain relationships with family members, leading to domestic
violence, neglect of children, and breakdown of family structures.
• Individuals struggling with narcotic addiction often face stigma and discrimination, which can
hinder their access to treatment and support services.
• Opioid overdoses, in particular, have become a major public health crisis in many countries,
contributing to a significant number of deaths each year.

Heroin
Heroin is a highly addictive drug, and a rapidly acting.. Heroin is an opiate, a class of drugs that
are either naturally derived from the flowers of the poppy plant or synthetic substitutes. Heroin is
produced from morphine, a naturally occurring substance that comes from the seedpod of poppy
plants. It carries a strong risk of addiction and physical dependence. Heroin is abused by injecting,
snorting or smoking it, and all three can cause the same level of addiction, as well as serious health
problems. Heroin targets and stimulates the brain’s natural reward system.
Physiological effect
• Heroin binds to opioid receptors in the brain, leading to feelings of euphoria and pain relief.
• It depresses the central nervous system, causing slowed breathing and heart rate.
• Long-term use can lead to tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms.
Hazards on the body
Because it enters the brain so rapidly, heroin is particularly addictive, both psychologically and
physically. Heroin users report feeling a surge of euphoria or “rush,” followed by a twilight state
of sleep and wakefulness. Drowsiness, respiratory depression, constricted pupils, nausea, a warm
flushing of the skin, dry mouth, slow and shallow breathing, blue lips, fingernails, clammy skin,
convulsions, coma, and possible death and heavy extremities. Overdose is a significant risk, with
symptoms including respiratory depression, coma, and death. Sharing needles increases the risk of
contracting infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis.
Hazards on Society
• Heroin addiction often results in unemployment, financial instability, and strained relationships.
• Users may engage in criminal behaviour to support their addiction, leading to legal problems.

Stimulants
Stimulants speed up the body’s systems. This class of drugs includes prescription drugs such as
amphetamines, methylphenidate, diet aids, and illicitly produced drugs such as methamphetamine,
cocaine, and methcathinone. Example of Stimulants: methamphetamine, cocaine):
Physiological effect
Stimulants increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, leading to heightened
alertness and energy. They elevate heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature.
Prolonged use can result in tolerance, psychosis, and cardiovascular issues.
Hazards on body
Overdose of stimulants can cause seizures, heart attacks, and strokes.

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Long-term use can lead to severe dental problems (“meth mouth”), cognitive impairment, and mental
health disorders.
Hazards to Society
Stimulant abuse can lead to erratic behaviour, social isolation, and relationship problems.
Users may experience difficulties at work or school due to impaired cognitive function and focus.
Effect on the Stimulants
When used as drugs of abuse and not under a doctor’s supervision, stimulants are taken to produce
a sense of exhilaration, enhance self-esteem, improve mental and physical performance, increase
activity, reduce appetite, extend wakefulness for prolonged periods, and “get high”. Dizziness,
tremors, headache, flushed skin, chest pain with palpitations, excessive sweating, vomiting, high
fever, convulsions, and cardiovascular collapse may precede death and abdominal cramps.
Example of stimulants
Cocaine is an intense, euphoria-producing stimulant drug with a strong addictive potential that can
be risky even the first time you use it. It is a hydrochloride salt derived from processed extracts of the
coca plant leaves. Cocaine overstimulates the brain’s natural reward system, causing it to be a highly
addictive drug.
Physiological effect
Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, producing intense feelings
of pleasure and increased energy. It constricts blood vessels, leading to elevated blood pressure and
an increased risk of heart attack and stroke. Chronic use can result in tolerance, dependence, and
severe cardiovascular issues.
Hazards on the body
The intensity of cocaine’s euphoric effects depends on how quickly the drug reaches the brain,
which depends on the dose and method of abuse. Following smoking or intravenous injection,
cocaine reaches the brain in seconds, with a rapid build-up in levels. This results in a rapid-onset,
intense euphoric effect known as a “rush.” Other effects include increased alertness and excitation,
restlessness, irritability, and anxiety. The physiological effects of cocaine include increased blood
pressure and heart rate, dilated pupils, insomnia, and loss of appetite. The widespread abuse of highly
pure street cocaine has led to many severe adverse health consequences, such as Cardiac arrhythmias,
ischemic heart conditions, sudden cardiac arrest, convulsions, strokes, and death.
Hazard to Society:
• Cocaine use often leads to financial instability, legal troubles, and strained relationships.
• Users may experience mood swings, aggression, and paranoia, contributing to social conflicts.

Depressants
Depressants will put you to sleep, relieve anxiety and muscle spasms, and prevent seizures. Common
street names for depressants Examples: Alcohol (beer, wine, vodka, tequila, gin, etc.), Sleeping Pills,
Marijuana
Physiological effects
Depressants enhance the activity of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), resulting
in sedation and relaxation. They slow down heart rate, breathing, and brain activity.
Prolonged use can lead to tolerance, physical dependence, and potentially life-threatening
withdrawal symptoms

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Hazard to the body

Depressants used therapeutically do what they are prescribed to induce sleep, relieve anxiety and
muscle spasms, and prevent seizures They also cause amnesia, leaving no memory of events that occur
while under the influence, reduce reaction time, impairment of judgment, and confusion Long-term
use of depressants produces psychological dependence and tolerance. Some depressants can relax the
muscles. Unwanted physical effects include slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, weakness,
headache, light-headedness, blurred vision, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, and
slowed breathing. For example, alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. Alcohol goes directly
from your digestive system into your bloodstream, and within minutes, it spreads to the entire body.
The brain gets the highest concentration because it gets more blood than any other body part.
Hazards to Society
• Depressant abuse can impair judgement and coordination, leading to accidents and injuries.
• Users may experience difficulties maintaining relationships and meeting responsibilities at
work or home.

Alcohol
Physiological effects
• Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant that slows down brain activity and impairs
cognitive and motor function.
• It increases the release of dopamine, producing feelings of pleasure and relaxation.
• Chronic alcohol abuse can lead to liver disease, cardiovascular issues, and neurological damage.
Hazards to Society
• Alcohol abuse contributes to a wide range of social problems, including drunk driving accidents,
violence, and family dysfunction.
• Excessive drinking may lead to job loss, financial difficulties, and legal consequences.
Hazards on the body
• High blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, liver disease, and digestive problems.
• Cancer of the breast, mouth, throat, oesophagus, voice box, liver, colon, and rectum.
• Weakening of the immune system.
• Learning and memory problems, including dementia and poor school performance
• Mental health problems including depression and anxiety.
• Social problems, including family problems, job-related problems, and unemployment.

Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are found in plants and fungi or are synthetically produced and are among the oldest
known groups of drugs used for their ability to alter human perception and mood.
Effect of Hallucinogens
Perceptual distortions at different doses, settings, and moods are examples of sensory effects. Time and
space-related mental aberrations are among the impacts of psychic energy. Time may seem to stop,
resulting in dilated pupils, high blood pressure, and an accelerated heart rate. 3,4-methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine, or MDMA, is an example of a hallucinogen. It functions as a stimulant and a
psychedelic, causing energizing effects, time and perception distortions, and an increased appreciation
of tactile experiences. Teenagers and young adults use it to boost euphoria, feelings of intimacy,

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empathy, and sexuality while lowering inhibitions. While users refer to 3,4-methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine (MDMA) as “ecstasy,” researchers have found that many ecstasy tablets actually
include a number of additional, potentially dangerous substances or drug combinations in addition to
MDMA. These include: Methamphetamine, ketamine, cocaine, the over-the-counter cough suppressant
dextromethorphan (DXM), the diet drug ephedrine, and caffeine
Physiological Effects
Hallucinogens are a diverse group of drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings. Examples
include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin (magic mushrooms), and 3,4-methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine (MDMA)/ecstasy. Physiological effects can vary depending on the specific drug,
but common effects include hallucinations, altered sensory perception, increased heart rate, and
changes in body temperature.
Hazard on Body
While hallucinogens are not typically associated with physical dependence or overdose deaths, they
can still pose risks to both the individual and society. Psychological dependence, flashbacks, and
exacerbation of underlying mental health issues are potential hazards.
Hazards to the Society
The societal impact of hallucinogens can be complex. While some people use them recreationally
in controlled environments, others may experience negative outcomes such as accidents, injuries,
or psychological trauma. In some cases, the use of hallucinogens can lead to risky behaviours or
impaired judgment, which can have negative consequences for both the individual and society.
Effect of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA)
MDMA mainly affects brain cells that use the chemical serotonin to communicate with each other.
Serotonin helps to regulate mood, aggression, sexual activity, sleep, and pain sensitivity. Clinical
studies suggest that MDMA may increase the risk of long-term, perhaps permanent, problems with
memory and learning. MDMA causes changes in perception, including euphoria and increased
sensitivity to touch, energy, sensual and sexual arousal, need to be touched, and need for stimulation.

Marijuana
Marijuana is a mind-altering (psychoactive) drug produced by the Cannabis sativa plant. Marijuana
contains over 480 constituents. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is believed to be the main
ingredient that produces the psychoactive effect.
Physiological Effects
Marijuana, also known as cannabis, contains psychoactive compounds such as tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC) that affect the brain and body. Short-term effects can include altered senses, altered sense of
time, changes in mood, impaired body movement, and impaired memory. Long-term use can lead to
respiratory issues, cognitive impairment, and addiction.
Hazards to the Body
When marijuana is smoked, the THC passes from the lungs and into the bloodstream, which carries
the chemical to the organs throughout the body, including the brain. In the brain, the THC connects
to specific sites called cannabinoid receptors on nerve cells and influences the activity of those cells.
Sedation, bloodshot eyes, increased heart rate, coughing from lung irritation, increased appetite, and
decreased blood pressure. While marijuana is generally considered less harmful than many other
drugs, it can still pose risks to both individual health and society. These risks include impaired
cognitive function, respiratory problems, addiction, and potential.

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Hazards to Society
The societal impact of marijuana use is a topic of ongoing debate. Some argue that legalisation can
lead to increased tax revenue, reduced strain on the criminal justice system, and improved access to
medical marijuana for patients in need. Others raise concerns about potential negative effects, such as
impaired driving, increased youth access, and the normalisation of drug use.

Steroids
Anabolic steroids are synthetically produced variants of the naturally occurring male hormone
testosterone that are abused to promote muscle growth, enhance athletic or other physical performance,
and improve physical appearance. Common street names include Arnolds, Juice, Pumpers, Roids,
Stackers, and Weight Gainers.
Physiological Effects
Steroids, particularly anabolic steroids, are synthetic variations of the male sex hormone testosterone.
They can have various effects on the body, including increased muscle mass, strength, and endurance.
However, they can also cause serious health problems, such as liver damage, cardiovascular issues,
hormonal imbalances, infertility, and psychiatric effects like aggression and mood swings.
Hazard on Body
Long-term use of steroids can have devastating effects on both the individual’s health and society at
large. Healthcare costs associated with treating steroid-related health problems can be substantial,
and the societal impact of steroid abuse extends to issues such as crime and violence. Outside of
sports, steroid abuse can lead to social and interpersonal problems, including strained relationships
and legal issues.
Societal Effects
In sports, the use of steroids is often associated with cheating and unfair competition. Athletes may
use steroids to enhance their performance, which can undermine the integrity of the sport and create
an uneven playing field.

Attributes of Drugs
• Classification: Drugs can be categorised into legal and illegal substances. Legal drugs include
prescription medications and over-the-counter drugs, while illegal drugs are substances
prohibited by law due to their potential for abuse and negative health effects.
• Purpose: Drugs may serve therapeutic purposes to treat medical conditions, relieve symptoms,
or manage chronic diseases. On the other hand, some drugs are used for recreational or non-
medical purposes, leading to potential abuse and addiction.
• Effects: Drugs can have different effects on the body, such as stimulant drugs that increase
alertness and energy, depressants that slow down bodily functions, hallucinogens that alter
perception and sensory experiences, and analgesics that relieve pain.
• Routes of Administration: Drugs can be taken orally as pills or liquids, inhaled through the
lungs, injected directly into the bloodstream, absorbed through the skin, or administered via
other routes, influencing their onset and duration of effects.
• Addiction and Dependence: Some drugs have a high potential for addiction and can lead
to physical and psychological dependence. Prolonged use of such substances may result in
tolerance, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.
• Side Effects and Risks: Drugs can produce various side effects, ranging from mild to severe,
depending on the individual’s response and dosage. Misusing or abusing drugs can also lead to
adverse health consequences, including organ damage, mental health issues, and overdose.

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• Legal and Social Implications: The legality of drugs varies between countries and regions,
and the possession, distribution, and use of certain drugs can lead to legal consequences.
Additionally, drug abuse can have significant social impacts, affecting relationships, work
performance, and overall well-being.

Pedagogical Exemplars
• Invite guest speakers, such as healthcare professionals, substance abuse counsellors, or recovered
addicts, to share their expertise and personal experiences with drug use and addiction.
• Students engage in discussions, role-playing scenarios, and hands-on activities related to
the effects of different drugs on the body and mind, refusal skills, and strategies for making
healthy choices.
• Screen documentaries or educational videos that explore various aspects of drug use, addiction,
and recovery. Afterwards, facilitate group discussions to reflect on key themes, raise questions,
and encourage critical thinking about the issues presented.
• Create role-playing scenarios that simulate common situations involving drugs, such as peer
pressure to experiment with substances or encountering someone under the influence. Students
can take on different roles and practice communication skills, assertiveness, and decision-
making strategies in response to these scenarios.
• Assign research projects where students investigate specific aspects of drug use and its impact
on individuals, families, and communities.
• Engage students in community outreach projects focused on drug prevention and education.
• Visiting drug rehabilitation centres and participating in substance abuse prevention programs.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Describe any four classes of drugs and their effects.
Level 2: Describe any three classes of drugs and their effects.
Level 3: Describe any two classes of drugs and their effects.

Section Review
These lessons were structured to provide a holistic learning experience. This section focuses
on the use of comprehensive approaches that integrate differentiated instruction to help
learners identify and manage common risks and hazards present in their environment, offering
learners insight into potential dangers and strategies to mitigate them effectively. Furthermore,
it emphasises the importance of understanding lifestyle diseases, their causes, impacts, and
preventive measures to promote healthier living. Finally, it provides a comprehensive analysis
of drugs, exploring their attributes and effects to foster informed decision-making regarding
their use. Through acquiring this knowledge, learners are empowered to prioritise their well-
being and make positive choices for themselves and their communities.

Additional Reading
1. Read articles and case studies concerning lifestyle diseases

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Resources
1. Teaching/Learning Resources: 
2. Public Address system, resource person
3. Pictures/videos of humans suffering from lifestyle diseases.
4. Worksheets and activities on environmental hazards.
5. Health Journals
6. Internet sources, , ,
7. Scientific journals on lifestyle diseases
8. https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/Heroin%202022%20Drug%20Fact%20
Sheet.pdf

References
1. ErgoPlus. (n.d.). Causes of lifestyle diseases [PDF document]. Retrieved from https://www.
example.com/ergoplus-causes-of-lifestyle-diseases
2. Palomar College. (n.d.). Transportation hazards. Retrieved from https://www.example.com/
palomar-transportation-hazards
3. Singh, A. (2018). Lifestyle diseases: consequences, characteristics, causes, and control.
Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research, 9(2), 38–4.

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SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY

Strand: Relationships With the Environment

Sub-Strand: Relationship with the environment

Learning Outcome: Produce local soap in the community.

Content Standard: Demonstrate understanding of the process of local soap making and design
methods of producing soaps for different purposes for income generation.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

In this activity, learners will learn about the scientific procedures involved in each production stage
while experimenting with the production of local soap and kenkey. Learners can name the physics and
chemistry concepts that underlie emulsification, fragrance incorporation, and saponification. Similarly,
scientific procedures such as fermentation and heat-induced chemical reactions are crucial to the
various stages of kenkey manufacture. Scientific methods, including experimentation, analysis, and
observation will also be used to maximise soap production. These activities provide interdisciplinary
links facilitating integration with language arts, mathematics, social studies, biology, chemistry, and
physics. For instance, in mathematics, students can calculate ingredient proportions and measure
mixing times accurately. In social studies, they can explore soapmaking’s historical and cultural
significance in various communities. In language arts, they can write procedural texts or research the
scientific literature on soap production. Collaboration with local businesses or environmental science
initiatives can foster connections with economics and ecology.
The Weeks covered by the section are:
Week 21: Produce local soap in the community.
Week 22: Experiment to produce different types of soap.
Week 23: Identify the science underlying the stages of production.
Week 24: Explain scientific processes in the stages of production of kenkey.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

Teaching soap-making and kenkey production involves field trips, hands-on experiments, enquiry-
based learning, integrating scientific concepts and interdisciplinary connections. Teachers should
differentiate instruction to meet diverse learner needs, focusing on essential knowledge, skills,
and critical thinking. Assessment methods include performance tasks, written reflections, and
presentations, evaluating students’ ability to produce quality products and communicate their
understanding effectively. Gifted students are encouraged to explore advanced scientific concepts
through independent research projects and cross-disciplinary investigations, enhancing their learning
experience. This approach promotes a holistic understanding of soap-making and kenkey production,
emphasising scientific and cultural significance.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
This section focuses on level 3, formative and summative assessment. Assessment will include field
trips, laboratory work, report writing, and practical work where the local soap-making and kenkey
production are demonstrated to enhance learners’ process skills. Further, short tests, class exercises,
assignments, group discussions, report writing, and project work group presentations where marks
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are awarded and recorded are incorporated. Summative assessment should be done at the end of the
lesson, section, and end of the semester. See the assessment manual for more details as to how to
assess. However, both formative and summative assessments contribute to the cumulative records of
the learners.

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WEEK 21
Learning Indicator: Describe the process of local soap production.

Theme or Focal Area: Production of Local Soap

Overview
Soap is a common cleansing agent well known to everyone. The oldest detergent known to
man is soap which the Romans are said to have produced from animal fats, oil, and wood
ash. Potash, an alkali derived from wood ash that comprises potassium hydroxide, potassium
carbonate, and salt, is leached from the wood ash. Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of
fatty acids (palm oil) that is created by boiling oil and fat with caustic soda or caustic potash,
respectively. It comes in different varieties such as bars, liquids, and powders (e.g., detergents).
Other ingredients can be added to soap to give it different qualities, such as scent or texture.
The process of soap-making is called saponification. Saponification
Saponification, an alkaline hydrolysis reaction involving fats, oils and alkali, is the process used to
make soap. Triglycerides (from palm oil) are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids using lye.
Saponification Reactions: Fat + Lye → Soap + Glycerol
The production of local soap typically involves several steps, which may vary depending on the
specific type of soap being made and the available resources.

Process of soap-making
Ingredient Selection
Local soap production often begins with selecting ingredients. Common ingredients for soap-making
include fats or oils (such as palm oil, coconut oil, or shea butter), water, and caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide) or potash (potassium hydroxide) as a base.
Ingredients and Formulation
Preparation of Ingredients: The fats or oils are usually melted down when is applied. This ensures
they are in a liquid state and ready to be mixed with the other ingredients.
Mixing: Once the oils are melted, they are combined with the caustic soda (NaOH) or potash (KOH)
solution. This mixture is stirred or blended thoroughly until it reaches a specific consistency known
as “trace.” This is the point where the mixture thickens, and the ingredients are fully incorporated.
Additives: Additional ingredients such as fragrances, colourants, exfoliants (such as oatmeal or
herbs), or moisturizers (such as glycerine) may be added at this stage to enhance the soap’s properties
or aesthetics. After adding the additives, continue stirring for approximately two minutes until the
paste is homogenous.
Moulding: Pour the resulting paste into plastic or wooden moulds (covered with a plastic film) in the
desired forms. The moulds are then left to sit undisturbed until the soap solidifies and hardens.
Curing: After moulding, the soap needs to cure for a certain period, typically several weeks. During
this time, the soap undergoes a chemical process called saponification, where the fats or oils react
with the caustic soda or potash to form soap. Curing also allows excess water to evaporate, resulting
in a harder and longer-lasting bar of soap.

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Cutting and Packaging: Once cured, the soap is removed from the moulds and cut into individual
bars or other desired shapes. It may then be packaged for sale or personal use. Packaging options can
range from simple wrapping with paper or cloth to more elaborate labelling and branding.
Safety rules
Production of soaps and detergents require the use of chemical products that are potentially dangerous
for the human organism. Several safety rules must therefore be observed.
Safety gear
• A jacket, an apron or a long-sleeved shirt made of a hard material (denim, velvet, etc.)
must be worn.
• A pair of plastic or rubber gloves -When preparing caustic soda solutions, it is necessary to
wear well-fitting plastic or rubber gloves.
• A protective mask or scarf - To avoid the inhalation of toxic vapours from the dissolving soda,
a protective mask or material soaked in water must be worn, covering the entire nose and
mouth area.
• A pair of protective goggles must be worn during the soap or detergent production.
• A pair of rubber boots or closed-toe shoes must be worn during the preparation of the caustic
soda solution.
Safety instructions
• It is essential to work near a water source.
• If the caustic soda solution encounters the skin, rinse off thoroughly with water to alleviate the
effects of the soda.
• If the soda solution is swallowed, drink copious amounts of water.
• Always pour the soda into the water, and not the other way round, to avoid experiencing a
violent reaction that could damage your skin or your eyes.
• Drinking, eating, and smoking are prohibited during soap production operations.
• Avoid any distractions during soap production operations.
• Chemical products used for the maturing or drying stages of soap production must be kept out
of the reach of children and domestic animals.
• Soap-making equipment must not be used for cooking.

Learning Task

1. Explain the term saponification.

2. Explain how technology can help in the production of local soap.
3. Describe the process of making local soap.

Pedagogical Exemplars
• Organise a visit or field trip to local soap-making facilities where learners can observe the
production process firsthand. Let learners take notes/photos from the field trip.
• Put learners in mixed-ability groups to cross-share and reflect on the notes they wrote during the
field trip for peer review and presentation.

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• Putting learners in mixed-ability groups, let them search the Internet, and think-pair-share on
the science in the process (Saponification) of local soap making.
• Showcase real-life examples of local soap producers who have successfully established their
businesses.
• Research the different approaches to making soap in Ghana and other places.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Explain any 3 stages in the production of local soap.
Level 2: Explain saponification in your own words.
Level 3: Write a report on the processes involved in soap making from your field trip.

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WEEK 22
Learning Indicator: Explain the processes of producing different types of soap.

Theme or Focal Area: Experiment to Produce Different Types of Soap

Overview of Soap
The different types could be African black and African white soap, these are both traditional soap
varieties that have distinct differences in terms of ingredients, production methods, and properties.
They are natural, handmade products that have gained popularity worldwide for their effectiveness in
cleansing and nourishing the skin as well as for their cultural significance.
African Black Soap: African black soap is known for its dark colour, which comes from the ash
content. It has a rough, textured appearance and a natural earthy scent. It is prized for its gentle
cleansing properties and is believed to have various skincare benefits, such as moisturising, exfoliating,
and treating acne, eczema, and other skin conditions.
African White Soap: African white soap, also known as “Alata Samina” or “Ose Dudu,” typically
contains similar base ingredients such as black soap, such as palm oil, coconut oil, and shea butter.
However, it lacks the ash content that gives African black soap its dark colour. African white soap
has a creamier appearance and a milder scent compared to black soap. It is also valued for its
gentle cleansing properties and is often used for sensitive skin types. Like black soap, it may have
moisturising and skin-nourishing benefits, but without the exfoliating properties associated with ash.
Experiment: Making African Black Soap
Materials: Plantain peels or cocoa pods, Shea butter, Palm oil, Coconut oil, Water, Pot or cooking
vessel, Mixing bowl, Spoon or spatula, Safety equipment (gloves, goggles, apron), Soap moulds or
containers (stainless steel, heat-resistant plastic).
Optional: herbs or oils for fragrance and medicinal properties
Procedures:
Preparation of Ash:
a. Collect plantain peels or cocoa pods. Remove any dirt or debris.
b. Sun-dry the peels or pods until they are completely dried out.
c. Once dried, burn the plantain peels or cocoa pods until they turn to ash. Ensure they are
completely burnt.
d. Allow the ash to cool down.
Making the Soap Base:
a. In a mixing bowl, combine the shea butter, palm oil, and coconut oil in the desired proportions.
Use a ratio that suits your preference, but a common ratio is approximately 50 per cent shea
butter, 25 per cent palm oil, and 25per cent coconut oil.
b. Heat the mixture gently until it melts and combines thoroughly.
c. Remove from heat and let it cool slightly.
NB: Oil or flammable things should be handle carefully

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Mixing Ash and Soap Base:

a. Gradually add the cooled ash to the melted oil mixture while stirring continuously. Ensure
thorough mixing to incorporate the ash evenly.
b. If desired, add any optional herbs or oils for fragrance or medicinal properties at this stage.
Moulding the Soap:
a. Once the ash is fully mixed into the oil mixture and the consistency is uniform, pour the soap
mixture into soap moulds or containers.
b. Allow the soap to cool and solidify. This may take several hours to overnight, depending on the
ambient temperature.
Curing the Soap:
a. After the soap has solidified, remove it from the moulds or containers.
b. Place the soap bars in a cool, dry place to cure for several weeks. During this time, the soap will
harden further, and any excess water will evaporate, resulting in a longer-lasting bar of soap.
Testing and Storage:
a. Once cured, test the soap to ensure it is suitable. Check its cleansing properties, lather and
fragrance.
b. Store the soap bars in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight until ready for use.
NB: The production method for African white soap is similar to that of black soap, involving mixing
oils and shea butter with water and lye (potassium hydroxide). However, the absence of ash results
in a lighter-coloured soap.
Soap making is essentially a neutralisation reaction - if there is not enough fatty acid to react with the
sodium hydroxide, the resultant soap will contain unreacted NaOH and the soap will be very caustic.

Learning Tasks

1. Name four materials needed in saponification.

2. Explain the role of at least four materials needed in saponification.
3. Describe the process of making local soap using hands-on activity.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Demonstration: Organise a workshop where participants can learn step-by-step the soap-making
process.
Collaborative learning
• Put learners into mixed-ability and mixed-sex groups (where applicable); let the learners
experiment with preparing a local soap. They should vary the materials (reactants) to see the
outcomes. Teacher should provide support through out the process.
• Learners should create educational videos demonstrating the soap-making process from start
to finish.

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Key Assessment
Level 1: Name four materials needed in saponification.
Level 2: List and explain the role of four materials needed in saponification.
level 3: Explain why some local soaps are different from each other.
Level 4: Describe the process of making local soap.

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WEEK 23
Learning Indicator: Investigate the Production of Indigenous Food to Identify the Science
Underlying the Stages of Production.

Theme or Focal Area: Identify the Science Underlying the Stages of Production.

Overview
Understanding the scientific principles underlying the stages of production is essential for optimising
processes, ensuring quality, and fostering innovation. From traditional practices such as soap-making
and kenkey production to modern industrial processes, science plays a fundamental role in every
production stage. By identifying the underlying science, we can unravel the reasons behind these
processes, unlocking opportunities for improvement and innovation. In this exploration, we delve into
the science behind each production stage, from raw material acquisition to final product assembly. This
lesson focuses on gari production. In gari production, one of the process that stand out is fermentation
to remove the hydrogen cyanide from cassava. The science behind cyanide production in cassava (the
basis of many of these foods) is of general interest as is the fermentation of maize meal and locust
bean to produce these other food.
Why is obtaining ingredients important in local food production?
There are different types of local foods, such as gari, akyeke, and yakeyake. kenkey [Ga or Fante],
aboloo, tubaani, dawadawa, etc.).

Activities involved in preparing gari

Gari is a popular food made from cassava, a starchy root vegetable. Its preparation involves several
steps. Gari can be enjoyed in various ways, such as soaking it in water to soften it before consumption
or using it as an ingredient in dishes such as gari foto or gari soakings.
Sorting the cassava tuber: Certain cassava tuber roots may be damaged or decaying after harvesting.
These are sorted to choose the healthy roots for processing; only healthy roots (free of rot or other
damage) should be used in the processing phase.

Fig 15: Image of sorted cassava tubers

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Cassava for gari production

Cleaning and peeling cassava roots: Cassava roots are covered in soil and dirt when they are freshly
harvested, and they must be washed and peeled. The roots are peeled to remove the outer brown
skin and the inner thick cream layer and then washed to eliminate stains and debris during the gari
preparation process. It is critical to regularly inspect the water supply to ensure that it is not filthy
or polluted.
Grating of the cassava: Cassava grating is a phase in the process of eliminating cyanide and making
the root fit for human consumption. Automatic graters are required in the cassava mash manufacturing
process to meet market and industry demands.
Cyanide Detoxification in Cassava
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) contains cyanogenic glycosides, which can release hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) when the plant tissue is damaged. To make cassava safe for consumption, the glycosides must
be broken down to remove the hydrogen cyanide.
Process in Cyanide Detoxification
1. Peeling: Remove the cassava peel, which contains higher concentrations of cyanogenic
glycosides.
2. Cutting and Grating: Cut or grate the cassava to increase the surface area for more efficient
detoxification.
3. Water Soaking: Soak the cassava pieces in water for several hours to days. This process allows
water-soluble cyanogenic glycosides to leach out.
4. Fermentation: Allow natural fermentation during soaking, which helps break down cyanogenic
glycosides through microbial activity.
5. Sun Drying: Spread the soaked cassava pieces in the sun to dry. Drying further reduces the
cyanogenic glycoside content through enzymatic activity and evaporation of HCN.
6. Cooking/Boiling: Boil the cassava pieces to hydrolyze any remaining cyanogenic glycosides
and volatilize hydrogen cyanide.
The de-watering and fermentation stages
This is where the cyanide in the cassava mash is removed. The amount of water in the mash is reduced
by the use of a hydraulic press. After that, the bags are left to drain and ferment for a few days before
being used again. Fermentation involves the action of microorganisms like yeast, bacteria, and fungi
that convert sugars into alcohol, acids, and other compounds. It also involves enzymes also play a
crucial role in fermentation, catalysing reactions that break down sugars, proteins, and fats.

Fig. 15: Image of de-watering and fermentation stages

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De-watering process
• Granulating: Cassava mash is mechanically reduced in size, resulting in fine granules with a
higher surface area, also known as grits.
• Gari frying: To get a dry and crispy texture, the grits are roasted or fried in a hot frying tray or
pan. Gari is typically white or cream in appearance, but it can be yellow if made with yellow
cassava roots or fried in palm oil both of which are abundant in vitamin A and a good source
of energy. After being roasted, they are stretched out on a high platform in the open air to
cool and dry.
• Sieving: The Gari is sieved to remove coarse particles, and a standard-sized sieve is used to
generate fine granules from the coarse particles once they have been separated. The big grains
are broken down into smaller pieces with the help of a grinder.
The production of gari involves several stages, each influenced by scientific principles
• Harvesting cassava roots: Scientific principles of plant biology and physiology come into
play during this stage, as enzymes within the cassava roots initiate biochemical reactions that
degrade complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars.
• Grating: The cassava roots are washed and grated into a pulp. Physics principles of force and
motion govern the grating process, as mechanical forces are applied to break down the cassava
roots into smaller particles.
• Fermentation: The grated cassava pulp undergoes fermentation, where microorganisms such
as lactic acid bacteria and yeast metabolise sugars present in the pulp. This fermentation process
involves biochemical reactions mediated by enzymes, resulting in the production of organic
acids and gases. The science of microbiology and biochemistry underlies this stage of gari
production.
• Dewatering: The fermented cassava pulp is dewatered to remove excess moisture. Physics
principles of gravity and filtration are employed in this stage, as gravitational forces aid in
separating the solid gari granules from the liquid phase.
• Roasting: Physics principles of heat transfer govern the roasting process, as thermal energy
is transferred from the roasting equipment to the gari granules, leading to the evaporation
of residual moisture and Maillard reactions that contribute to the characteristic flavour and
colour of gari.

Activities involved in preparing tubani

Tubani (steamed black-eyed peas)is a popular street food in Ghana made from beans and spices. Our
northern family introduced it to Ghanaians. It is a very healthy meal high in protein. It is commonly
eaten in the northern regions. It is a type of bean cake cooked by steaming; it is often served with a
spicy pepper sauce or other condiments.
Step 1: Soak the Beans
• Begin by soaking 2 cups of black-eyed peas or cowpeas in water overnight. This will help to
soften the beans and reduce the cooking time.
Step 2: Prepare the Batter
• Drain the soaked beans and transfer them to a blender or food processor. Add 1 medium-sized
onion, 2-3 cloves of garlic, 1-2 fresh chilli peppers (optional), and a pinch of salt.
• Blend the mixture until it forms a smooth batter. You can add a little water if needed to achieve
the desired consistency.

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Step 3: Fermentation
• Transfer the batter to a large bowl and cover it loosely with a clean cloth or plastic wrap.
• Allow the batter to ferment for about 8-12 hours at room temperature. This fermentation process
helps to enhance the flavour and texture of the tubani.
Step 4: Prepare the Steaming Setup
• While the batter is fermenting, set up the steaming apparatus. This can be a large pot with a
steamer basket or a specialised steamer.
• Fill the pot with water, ensuring it does not touch the bottom of the steamer basket or the
tubani mixture.
Step 5: Forming the Tubani
• After the fermentation period, stir the batter gently to incorporate any settled sediments.
• Take a clean banana leaf or aluminium foil and cut it into squares or rectangles (about 4-6 inches).
• Spoon a portion of the batter onto each leaf or foil, shaping it into a small ball or oblong shape.
Step 6: Steam the Tubani
• Carefully place the formed tubani onto the steamer basket, making sure they are not crowded to
allow even cooking.
• Cover the pot with a lid and steam the tubani for approximately 30-45 minutes, or until they are
firm and cooked through.
Step 7: Serve and Enjoy
• Once cooked, remove the tubani from the steamer and let them cool slightly.
• Unwrap the banana leaves or foil and serve the tubani warm or at room temperature.
• Tubani is often enjoyed as a snack or a breakfast dish in Ghana, and it pairs well with a spicy
pepper sauce as shown in the picture below.

Fig. 16: Image of Tubani

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Science processes involved in Tubani making

• Soaking fosters microbial growth, particularly lactic acid bacteria and yeast, pivotal for
subsequent fermentation. Enzymatic activity breaks down complex carbohydrates and proteins,
improving digestibility and flavour.
• Grinding: The cooled peanuts are ground into a fine paste using a grinding machine or a
traditional mortar and pestle.
• Fermentation: Fermentation is a key step in tubani production, where microorganisms
metabolise sugars and produce organic acids and gases. This process softens the beans, enhances
flavour and improves digestibility.
• Wrapping and Steaming: Fresh leaves like banana leaves or plantain leaves are used to wrap
the Tubani before the steaming process. The leaves are cleaned and dried before wrapping.
• Cooling and Serving: Physics principles of heat transfer and thermodynamics govern the
cooling process, as heat dissipates from the hot tubani to the surrounding environment, reducing
its temperature to a palatable level.

Learning Tasks

1. Level 1: List the processes involved in tubani processing.

2. Level 2: Explain the bean fermentation and steaming process.
3. Level 3: Explain any two science underlying (fermentation, sun drying, etc.) the named
local food production stages.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Talk-for Learning
• Introduce learners to the traditional Ghanaian dish tubani and its cultural significance. Discuss
the ingredients used and the traditional method of preparation.
Collaborative learning
• Put learners in mixed-ability groups and assign each group a specific aspect of tubani preparation
to investigate, such as bean fermentation, steaming process, or flavour development.
• Place learners into mixed-ability and mixed-sex groups learning styles (where applicable.) Let
the learners design an activity to prepare a named local food such as tubani.
• Engage learners in groups to create more activities to prepare a named local food within their
communities.
• Encourage learners to do group or individual presentations about ideas generated.
• Allow learners, working in mixed- groups, to use the Internet, books, and journals to brainstorm
and write a report on the science underlying (fermentation, sun drying, etc.) the local food
production stages.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Identify one indigenous food in your community and its ingredients.
Level 2: Write down the activities involved in preparing your named local food\ dish.
Level 3: What activities will you consider when preparing local food?

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WEEK 24
Learning Indicator: Investigate the production of indigenous food to identify the science processes
in the production stages.

Theme or Focal Area: Science Processes in the Stages of Production of Kenkey

Overview
Kenkey is a popular staple food in Ghana. It consists of fermented and cooked maize dough, wrapped
in leaves. Kenkey is a staple swallow food similar to sourdough dumplings from the Ga and Fante-
inhabited regions. It is popularly known as kɔmi (pronounced kormi) by the Gas or dokono by the
Akans in Ghana.
What is kenkey and how is it made?
Kenkey is one of the principal fermented foods made of ground white corn (maize). The steps involved
in the production of kenkey are as follows:
The corn is soaked in water for about three days, making sure to change the water every day without
sticking your fingers in the corn

Fig. 16: Image of grain of maize

Once the water has been drained from the dry corn, they are taken to a mill to be ground into the
powdered form.

Fig. 17: Image of Powdered form of the gain

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The corn flour is mixed with water and kept for some days to allow for fermentation. In between the
fermenting, the dough may look yellowish on the top. Simply rinse it off gently with water.
Fermentation is a metabolic process through which microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, or fungi
convert carbohydrates (sugars and starches) into alcohol, gases, or organic acids under anaerobic
conditions (absence of oxygen). It is a form of anaerobic respiration used by certain cells to generate
energy in the absence of oxygen

Process of Fermentation
1. Initiation: Microorganisms are introduced to the substrate (e.g., yeast added to grape juice for
wine).
2. Lag Phase: Microorganisms acclimate to their environment; minimal activity.
3. Exponential Phase: Rapid microbial growth and metabolism, converting sugars to fermentation
products.
4. Stationary Phase: Nutrient depletion slows microbial growth; maximum product concentration
achieved.
5. Decline Phase: Microorganisms die off as nutrients are exhausted and toxic byproducts accumulate.
Importance of fermentation
1. Fermentation extends the shelf life of perishable foods by producing alcohol, acids, and other
compounds that inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens.
2. Fermentation adds unique flavors and textures to foods and beverages, making them more
enjoyable and diverse. For example, the tangy flavor of yogurt or the complexity of wine and beer.
3. Fermentation can increase the bioavailability of nutrients and produce beneficial compounds
like vitamins, antioxidants, and probiotics that support health.
4. Fermented foods often contain live beneficial bacteria (probiotics) that can improve gut health
and boost the immune system.
5. Fermentation has been a traditional method of food preservation and preparation across cultures
for thousands of years, contributing to culinary diversity and cultural heritage.

Fig. 18: Image of Corn flour mixed with water.

Divide the dough into two parts once it is fermented. One part will be cooked and the other will be
mixed with the cooked one. Water is then added to the raw part and some salt and then cooked.

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SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY

Fig. 19: Image of Corn flour mixed Fig. 20: Image of ‘Aflata’
with water

Once the dough is cooked, it is added to the raw dough. This cooked dough is called Aflata. Mix the
Aflata with a wooden spoon to mix them to form a homogenous dough mixture.

Fig. 21: Image of ‘Aflata’ mixed Fig. 22: Image of Mixing ‘Aflata’
with dough with a wooden spoon

The next step is to make small balls from the dough and then wrap them in the dried corn husks.

Fig. 23: image of small balls from the dough

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 SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY

Make sure to overlap the corn husks slightly until the entire ball is covered. Then twist the tops of the
corn husks together and then tuck them into a ball.

Fig. 24: Image of Moulded Kenkey

Moulding of Kenkey into balls

Tuck the ends in and mould or squeeze the ball together to close any large holes and cover the twisted
end. The wrapped dough packets are placed on a wire rack above water in a large pot and allowed to
boil and steam for one to three hours, depending on their size and thickness.

Fig. 25: Image of Cooking of kenkey (steamed kenkey)

The final product, kenkey, is served with a sauce and any fish or meat dish.

Fig. 24: Image of Kenkey served with fish and pepper

85
SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY

Science processes involved in kenkey making

In local food production, several scientific processes come into play to ensure the safety, quality, and
efficiency of the production process.
• Drying: The corn is dried to remove water from the corn to help in milling
• Fermentation: The rise of the corn dough as a result of the action of bacteria. The key scientific
process in preparing kenkey is fermentation. Fermentation is a metabolic process in which
microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast convert carbohydrates into alcohol or organic
acids. In the case of kenkey, the fermentation process is crucial as it imparts a unique flavour,
texture, and sourness to the final product. The fermentation is facilitated by naturally occurring
microorganisms present in the maize kernels, such as lactobacillus bacteria and wild yeast.
Additionally, the production of organic acids such as lactic acid and acetic acid acts as natural
preservatives, slowing down the growth of spoilage microorganisms and extending the shelf
life of the kenkey.
• Amylase Activity: Maize contains starch, a complex carbohydrate made up of glucose
molecules. During the fermentation process, natural enzymes present in the maize, such as
amylase, break down the starch into simpler sugars, primarily glucose. These simpler sugars are
then consumed by the microorganisms during fermentation, resulting in the production of lactic
acid and carbon dioxide.
• pH Regulation: The fermentation process in kenkey involves the production of lactic acid by the
beneficial bacteria. The lactic acid lowers the pH of the dough, creating an acidic environment.
This low pH inhibits the growth of harmful bacteria and preserves the kenkey. The acidic
environment also helps improve the digestibility and nutrient availability of the maize.
• Gas Production: As the microorganisms consume the sugars in the maize dough during
fermentation, they produce carbon dioxide gas. This gas gets trapped within the dough, causing it
to rise and become lighter and more porous. The gas production contributes to the characteristic
texture and volume of kenkey.
• Heating/ Boiling: Heat is used to change moulded corn dough into the final product for
consumption.
• Heat Denaturation: After the fermentation process, kenkey is traditionally cooked by steaming
or boiling. During the cooking process, heat denatures the proteins present in the maize dough,
resulting in structural changes that contribute to the firmness and texture of the final product.

Learning Tasks

1. What are the main ingredients used in making kenkey?

2. Describe the traditional methods of preparing kenkey.
3. How is the corn dough prepared for making kenkey?
4. What is the role of fermentation in the kenkey preparation process?
5. Explain the significance of wrapping the fermented dough using corn husk.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Field trip
• Organise a visit or field trip to local kenkey-making facilities where learners can observe the
production process firsthand. Learners will then reflect and make presentations on what they
learnt during the field trip.

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 SECTION 9: PRODUCTION IN LOCAL INDUSTRY

• Allow learners, working in mixed-ability groups, let them search the Internet, books, journals,
think-pair-share, and write a report on the science processes (fermentation, sun drying, etc.) in
the stages of production of the local food such as kenkey.
Research-based learning
• Research the different approaches to making kenkey in Ghana and other places.

Key Assessment
Level 1: Write down the science processes involved in kenkey production.
Level 2: What is the importance of washing the corn before grinding it for kenkey?
Level 3: How long does the fermentation process typically take, and what factors can affect it?

Section Review
These lessons were structured to provide a holistic learning experience. It focuses on helping
learners to know the scientific procedures involved in each stage of production of local soap
and kenkey in the community through experimentation to develop different types. Learners
will be able to identify the physics and chemistry concepts that cause emulsification, fragrance
incorporation, and saponification. Similar to this, scientific procedures such as fermentation
and heat-induced chemical reactions are crucial to the various stages of kenkey manufacture.
To maximise soap production, scientific methods, including experimentation, analysis, and
observation, will also be used. These activities provide interdisciplinary links that facilitate
integration with language arts, mathematics, social studies, biology, chemistry, and physics.
For instance, in mathematics, students can calculate ingredient proportions and measure mixing
times accurately.

Additional reading
1. Research the different approaches to making kenkey in Ghana and other places.

Resources
1. Curriculum
2. Books
3. Camera.
4. Checklist of science processes involved in processing local food.
5. Voice recording device.
6. Journal from a field trip.

References
1. Internet sources (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MtzyxQiqKo, https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=Kc7duzDEa6Y)
2. Draft curriculum pg. 32-35
3. Amy; Ofori, Hayford; Anyebuno, George Anabila; Amoo-Gyasi, Michael; Amoa-Awua,
Wisdom Kofi (2015). “Safety of a street vended traditional maize beverage, ice-kenkey, in
Ghana”. Food Control. 55: 200–205.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Professor Edward Appiah, Director-General of the National Council for Curriculum
and Assessment (NaCCA) and all who contributed to the successful writing of the Teacher Manuals for
the new Senior High School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) curriculum.
The writing team was made up of the following members:
NaCCA Team
Name of Staff Designation
Matthew Owusu Deputy Director-General, Technical Services
Reginald Quartey Ag. Director, Curriculum Development Directorate
Anita Cordei Collison Ag. Director, Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance
Directorate
Rebecca Abu Gariba Ag. Director, Corporate Affairs
Anthony Sarpong Director, Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance
Directorate
Uriah Kofi Otoo Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Art and Design
Foundation & Studio)
Nii Boye Tagoe Senior Curriculum Development Officer (History)
Juliet Owusu-Ansah Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Social Studies)
Eric Amoah Senior Curriculum Development Officer (General Science)
Ayuuba Sullivan Akudago Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Physical Education &
Health)
Godfred Asiedu Mireku Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)
Samuel Owusu Ansah Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)
Thomas Kumah Osei Senior Curriculum Development Officer (English)
Godwin Mawunyo Kofi Assistant Curriculum Development Officer (Economics)
Senanu
Joachim Kwame Honu Principal Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance Officer
Jephtar Adu Mensah Senior Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance Officer
Richard Teye Senior Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance Officer
Nancy Asieduwaa Gyapong Assistant Standards, Assessment and Quality Assurance Officer
Francis Agbalenyo Senior Research, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer
Abigail Birago Owusu Senior Research, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer
Ebenezer Nkuah Ankamah Senior Research, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer
Joseph Barwuah Senior Instructional Resource Officer
Sharon Antwi-Baah Assistant Instructional Resource Officer
Dennis Adjasi Instructional Resource Officer
Samuel Amankwa Ogyampo Corporate Affairs Officer

88
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

NaCCA Team
Name of Staff Designation
Seth Nii Nartey Corporate Affairs Officer
Alice Abbew Donkor National Service Person

Subject Writer Designation/Institution

Home Grace Annagmeng Mwini Tumu College of Education
Economics Imoro Miftaw Gambaga Girls’ SHS
Jusinta Kwakyewaa (Rev. Sr.) St. Francis SHTS
Religious Dr. Richardson Addai-Mununkum University of Education Winneba
Studies Dr. Francis Opoku Valley View University College
Aransa Bawa Abdul Razak Uthmaniya SHS
Godfred Bonsu Prempeh College
RME Anthony Mensah Abetifi College of Education
Joseph Bless Darkwa Volo Community SHS
Clement Nsorwineh Atigah Tamale SHS
Arabic Dr. Murtada Mahmoud Muaz AAMUSTED
Dr. Abas Umar Mohammed University of Ghana
Mahey Ibrahim Mohammed Tijjaniya Senior High School
French Osmanu Ibrahim Mount Mary College of Education
Mawufemor Kwame Agorgli Akim Asafo SHS
Performing Arts Dr. Latipher Osei Appiah-Agyei University of Education Winneba
Desmond Ali Gasanga Ghana Education Service
Chris Ampomah Mensah Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Art and Design Dr. Ebenezer Acquah University for Education Winneba
Studio and Seyram Kojo Adipah Ghana Education Service
Foundation
Dr. Jectey Nyarko Mantey Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Yaw Boateng Ampadu Prempeh College
Kwame Opoku Bonsu Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dzorka Etonam Justice Kpando Senior High Sschool

89
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Subject Writer Designation/Institution

Applied Dr. Sherry Kwabla Amedorme AAMUSTED
Technology Dr. Prosper Mensah AAMUSTED
Esther Pokuah Mampong Technical College of
Education
Wisdom Dzidzienyo Adzraku AAMUSTED
Kunkyuuri Philip Kumasi SHTS
Antwi Samuel Kibi Senior High School
Josiah Bawagigah Kandwe Walewale Technical Institute
Emmanuel Korletey Benso Senior High Technical School
Isaac Buckman Armed Forces Senior High Technical
School
Tetteh Moses Dagbon State Senior High School
Awane Adongo Martin Dabokpa Technical Institute
Design and Gabriel Boafo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Communication Henry Agmor Mensah KASS
Technology
Joseph Asomani AAMUSTED
Kwame Opoku Bonsu Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Jectey Nyarko Mantey Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Ebenezer Acquah University for Education Winneba
Business Studies Emmanuel Kodwo Arthur ICAG
Dr. Emmanuel Caesar Ayamba Bolgatanga Technical University
Ansbert Baba Avole Bolgatanga Senior High School,
Winkogo
Faustina Graham Ghana Education Service, HQ
Nimako Victoria SDA Senior High School, Akyem
Sekyere
Agriculture Dr. Esther Fobi Donkoh University of Energy and Natural
Resources
Prof. Frederick Adzitey University for Development Studies
Eric Morgan Asante St. Peter’s Senior High School
Agricultural David Esela Zigah Achimota School
Science Prof. J.V.K. Afun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Mrs. Benedicta Carbiliba Foli Retired, Koforidua Senior High
Technical School

90
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Subject Writer Designation/Institution

Government Josephine Akosua Gbagbo Ngleshie Amanfro SHS
Augustine Arko Blay University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kofi Adu Fettehman Senior High School
Economics Dr. Peter Anti Partey University of Cape Coast
Charlotte Kpogli Ho Technical University
Benjamin Agyekum Mangoase Senior High School
Geography Raymond Nsiah Asare Methodist Girls’ High School
Prof. Ebenezer Owusu Sekyere University for Development Studies
Samuel Sakyi Addo Achimota School
History Kofi Adjei Akrasi Opoku Ware School
Dr. Anitha Oforiwah Adu-Boahen University of Education Winneba
Prince Essiaw Enchi College of Education
Ghanaian David Sarpei Nunoo University of Education Winneba,
Language Ajumako
Catherine Ekua Mensah University of Cape Coast
Ebenezer Agyemang Opoku Ware School
Physical Paul Dadzie Accra Academy
Education and Sekor Gaveh Kwabeng Anglican Senior High
Health Technical School
Anthonia Afosah Kwaaso Junkwa Senior High School
Mary Aku Ogum University of Cape Coast
Social Studies Mohammed Adam University of Education Winneba
Simon Tengan Wa Senior High Technical School
Jemima Ayensu Holy Child School
Computing and Victor King Anyanful OLA College of Education
Information Raphael Dordoe Senyo Ziavi Senior High Technical School
Communication
Technology Kwasi Abankwa Anokye Ghana Education Service, SEU
(ICT) Millicent Heduvor STEM Senior High School, Awaso
Dr. Ephriam Kwaa Aidoo University for Education Winneba
Dr. Gaddafi Abdul-Salaam Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
English Esther O. Armah Mangoase Senior High School
Language Kukua Andoh Robertson Achimota School
Alfred Quaittoo Kaneshie Senior High Technical School
Benjamin Orrison Akrono Islamic Girls’ Senior High School
Fuseini Hamza Tamale Girls’ Senior High School

91
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Subject Writer Designation/Institution

Intervention Roberta Emma Amos-Abanyie Ingit Education Consult
English Perfect Quarshie Mawuko Girls Senior High School
Sampson Dedey Baidoo Benso Senior High Technical School
Literature-in- Blessington Dzah Ziavi Senior High Technical School
English Angela Aninakwah West African Senior High School
Juliana Akomea Mangoase Senior High School
General Science Dr. Comfort Korkor Sam University for Development Studies
Saddik Mohammed Ghana Education Service
Robert Arhin SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Chemistry Ambrose Ayikue St. Francis College of Education
Awumbire Patrick Nsobila Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Bismark Tunu Opoku Ware School
Gbeddy Nereus Anthony Ghanata Senior High School
Physics Dr. Linus Labik Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Henry Benyah Wesley Girls High School
Sylvester Affram Kwabeng Anglican SHS
Biology Paul Beeton Damoah Prempeh College
Maxwell Bunu Ada College of Education
Ebenezer Delali Kpelly Wesley Girls’ SHS
Doris Osei-Antwi Ghana National College
Mathematics Edward Dadson Mills University of Education Winneba
Zacharia Abubakari Sadiq Tamale College of Education
Collins Kofi Annan Mando SHS
Additional Dr. Nana Akosua Owusu-Ansah University of Education Winneba
Mathematics Gershon Mantey University of Education Winneba
Innocent Duncan KNUST SHS
Intervention Florence Yeboah Assin Manso SHS
Mathematics Mawufemor Adukpo Ghanata SHS
Jemima Saah Winneba SHS
Robotics Dr. Eliel Keelson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Nii Longdon Sowah University of Ghana
Isaac Nzoley Wesley Girls High School

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Subject Writer Designation/Institution

Engineering Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Prof. Abdul-Rahman Ahmed Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Valentina Osei-Himah Atebubu College of Education
Aviation and Opoku Joel Mintah Altair Unmanned Technologies
Aerospace
Engineering Sam Ferdinand Afua Kobi Ampem Girls’ SHS

Biomedical Dr. Dorothy Yakoba Agyapong Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science Science and Technology
Jennifer Fafa Adzraku Université Libre de Bruxelles
Dr. Eric Worlawoe Gaba Br. Tarcisius Prosthetics and Orthotics
Training College
Manufacturing Benjamin Atribawuni Asaaga Kwame Nkrumah University of
Engineering Science and Technology
Dr. Samuel Boahene Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Prof Charles Oppon Cape Coast Technical University
Spanish Setor Donne Novieto University of Ghana
Franklina Kabio Danlebo University of Ghana
Mishael Annoh Acheampong University of Media, Art and
Communication
Assessment Benjamin Sundeme St. Ambrose College of Education
Dr. Isaac Amoako Atebubu College of Education
Curriculum Paul Michael Cudjoe Prempeh College
Writing Guide Evans Odei Achimota School
Technical Team

93
 General Science Year 1

SECTION
SECTION

11
CHARACTERISTICS
OFASCIENCE
GEOGRAPHICAL AND
HISTORICAL SKETCH
OF AFRICA
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

EXPLORING MATERIALS
Science and Materials In Nature

INTRODUCTION
Hello learner, welcome to an exciting adventure into the heart of science!
In this section, we will uncover the secrets of nature by exploring its defining
characteristics. Get ready to dive deep into the wonders of empirical evidence,
consistency, objectivity, systematic, creativity, and community that shape the
essence of scientific inquiry. This will enhance your critical thinking skills,
encourage curiosity, promote healthy scepticism and foster lifelong appreciation
for science and its role in society. We will further explore the exciting world where
science and design intersect. We will discuss how scientific principles can enhance
the quality and credibility of design projects and identify the characteristics of
science, describe and provide examples of how these characteristics are applied
in scientific inquiry. We will also apply scientific principles to a design project
and formulate hypotheses related to their design project and design experiments
or investigations to gather relevant data. Again, we will evaluate the impact
of scientific design project for future design work and consider how scientific
thinking can enhance the credibility and validity of design outcomes. Lastly, you
will effectively communicate your project findings using scientific principles
to explain your design process and outcomes. In this section we will identify
and describe how characteristics of science are applied in both our everyday life
and activities as well as other areas in health, agriculture, industry and among
others. Let’s embark on a journey of discovery unlike any other as we unlock the
mysteries of science.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

i. Explain the Characteristics of Science in Nature

ii. Design Project Using the Characteristics of Science.
iii. Apply the Characteristics of Science Where Appropriate
Learners at the end of this section will be able to:
• Explain the term science
• Identify at least three important aspects of science

2
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

• Explain the characteristics of science

• Identify the characteristics of science
• Apply scientific principles to a design project
• Evaluate the impact of scientific design on the design project
• Communicate the findings of the design project using scientific principles
• Identify areas where characteristics of science can be applied
• Describe with specific examples and illustrations how characteristics
of science is applied in the home, school, health, education, industry,
agriculture among others
• Evaluate how the characteristics of science are applied in the areas
mentioned above.

Key Ideas

• Science is a body of knowledge and series processes that help us to

understand the natural world and solve problems.
• Science is empirical (based on or derived from observations and data
gathered through experimentation or observation of the natural world.).
• Scientific knowledge is replicable (the results of one study can be
consistently reproduced by another study using the same methods and
tools).
• Science is systematic (the scientific process follows a consistent approach,
with clear steps for hypothesis testing, data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.)
• Science is consistent (the ability of scientific findings to be reliable and
repeatable over time).
• Science is tentative (scientific knowledge and understanding are not fixed
or absolute but are subject to change and revision as new evidence, data,
and insights emerge).
• Science is predictable: ability of scientific investigations to make
accurate and reliable forecasts about future events or phenomena based
on established scientific principles.

3
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

• Science is valid refers to how scientific observations, data, and

measurements accurately reflect the phenomenon under study.
• Science is precise refers to the degree of accuracy, consistency, and
reproducibility of scientific knowledge and ideas.
• Science is accurate refers to the correctness or truthfulness of scientific
information or measurements.
• Design is the process of creating a plan or specification for the construction,
production, or arrangement of an object, system, or structure.
• Scientific design refers to the application of scientific principles and
methodologies in the process of designing experiments, studies, or
research projects.
• A project is an endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service,
or result. It is a planned and organized effort with defined objectives,
specific tasks, and a predetermined time frame.
• Application refers to how knowledge in the characteristics of science is
used to produce ideas and/or manufacture products.
• Falsifiability is the capacity of a hypothesis or theory to be proven false
if it is indeed incorrect.

4
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Figure 1.1: Learners testing the magnitude of load their

paper tower could carry using sachets of water.

Now, learner, look at figure 1.1 carefully and discuss what you see with your
neighbours.

Activity 1

In pairs, use the activity in the picture to explain what science is. Note:
suggested answers or conclusions for activities can be found in Annex 1.

Let us explore further with the following activity:

Activity 2

Home-made distilled water

Scenario: You are at a camp, and you need water to wash. The only water
available is sea/salty water. As a scientist, how do you get the sea/salty water
desalinated (water without salt) for washing?

5
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

What you need: A deep pot with a lid that is concave if turned upside side
(i.e. it is domed if placed on the pot properly), Ice cubes, a bowl to collect
your distillate, source of heat, heat towel or napkin, sea water or salty water,
liquid soap (to test for the softness of water)
What to do:
You can perform this activity alone or in mixed group of not more than five
(5) learners:
1. Watch this one-minute video to give you an idea click here
2. Design and conduct your own experiment by selecting your choice of
materials from the list given.
3. Write a few sentences which summarise the experiment you conducted
today. Remember to include:

• A labelled diagram of your set up.

• A numbered list of instructions (so it could be reliably repeated by
another student)
• A discussion of your results, and how these link (or do not link to
the expected observations)

Figure 1.2: Simple distillation technique

Testing for softness and hardness of the distillate

1. Take equal amounts (about 100ml) of a sample of your distillate and sea/
salty water in separate plastic water bottles of same size and volume.
2. Add a teaspoon full of liquid soap to each sample.

6
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

3. Shake the bottles with their contents and compare their reactions in
them.
4. Record and discuss your observations.

Safety:
• Make sure that bowls for heating can withstand boiling water.
• The collected distillate should not be consumed, eating, or drinking in a
laboratory is against lab safety rules.
• Use heat towel/napkin to prevent burns on the fingers.
• Only the water in the collecting bowl will have distilled water. The
remaining water will contain all the impurities you removed from the
distilled water.
• Always secure bottle caps tightly before shaking to avoid spillage.”
• Clean up any spills immediately while following proper disposal
guidelines for the materials used.

Conclusion: Only the water in the collecting bowl will have distilled water.
The remaining water will contain all the impurities you removed from the
distilled water.

Hello learners, I am sure you had an exciting time with activity 2. The knowledge
from this activity can be used to explain the water cycle where evaporation (boiling
of water) separates water from contaminants/impurities (salt and others in water)
and condensation (on the lid) returns it to a liquid state, free from minerals and
contaminants.
Interesting, isn’t it? Great.
Let us explore the importance of science with the next activity.

Activity 3

The Egg Drop Challenge

Scenario: There is egg crisis in senior high schools in Ghana! The Ghana
Education Service is organising a famous Egg Festival for senior high schools,
which is just around the corner, and the Director General has ordered rare,
delicate eggs from poultry farmers around the country for the festival’s grand

7
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

egg painting competition. However, during transportation, the delivery truck

accidentally drove over a pothole, causing the eggs to be pushed and shaken.
As a result, many of the eggs were cracked, leaving the students in a state
of anxiety. The Director General has called upon the SHS 1 science classes
to use their knowledge of science to salvage the situation. You are tasked to
design and build a gadget to protect the remaining eggs from breaking when
dropped from a height of 2.0m.
What you need: Raw eggs (enough for each group to have one), marker,
various materials (e.g., straws, cotton balls, tape, popsicle sticks, rubber
bands, balloons, paper cups, cardboard, bubble wrap, etc.) for building an
egg protective structure, scissors, a designated dropping area (like a balcony,
staircase, or simply a maximum height of 2.0m from which the eggs can be
dropped).

Figure 1.3: Homemade materials for egg drop challenge

What to do:
Pair with a friend or form a mixed group of not more than 5 learners.
1. Generate ideas and agree on a design, select appropriate materials and
build your egg protective structure.
2. Present your design to the class, explaining the scientific principles
behind your choices of materials and construction.
3. Conduct the egg drop test: Each group takes turns to use their structure
to drop an egg from a designated height (2.0m). If the egg breaks, the
group is out of the challenge.

8
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

4. Discuss the results as a class, focusing on what worked well and what
could be improved.
5. Analyse the scientific concepts involved, e.g. forces acting, etc.
6. Share your experience of the importance of science.

Through the Egg Drop Challenge, you have not only learned about scientific
principles but also gained practical experience in applying those principles to
solve real-world problems. You have also learned the importance of collaboration
(teamwork) and repetition in the scientific process.
Thus learners,

What is the importance of science?

Take a moment here to reflect on how science has improved your daily life. Think
about the experimentation that will have gone into all the aspects of your life
touched by science.

Conclusion: Record here your thoughts of what the biggest achievements of

science have been, and what you think they could be in the future. After produc-
ing your own share these with your neighbour and discuss what they have pro-
duced.
Science has a special role, as well as a variety of functions for the benefit of our
society:creating new knowledge, improving education, and increasing the quality
of our lives.
Good job learners, let us continue our exciting journey with a look at the
characteristics of science.

The Characteristics of Science

Key Question
Why is it essential for scientists to base their conclusions on evidence?
Record your thoughts or those of the class here:

9
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

Let us look at the key characteristics of science, such as being empirical,

reproducible, systematic, consistent, tentative, predictable, valid, precise and
accurate. Let us discuss each of the characteristics and their application.
Are you ready?
Good!
Picture the first characteristic: ‘Empirical’.
What does it mean then to say science is empirical?
Record the thoughts of the class here:

Empirical: This means it relies on systematic observations and data gathered

through experimentation or observation of the natural world. These observations
are used to formulate hypotheses and theories.
In science, we do not rely solely on speculation or hearsay. Instead, we embrace
empirical evidence. It is like detectives gathering clues to unravel a mystery,
except our mystery is the natural world itself.
I am sure you are eager to explore more.
Let us do an activity!

10
SECTION 1 Exploring Materials

Activity 4

Experiment to show that science is empirical

Title: Determining the Boiling Point of Pure Water at Sea Level

Key Questions:
a. What is the boiling point of water?
b. How does altitude affect the boiling point of water?
c. Why is it important to know the boiling point of water?
d. How can you measure the boiling point accurately and reliably?

Aim: To verify that the boiling point of pure water remains constant at sea
level.
Hypothesis: The boiling point of pure water at sea level is 100 degrees
Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit).
Key Questions (record your thoughts alongside each question):
a. What materials do you need for this experiment?
b. How should you set up the apparatus to ensure accurate results?
c. Why is it important to use distilled water in the experiment?
d. What safety precautions should you take when conducting the experiment?

What you need

Heat source (e.g., Bunsen burner/electric stove/coal pot), a beaker or any
suitable heat-resistant container, thermometer (that will measure up to 100
degrees Celsius), water (free from impurities), stopwatch or timer.
NB: rainwater should be collected from a height above the ground to prevent
being contaminated by impurities.

Data Collection and Observation

Key Questions (In your view, suggest answers to these questions):
a. What are the signs that water is boiling?
b. How can you ensure that you accurately record the boiling point?
c. What factors might affect the accuracy of your measurements?
d. How can you maintain consistency in your observations?

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Procedure:
1. Fill the beaker or container with a fixed volume of water (e.g., 100 ml).
2. Insert the thermometer into the water without touching the bottom of the
receptacle.
3. Place the beaker or container on the heat source.
4. Gradually increase the heat and monitor the temperature using the
thermometer.
5. As the water temperature rises, observe and record the changes in
temperature.
6. When the water boils, note the temperature and start the timer.
7. Continue boiling the water and monitor the temperature every 30 seconds
for a few minutes.
NB: Repeat the experiment using water from at least three different sources.

Figure 1.4: set-up to determine the boiling point of water.

Analysis and Conclusion

Key Questions (In your view, suggest answers to these questions):
a. What was the observed boiling point of water at sea level?
b. How does your experimental result compare to the standard boiling point
of water (100°C or 212°F)?
c. What factors might have influenced any discrepancies in your results?
d. How can you improve the accuracy of your experiment in future trials?

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Next is ‘Consistency’. Nature is believed to operate according to consistent patterns

and laws. Through scientific investigation, we strive to uncover these underlying
principles, from the elegant laws of motion to the intricate principles governing
genetics. This consistency allows you to make predictions and understand the
Universe’s inner workings.
Consistency, therefore, refers to the ability of scientific findings to be reliable and
repeatable over time. It also means that other scientists can replicate experimental
results using the same methods and procedures and that the findings are consistent
with what is already known about the phenomenon being studied.
Why do you think that consistency is an important principle of Science? Imagine
what science would be like without it. Record your thoughts and those of the class
here:
Let us look at reproducibility as the next characteristics.
Reproducibility- Scientific research must produce results that others can repeat
using the same methods and conditions.
Let us do an activity!

Activity 5

Experiment to show that science is consistent and replicable (reproducible)

Title: The Simple pendulum experiment
Aim: To conduct a simple experiment involving a pendulum to demonstrate
that scientific results should be consistent and reproducible if the same
methods are used, and factors are kept uniform.
Key Questions (Put your ideas on paper as you read each question)
i. What is the purpose of your experiment with the pendulum?
ii. How will you ensure that your experiment is reproducible by others?
iii. What factors do you need to consider and keep uniform throughout your
experiment?
iv. How will you measure and record the variables involved in the pendulum
experiment?
v. Why is it important to repeat the experiment multiple times with the
same methods and conditions?

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vi. What conclusions can you draw from replicating the experiment with
the same methods and variables?

What you need

A sturdy string or thread, a small weight (e.g., a metal ball or a stone), a ruler
or measuring tape, a stopwatch or timer, a stable point to hang the pendulum
(e.g., a hook or a sturdy table edge or retort stand)

What to do
1. Attach the weight to one end of the string/thread securely.
2. Hang the other end of the string/thread from a stable point.
3. Measure and record the pendulum’s initial length: Use the ruler or
measuring tape to measure the pendulum’s length (from the point of
suspension to the centre of the weight). Record this length as “L” (initial
length).
4. Hold the pendulum at a measured and fixed distance away from its resting
position and release it from the same starting point each time.
5. Time the pendulum swinging to and fro ten times using the stopwatch or
timer.
6. Record the time taken for the swings.
7. Repeat the experiment three times and compare the times taken for ten
swings.
8. Change the length of the string (by shortening or lengthening it) and
repeat the swinging process to and fro ten swings and record the time.

Analyse the data:

i. Compare the results for each repeat of the experiment.
ii. How do the results vary among the three repeats of the experiment?
iii. Are the results the same? If not, what reasons could account for the
variability?
iv. Does changing the length of the string change the time taken for ten
swings to and fro?
v. Compare your results with those of other groups in the class, do your
findings agree with theirs?

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Figure 1.5: set-up for a simple pendulum experiment

Well done learners, let us turn our attention to another characteristic.

vi. What does it mean to say science is systematic in nature? Record your
initial thoughts and those of the class here

Systematic methodology- This means scientific process follows an organized

approach, with clear steps for hypothesis testing, data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
Let us do an activity!

Activity 6

Experiment to show that science is methodical (systematic)

Title: Investigating the presence of starch in plants.
Provide possible answers to key questions A, B and C.
Key Question A (record your thoughts alongside these questions):
i. What is starch, and what role does it play in plants?
ii. Why is it important to study the presence of starch in plants?
iii. How can you test for the presence of starch in plant materials?
iv. What are some common sources of starch in the human diet?

Aim: To test the presence of starch in plants.

Key Questions B (record your thoughts alongside these questions):
i. What materials do you need for this experiment?

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ii. How should you prepare plant samples for testing?

iii. What reagents or chemicals are required to test for the presence of starch?
iv. How can you ensure that your experimental set-up is consistent and
accurate?

What you need: Test tubes, test-tube stand, test-tube holder, heat source
(e.g.electric kettle), dropper, filter paper, iodine solution, ethanol (alcohol),
distilled water, green leaf.
Key Question C (record your thoughts alongside these questions):
i. What are the steps involved in conducting the starch test(s)?
ii. What are the expected results if starch is present in the plant samples?

What to do:
i. Gather leaves from plants exposed to sunlight for a minimum of 2 hours
for testing.
ii. Pour boiling water from the electric kettle into a large beaker.
iii. Using forceps immerse a leaf in the hot water for three minutes.
iv. Remove the leaf from the boiling water with forceps and observe any
changes. Record your observation in your science jotter.
v. Transfer the leaf to a labelled boiling test tube pushing it to the bottom
with a glass rod.
vi. Fill the boiling test tube halfway with ethanol and place it in a hot water
bath at 80 degrees Celsius for three minutes.
vii. Observe as the ethanol boils and record any changes observed.
viii. Remove the leaf from the boiling ethanol using forceps, rinse it under
cold water.
ix. Gently place the leaf in a Petri-dish or a white tile and add iodine solution,
ensuring complete coverage.
x. Record your observations.

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Figure 1.6: Steps for testing starch in green leaf

Safety:
• Keep the ethanol away from naked flames.
• Wear eye protection when working with ethanol or iodine solution to
prevent chemicals from getting in contact with the eye.
• Take care with hot liquids.
• Be aware that plant sap may irritate the skin.

Observation:
After a few minutes, observe the development of a blue-black colour indicating
the presence of starch.
Key Question D (record your thoughts alongside these questions):
i. What were the results of the starch tests for each plant sample?
ii. How do the results compare to your expectations?
iii. What factors might have influenced any differences in the results?
iv. How can you interpret the presence or absence of starch in different
plant samples?

Consider now the concept of science being systematic. In the experiment just
completed how did we determine beyond doubt that starch is present?
How did we ensure that our process was trustworthy? And that a casual observer
would not think we were lying to them?
Well done learners. Let us discuss other characteristics

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Tentative- This means that scientific knowledge and understanding are not fixed
or absolute but are subject to change and revision as new evidence, data, and
insights emerge. Can you think of any examples where this has happened? Either
in recent memory or throughout history?
Predictability- refers to the ability of scientific investigations to make accurate
and reliable predictions about future events or phenomena based on established
scientific principles. Think of any unexpected events or findings that led to
important changes, either in recent history or in the past?
Validity- refers to how scientific observations, data, and measurements accurately
reflect the phenomenon under study. When scientific findings are valid, they are
based on sound reasoning, empirical evidence, and rigorous scientific methods,
with minimal influences from extraneous factors.
Let us consider two more characteristics, precision and accuracy! Let us read
about them.
Precision- refers to scientific measurements’ degree of accuracy, consistency,
and reproducibility. Precise scientific measurements consistently produce similar
results over multiple trials, with minimal deviation, error, or uncertainty.
Accuracy- refers to the correctness or truthfulness of scientific information or
measurements. When scientific findings are accurate, they reflect the true nature
of the phenomenon under study, with minimal errors, bias, or distortion.
Great learners, let us do an activity!

Activity 7

Experiment to determine whether given substances are acidic or basic.

What you need: red and blue litmus paper (you can also use red hibiscus
petals/sobolo leaves to dye a filter paper, dry it and use as your home made
litmus paper), orange juice, wood ash, vinegar, baking soda, unripe lemon,
carbonated water, liquid soap, tomato juice, calcium carbonate (you can get
it by grinding eggshells into powder), salt Petre. Milk of magnesia, calcium
hydroxide powder (carbide waste from welder’s shops can be used).

What to do:
Pair with a friend or in mixed group of not more than 5 learners.

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1. Using red and blue litmus papers, test whether the following substances
are acids or bases and present your findings in a table as shown below.

Observation
Test substances Conclusion
Red litmus Blue litmus

Orange juice
Wood ash solution
Vinegar
Unripe lemon juice
Carbonated water
Bicarbonate of soda
solution
Liquid soap
Tomato juice
Calcium carbonate
solution
Salt Petre solution
Milk of magnesia
Carbide waste solution

2. Identify the characteristics of science involved in this experiment and

explain your answers.

Hello, learners. I hope you enjoyed the activity and can confidently explain the
characteristics of science.

Activity 8: Creating a poster showing the key characteristics of science.

What have you learned in this session? Create a poster showing the key
characteristics of science, explaining the significance of science and defining
any terms used. Prepare your presentation for a whole-class gallery walk.
(Note: see Annex 1 for some hints).

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ANNEX 1 – POSSIBLE CONCLUSIONS

Activity 1

Science is not merely a subject to study or a collection of facts to remember;

it is an exciting process. It is a way of thinking that encourages curiosity,
questioning, and a deeper understanding of the world around us. All through
your years at the basic level, you learnt about science by performing a number
of experiments, recorded data and made inferences about natural phenomena.
You will have gained deeper knowledge about the natural world and as a
result can solve problems. Science is driven by curiosity, the insatiable desire
to know and understand the natural world.
Thus, Science is the observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena to widen
people’s understanding of nature and solve problems.

Activity 2

Expected Observations: The distillate is colourless, odourless and tasteless

and easily forms lather with soap. Unlike the sea/salty water which does not
easily lather with soap.

Activity 3

You will agree that from activity 3, you used your scientific knowledge to
solve the problem in the real world. Your solution was made possible through
creativity and innovation. Science is therefore an important channel of
knowledge necessary for creation.
a. Similar to the above, scientific knowledge has brought some innovations
like the creation of computers, satellites, x-rays, and cell phones which
has proven invaluable. Other importance include:
b. Science enhances global understanding - being able to accurately predict
the weather has enabled agriculture to flourish worldwide.
c. Scientific Research boosts health (yielding medications, vaccinations,
and therapies) - extending lifespans and improving the quality of lives.

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d. Science has improved diverse transportation modes in automobiles,

aircraft, ships, and space exploration among others.

Activity 4

Expected Results:
According to the hypothesis, the boiling point of water at sea level is expected
to be 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit). Therefore, during the
experiment, you will observe that the water boils at this temperature and
remains constant as long as it continues to boil.

Conclusion:
It can be identified that the boiling point of water without impurities at sea
level remains constant at 100°C or 212°F. This allows you to accept your
hypothesis. As the results are collected scientifically and agree with your
hypothesis, you have demonstrated the use of empirical measurement in the
testing and confirmation of the scientific hypothesis as a fact.
NB: Sea level refers to the level of sea at normal atmospheric temperature and
pressure. These may differ from the conditions in our laboratory.

Activity 5

Conclusion:
The time taken for ten swings to and fro should be very similar for the three
repeats of the experiments as long as the length of the string and the point of
release are kept uniform. Thus, properly designed and executed experiments
are consistent and replicable.
Any small variability in the results will be down to errors of timing or small
inconsistencies in the height of release of the experiment. Increasing the
length of the pendulum string should increase the time taken for ten swings.

Activity 6

Conclusion
The leaf turning blue-black is an indication that photosynthesis has taken
place and starch has been prepared as a result.

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Activity 7

1. Systematic, observation, empirical, verifiable, etc.

Activity 8

You have learned that:

1. Science is the observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena to widen
people’s understanding of nature and solve problems.
2. The importance of science is that it helps us to understand the world
better, improves our standard of living, and makes life easier and more
comfortable.

The key characteristics of science include empirical, reproducible, systematic,

consistent, tentative, predictable, valid, precise and accurate.

EXTENDED READING
The nature of science- http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/
chap1.htm
Explore the misrepresentation of the nature of science in the media, which we
miss because we are not looking for it. You could do this by reading one of the
myths in the article Myths of the nature of science or listing your own examples
of occasions when you have seen or heard something through the media that
could have reinforced this myth in your mind.

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SCIENTIFIC PROJECT DESIGN

A scientific project design is a systematic plan for conducting scientific research
or investigation. It outlines a particular scientific study or experiment’s objectives,
methods, procedures, and expected outcomes.

Activity 9: Discussing characteristics of science in the design of scientific

projects

Key Questions (Note: solutions can be found in Annex 2)

1. Let’s start by understanding what makes science unique. From the
previous session, you discussed the characteristics of science that guided
inquiry and helped generate reliable knowledge. List some of these
characteristics.
2. What are some of the ways you can incorporate scientific principles into
the design of a project?

Now, let us discuss the impact of scientific design on your project. When
you incorporate scientific characteristics, such as empirical methods and
falsifiability, you can make your project outcomes more reliable and credible.

3. How do you think scientific design can influence the quality of your
project?

Lastly, you can effectively communicate your design project findings using
scientific principles. It’s important to present your work in a clear and
structured manner, following scientific communication standards.

4. What other ways can you effectively communicate your design findings
using scientific principles?

Examples of projects that require scientific designs are investigating the effects
of different fertilizers on plant growth, relationship between the period of a
pendulum and its length, investigating acid-base properties using hibiscus flower
juice indicator, construction of solar oven for cooking and many more.
In the section, you performed various experiments to verify each of the scientific
characteristics. In this section, you are using these characteristics to design
scientific projects.

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Project Design Activities

In this section, you will do activities to explore various designs that focus on
specific characteristics. You will be engaged and have the chance to interact with
them first-hand.
Now, in groups of six you are to design the following real-world projects and
identify which of the characteristics relates to that project. You will find suggested
answers in Annex 1.
NB: (The above instruction applies to all the activities in this section)

Activity 10: Investigating the effects of different fertilisers on plants

growth

Title: A design for investigating the effects of different fertilizers on plant

growth
Aim: To come out with a design to be used to apply the characteristics of
science to investigate the effects of different fertilizers on the growth of plants.
The Design
1. Select sixty identical seedlings of the same plant species (e.g., tomato
plants). All the seedlings must be of the same age.
2. Divide them into three equal groups.
3. Plant seedlings into soil.
4. Assign each group a different fertilizer treatment. For example, Group 1
could receive a commercial chemical fertilizer (NPK) of 20cm3, Group
2, an organic fertilizer of about 1kg (equivalent to 20cm3 of chemical
fertilizer, and Group 3, a control group with no fertilizer.

Fig 1.7: Learners applying fertilizer on plants

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NB: Ensure all groups receive the same environmental conditions (e.g., light,
temperature, water).
Observation: Observe, measure and record the plants’ height and number of
leaves at regular intervals of three days over a set period (e.g., six weeks)

Table 10: Sample table

Day Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

Height Number Height Number Height Number
of Leaves of Leaves of Leaves

0
3
6
9
12
15

Analysis and discussion

Analyse the collected data using statistical methods (for example, plot average
values against time on the graph with a different line for each treatment) to
compare plants growth patterns across different fertilizer treatments.
Discuss the implications of the findings, including potential applications in
agriculture and areas for further research.

Conclusion
Draw conclusions based on the results obtained, considering the effects of
different fertilizers on plant growth and any significant differences observed.

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Activity 11: A project on a solar oven

Title: Produce a solar oven

Aim: Produce a solar oven to be used for cooking at home.
Material: cardboard box, Box knife or scissors, Aluminium foil, Clear tape,
Plastic wrap, Black construction paper, Newspapers, Ruler or wooden spoon,
Thermometer, chocolate, marshmallows, graham cracker

Fig 1.8 : Learners constructing solar oven

Methods:
i. Using a pizza box and knife cut a flap in the lid, leaving one inch between
the edge of the box and where you cut. This is shown in Fig.1.9: stage 1
ii. Fold the flap out to stand up when the box lid is closed.

Fig 1.9 : Stage 1

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iii. Cover the inner side of the flap with aluminium foil folding the edges
of the foil over the flap to keep it in place. Tape down the foil and try to
keep it as smooth as possible.

Fig 1.10 : Stage 2

iv. Lift the lid and line the inside of the box with aluminium foil – shiny side
out.
v. Cover the opening made in the box lid by the flap with plastic wrap. The
wrap should be as airtight as possible. Tape the plastic wrap in place.

Fig 1.11 : Stage 3

vi. Cut a piece of black construction paper so that it’s 2 inches smaller along
each edge than the bottom of the box. If you have a large box, you might
need more than one piece of paper.
vii. Centre the construction paper in the centre of the bottom of the box, on
top of the foil. Tape in place. This is shown in Fig.1.12; stage 4.

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Fig 1.12 : Stage 4

viii. Take newspapers and make four rolled tubes of newspaper out of multiple
sheets of paper. Each of these rolls will go along the edges on the inside
of the box, creating a border. Tape the rolls in place. Be sure the rolls do
not stop the lid from closing. This is shown is Fig.1.13: stage 5.

Fig 1.13 : Stage 5

ix. Using a pencil, create a “dent” in the box, where you can insert the pencil
and use it as a “kickstand” for the lid to remain upright for cooking

Fig 1.14 : Stage 6

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x. The solar oven is ready to be set outside on a sunny day while the sun
is high overhead, between 11 AM and 2 PM when the sun’s rays are the
strongest. Put the graham cracker, topped with a piece of chocolate, and
a marshmallow in the oven.

Fig 1.15 : Complete Solar Oven

xi. Close the lid. Prop up the flap you cut and lined with aluminium foil
using the pencil.
xii. Let the sun do its work! It will take some time.

Discussion: With a peer or group of peers, discuss the design of the oven
and consider improvements that could be made to make it more efficient.
Consider how the efficiency of different solar ovens could be measured; write
a brief method for your suggested investigation.

Activity 12: Building a balloon-powered car

Title: Balloon-powered cars

Aim: Design and build your own balloon-powered car

Suggested materials: Plastic bottle (empty and clean), Straws (plastic or

paper), Balloon, Bottle cap, Rubber bands, Four bottle caps (for wheels),
Tape (duct tape or masking tape), Scissors, Cardboard or foam board (for
making the car body), Pen or marker.

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See the picture below for an example of how your balloon-powered car may
look, although you may choose a different design!

Hint:
Do some background research on balloon-powered cars. Do an internet image
or video search for “balloon powered car” and you will see many different
designs, made from different materials. This can inspire your design.
Think about what materials you want to use for your car, and how you will
connect the different pieces together. For example, what do you want to use
for wheels?
Make a sketch of your design on paper before you start building.

Observation:
It will be observed that the air escaping from the balloon will propel the car
forward.
Suggest an alternative way to improve the performance of your car if it doesn’t
move as expected.

Activity 13: Tentative nature of science

Title: The Pendulum Experiment - Demonstrating the Tentativeness of

Science
Aim: To conduct a simple experiment involving a pendulum to demonstrate
the tentative nature of science by observing how different factors can influence

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the pendulum’s behaviour and how scientific conclusions may evolve based
on additional data and analysis.
Materials: A sturdy string or thread, a small weight (e.g., a metal ball or a
stone), a ruler or measuring tape, a stopwatch or timer, a stable point to hang
the pendulum (e.g., a hook or a sturdy table edge)
Procedure:
1. Set up the pendulum:
• Attach the weight to one end of the string/thread securely.
• Hang the other end of the string/thread from the stable point.

2. Use the ruler or measuring tape to measure the pendulum’s length (from
the point of suspension to the centre of the weight). Record this length
as “L” (initial length).

3. Conduct the pendulum swing experiment:

• Hold the pendulum away from its resting position and release it
from the same starting point each time.
• Time the pendulum for a fixed number of swings (e.g., 10) using
the stopwatch or timer.
• Record the time taken for the swings.
4. Change variables:
• Experiment multiple times while changing one variable at a time.
For example, you can alter the pendulum’s length (by shortening

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or lengthening it) or change the amplitude (the angle at which you

release the pendulum).
• Record the results for each variation, including the new length of
the pendulum or amplitude and the corresponding swing time.
5. Analyse the data:
• Compare the results for each variation of the experiment.
• Look for patterns and relationships between the length/amplitude
and the swing time.
Discuss how changing different variables affects the pendulum’s behaviour
and consider why scientists often revise their models as new investigations
are carried out.

Activity 14: Experiment to demonstrate various characteristics of

science

Choose one of the experiments that you carried out during week 2 and present
your findings from the experiment to the class, including an analysis of how
the experiment demonstrates various scientific principles and how the method
could be adjusted in order to produce more reliable results.

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Extended Reading
Access and use the following sources and resources to find out about designing
scientific project and show which of the characteristics of science that have been
involved.
1. Internet resources such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
2. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/and
3. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list)
4. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/and
5. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list
6. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/and
7. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list)
8. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/and
9. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list)

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ANNEX 2 – SOLUTIONS TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 9

1. Some of the key characteristics of science include empiricism, and

replicability. These characteristics play crucial roles in ensuring the
reliability and validity of scientific knowledge.
2. You can apply scientific principles by using empirical methods, such
as collecting and analysing data, to inform your design decisions. You
can also formulate hypotheses related to your design goals and create
experiments or investigations to gather data that supports or challenges
those hypotheses. By using scientific principles, you can make your
design process more systematic, and evidence based.
3. It must be noted that scientific design helps you to gather accurate
data, make informed decisions, and ensure that your design outcomes
are based on evidence rather than assumptions. It also allows you to
critically evaluate your design choices and make improvements based on
the findings of your experiments or investigations. By applying scientific
principles, you can create more effective and successful design solutions.
4. When communicating your design findings, you should use scientific
terminology and concepts to explain your design process and outcomes.
You should present your data, analysis, and conclusions in a way that
others can understand and evaluate. By using scientific principles in
your communication, you can ensure that your findings are transparent,
credible, and accessible to others.

Activity 10

Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above project

Empirical: The project will involve conducting experiments and collecting

empirical data by observing and measuring the growth of plants.
Objective: The project will follow standardized methods of experimentation
to minimize bias and subjectivity. Care will be taken to ensure accurate and
unbiased measurements and observations.

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Verifiable: The project will formulate testable hypotheses regarding the

effects of different fertilizers on plant growth. The results obtained will help
determine if the hypotheses are supported or contradicted.
Replicable: The experimental set-up and procedures will be documented to
enable other researchers to replicate the study and verify the findings. The
project will provide detailed instructions and guidelines for replicating the
experiment.
Cumulative: The project will contribute to the cumulative body of scientific
knowledge by adding new data and insights to the current understanding of
the effects of fertilizers on plant growth.
Tentative: The project recognizes that scientific knowledge is tentative and
subject to revision. The findings will be interpreted within the context of
current understanding and may lead to modifying or refining existing theories
or practices.
Predictive: The project will analyse the data collected to predict the effects
of different fertilizers on plant growth. These predictions can serve as a basis
for further experimentation or practical applications in agriculture.

Activity 11

Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above project

Empirical: Through experiments and observations, students can gather

empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of their solar oven design.
Systematic: The design and construction of a solar oven follows a systematic
approach. Students need to develop a clear plan, consider different variables,
and organize their experiment in a logical manner. They will systematically
test and modify their design to optimize its performance.
Testable and Falsifiable: The experiment to construct a solar oven involves
formulating hypotheses about how different design elements will affect its
cooking efficiency. These hypotheses are testable by conducting experiments
and measuring the oven’s performance. If the results do not align with the
predictions, the hypotheses can be revised or rejected.
Replicable: The experiment should be replicable, meaning that other
individuals should be able to follow the same instructions and construct a
similar solar oven. Replicability allows for the validation of results and the
verification of the oven’s cooking capabilities.

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Tentative: The knowledge gained from the experiment is tentative in nature.

Students may discover new insights, encounter unexpected challenges, and
make adjustments to improve their solar oven design. The experiment’s
outcomes can lead to further revisions and refinements in the understanding
and construction of solar ovens.
Cumulative: The experiment contributes to the cumulative knowledge in the
field of solar energy and cooking. The findings from the experiment can be
shared with others, building upon existing knowledge and inspiring further
research and innovation in solar oven design and applications.

Activity 12

Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above project

Empirical: Constructing a balloon-powered car involves empirical

observation and experimentation. Students test different designs, materials,
and configurations to determine how they affect the car’s performance. They
gather empirical evidence through observations and measurements to support
their conclusions.
Systematic: The experiment follows a systematic approach. Students develop
a plan, identify variables, and design controlled experiments to test specific
hypotheses. They systematically vary factors such as balloon size, car weight,
or wheel material to understand their impact on the car’s speed and distance
travelled.
Testable and Falsifiable: Hypotheses can be formulated and tested in balloon-
powered car experiments. For example, a hypothesis might be that increasing
the size of the balloon will result in greater propulsion and increased speed.
The hypothesis can be tested by constructing cars with different balloon sizes
and measuring their performance.
Replicable: The experiment should be replicable by others. Detailed
instructions and specifications should be provided so that other students or
researchers can construct similar balloon-powered cars and reproduce the
results. Replicability allows for validation and verification of the experiment’s
findings.
Tentative: Knowledge gained from the experiment is tentative and subject to
revision. Students may discover unexpected results or encounter challenges
that require them to revise their initial hypotheses or redesign their cars. The

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experiment promotes a willingness to revise and refine understanding based

on new evidence.
Cumulative: The experiment contributes to the cumulative knowledge in the
field of balloon-powered vehicles. Students’ findings can be shared with others,
building upon existing knowledge and inspiring further experimentation and
innovation in the design and performance of balloon-powered cars.

Activity 13

By conducting the pendulum experiment and analysing the data, participants

will realize that scientific conclusions are tentative and subject to change
based on various factors and evidence. They will understand the importance
of considering different variables and the limitations of a specific experiment
in drawing scientific conclusions. This experiment is a tangible example of
how science is an ongoing process of learning and refinement.
Examples of Characteristics of Science Applied in the above Project
Empirical Evidence: The experiment relies on direct observation and
measurement of the relationship between pendulum length and period.
Systematic Observation: The experiment follows a systematic procedure,
changing one variable (length) while keeping others constant to observe its
effect.
Predictive Power: By analysing the relationship, you can predict how
changing the length of the pendulum will affect its period.
Objectivity: By ensuring the mass of the weight used is constant, the type
and length of string is kept constant and there is an agreed protocol for
measuring the length o the pendulum, bias is removed, and the experiment
can be considered objective.
Testability: The hypothesis that the length of a pendulum depends on its
length is testable through experiment. By conducting this experiment and
analysing its results, you can gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics
of science within the realm of physics.

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APPLICATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OF
SCIENCE IN OUR EVERYDAY LIFE
We engage in various activities in our everyday life. Sometimes you argue with
friends, bring out ideas or options for how to solve a problem and then finally agree
on the option you believe will work. With your knowledge on characteristics of
science from your previous discussions, we will discuss how they are applied in
areas like the home, school or education, health, agriculture and industry. In your
small groups, you can list other areas of your community you think these scientific
characteristics are applied.

Application of Characteristics of Science in Health

and Medicine
Activity 14: Discussing characteristics of science in medicine

Discuss with your friends how the characteristic of science were applied in
medicine, for example in discovering vaccines for COVID-19 during the
pandemic. You can use your search engine to surf the internet to help you
with the facts.

Fig. 1.16: Scientists discovering vaccines in the laboratory

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Application of Characteristics of Science in the

Home
We apply characteristics of science in our everyday life including the home. Let
us go through the following activity and point out which of these characteristics
are applied.

Activity 15: Application of characteristics of science in cooking

In your small group

i. Use Fig. 1.17 to help you Identify a meal of your choice.
ii. Discuss where and how you will get the ingredients to prepare the meal.
iii. Describe among yourselves the steps involved in cooking that meal.
iv. Analyse the scientific characteristics were applied in the process of your
discussions (Note: suggested answers are in Annex 1).
v. Present your findings to the class.

Fig. 1.17: A woman cooking

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Application of Characteristics of Science in School

or Education
Formal education like learning General Science occurs in the school.

Activity 16: Application of characteristics of science in school

Describe what you see in Fig. 1.18, and consider which of the scientific
characteristics are involved in school.

Fig. 1.18: Learners performing experiment in the science laboratory.

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Application of Characteristics of Science in

Agriculture
Having gone through application of the characteristics of science in the home, let
us discuss how it applies in agriculture.

Fig. 1.19: Agriculture research

Activity 17: Discovering characteristics of science in agriculture

Observe the image in fig.1.19

i. describe what you see with your friends
ii. which crops do you think go through a similar process in the image?
iii. explain among yourselves the types of characteristics of science that is
applied in the process above.

Application of Characteristics of Science in

Industry
Activity 18: Explanation of characteristics of science.

Explain the types of characteristics of science that are applied in industry.

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Extended Reading
Poster pictures showing scenarios in which the characteristics of science are displayed.
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/nature-of-science/characteristics-of-science/
https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/list

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Question 1
Exercise 1
Crossword Puzzle
Use the clues to fill in the words below.
• Words can go across or down.
• Letters are shared when the words intersect.
Across
3. means that scientific knowledge and understanding are not fixed or
absolute but are subject to change.
6. refers to the ability of scientific investigations to make accurate and
reliable predictions about future events or phenomena based on
established scientific principles.
9. refers to the scientific process that follows an organized approach,
with clear steps for hypothesis testing, data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
10. relies on observations and data gathered through experimentation or
observation.
Down
1. refers to the ability of scientific findings to be reliable and repeatable
over time.
2. refers to how scientific observations, data, and measurements accurately
reflect the phenomenon under study.
4. means scientific research must produce results that others can repeat
using the same methods and conditions.
5. means seeing and accepting facts as they are, not as one might wish
them to be.
7. refers to scientific measurements’ degree of accuracy, consistency, and
reproducibility.

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8. refers to the correctness or truthfulness of scientific information or

measurements.

3
4
5
6

7
8

9 10

Exercise 2
Answer the following questions
1. How would you explain six characteristics of science to your younger
student?
2. How would you explain six characteristics of science to your younger
student?
3. Ali looks on as his parents make tea using teabags every morning before
they go to work. This is to enable him to prepare tea in the future as he
grows. As a learner of science identify and discuss the characteristics of
science involved in this daily process.

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4. An SHS 1 learner is required to use 150cm3 of water in an experiment.

As a learner of science show how to measure 150cm3 of water using a
measuring cylinder and identify any characteristics of science applied.

Research Work
Use the internet and other resources to search for more information about one of
the characteristics of science. Think about a historical or current experiment or
practice where this characteristic is key. Explain how the experiment or practice
you have chosen exemplifies the characteristic and it’s role in Science. Present
your report which should include posters, diagrams and charts about your findings
to the class.

Review Question 2
1. Name two ways of applying characteristics of science in
i. education
ii. health and
iii. agriculture.
2. People living in a town realised that most the children and some adults
were frequently getting ill. The medical reports of those who visited the
clinic pointed to malaria infection. As a student of science, how will
you apply the characteristics of science to identify the causes?

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REFERENCES
1. https://study.com/academy/lesson/scientific-explanation-definition-examples.html
2. https://brainly.ph/question/6482355#:~:text=Traits%20and%20scientific%20
characteristics%20are,them%20in%20their%20respective%20classifications.
3. https://www.scienceworld.ca/resource/egg-drop/
4. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-physics/chapter/16-4-the-simple-pendulum/
5. General Science Teacher Manual Year 1 Book 1

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

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SECTION

2
EXPLORING
MATERIALS
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

EXPLORING MATERIALS
Science and Materials in Nature

INTRODUCTION
Imagine a world without solids, no clothing to wear, no smart phones to text your
friends, no strong desks to sit on in class, and no bicycles and cars to ride through
the park. Sounds awful, right? Well, thankfully, we live in a world filled with an
incredible variety of solids, each with its own unique properties and uses. You
are about to embark on a journey where you will classify and discover the hidden
treasures within different types of solids. Now, think about this: What makes gold
so precious, steel so strong, and crystals so fascinating? The answer lies in their
composition and properties. In this section, you are not just going to admire these
solids from afar. You are going to dive deep into the fascinating world of solids
and explore how we can classify them based on their characteristics and discover
the amazing ways they shape our lives.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Classify different solids and their uses

• Apply the properties of solids to everyday use.
• Discuss the relationship between binary compounds, the composition of
binary compounds and the names of compounds.

Learners at the end of this section will be able to:

• Identify the first 20 elements on the periodic table.

• Identify and classify solids into Metals, Semi-metals, and Non-metals.
• Describe the Properties of Metals, Semi-metals, and Non-metals.
• Outline and explain the Uses of Metals, Semi-metals, and Non-metals
• Identify and describe the properties of solids
• Classify solids based on their uses/properties
• Analyse and describe how the properties of these solids are applied to
their everyday use

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• Explain binary compounds and identify their general characteristics

• Determine the composition of binary compounds, distinguishing between
ionic and covalent binary compounds
• Categorise given compounds as either binary ionic or binary covalent
based on their composition
• Predict the properties of binary compounds based on their composition
• Learn how to find the chemical formula of binary compounds.
• Learn how to name a binary compound.

Key Ideas:

• Materials are broadly categorised into metals, non-metals and semi-

metals. Each having distinct compositions and characteristics such as
conductivity, lustre, and hardness.
• An element is the smallest particle of a pure substance that cannot be
broken down into any simpler substance by chemical reactions and is
made up of one or more atoms of the same kind.
• The periodic table of chemical elements organizes all discovered chemical
elements in rows (called periods) and columns (called groups) according
to increasing atomic number.
• An element can be a solid, liquid or gas. A solid is a state of matter which
has a definite shape and volume.
• Elements are broadly categorized based on their physical and chemical
properties into metals, non-metals, and semi-metals.
• Reactivity: The tendency of a metal to undergo chemical reactions, such
as oxidation or displacement reactions.
• Corrosion: The deterioration of metals due to chemical reactions with
substances in their environment, such as oxygen or moisture or acid.
• Solids have wide applications and uses in everyday life such as metals for
construction, ceramics for electronics, and plastics for packaging.
• Solid materials – refer to substances or objects with a definite/fixed shape
and volume.
• Properties of materials:

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o Conductivity
o Magnetism
o Lustre
o Melting point
o Boiling point
o Density
• Binary compounds are chemical compounds composed of exactly two
different elements.
• Binary compounds are grouped into two categories: Binary ionic
compounds and binary covalent compounds.
• Binary ionic compounds are composed of a metal and a non-metal (e.g.,
NaCl, MgO, CaCl2).
• Binary covalent compounds are composed of two non-metals (e.g., CO2,
H2O).
• The composition of a binary compound dictates its name.
• Binary compounds are widely used in daily life (e.g., water, table salt,
carbon dioxide).
• The chemical formula for a binary compound can be determined by
considering the valencies of the ions of which it is made. Once the
chemical formula is established the compound can be named and is
derived from the names of the two constituent ions.

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THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

What is a chemical element?

Figure 2.1: Some common elements

Activity 1:

What you need: pen/pencil, exercise book

What to do: Work alone or with up to 5 friends.
1. Identify five other elements apart from the ones in the picture above that
you are familiar with.
2. Make a list of five items each found in your school and home and identify
the elements they are made up of.
3. What is an element and how many do you know? Note – answer in Annex
1.

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The Periodic Table

Figure 2.2: Periodic Table of elements.

The picture above shows a period table of elements. Take some time and carefully
examine it.
The Periodic Table helps scientists to classify elements based on their chemical
and physical properties into metals, non-metals, and semi-metals.
Elements in the same vertical column, is known as a group. “They share similar
chemical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons.”
(“What are the vertical columns of a periodic table called?”) Valence electrons
are the electrons in the outermost shell (energy level) of an atom. Elements in
the same horizontal row, known as a period, have the same number of shells
(principal energy level) but different numbers of valence electrons. As you move
across a period (from left to right or vice versa) the properties of elements change
gradually. Tell your friend what this changes are.
Hello learner, it is time for an activity!

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Activity 2

Scenario: Imagine you’re a scientist carrying out a research in a laboratory.

Your task is to study the properties and characteristics of the first 30 elements
in the Periodic Table. You have access to various samples of these elements
and state-of-the-art equipment to analyse them.
What you need: periodic table, pen/pencil, exercise book, ruler
What to do: Work alone or in a mixed group of not more than five learners.
Task:
1. What are the atomic numbers and symbols of the first 30 elements?
2. Identify the groups and periods to which each element belongs.
3. Examine the common properties shared by elements within the same
group.
4. How do the properties of elements change as you move across a period?
5. Classify each element as a metal, non-metal, or metalloid based on its
properties?
6. Identify some everyday uses of these elements.

Groups 1, 2 and 7
Group 1 elements known as alkali metals share similar properties such as
high reactivity due to having one valence electron. They are so called because
they react violently with water to form strong soluble bases. They are very
soft and silver-like lustre. Using the periodic table find out more about them.
Group 2 elements known as alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons
and are highly reactive but less reactive than alkali metals. They have a gray-
white lustre when freshly cut but tarnish readily in air,
Group 7 elements also known as halogens (meaning salt makers) are highly
reactive non-metals with seven valence electrons. At room temperature
and atmospheric pressure the halogens in their free states exist as
diatomic molecules. Research the definition of the term ‘diatomic’.
The semi-metals are found in the middle of the periodic table. They have
varying numbers of valence electrons and exhibit a wide range of chemical
behaviours.

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Periodic Table: Fast Facts

• The Periodic Table is a graphical collection of element data.
• The table lists the chemical elements in order of increasing atomic
number, which is the number of protons in an atom of an element.
• The rows (periods) and columns (groups) organize elements according
to similar properties. For example, all of the elements in the first column
are reactive metals that have a valence of +1.
• All elements in a row have the same outermost electron shell.

METALS, NON-METALS, AND SEMI-METALS

(METALLOIDS)
Welcome to the fascinating world of elements, which are broadly categorised into
three distinct groups: metals, non-metals, and semi-metals (metalloids).
Imagine a bustling marketplace where each element sets up its own stall,
showcasing its identity and attractiveness. Picture gleaming metals catching the
sunlight, sturdy and dependable. Contrast that with the subtle elegance of non-
metals, with their diverse forms and functions. And then there are the puzzling
semi-metals, straddling the line between two worlds, embodying the best of both.

Metals
Metals, the true rock stars of the elemental world, comprise roughly about 70%
of known elements located on the left-hand side of the periodic table. They are
elements that donate electrons in a chemical reaction to form cations. Eg. Li, Na,
K, Be, Mg and Ca.

Lead Gold Silver Copper

Figure 2.3: Some common metals

They dazzle us with their thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability,

ductility and strength. From the gold and silver in our jewellery to the stainless

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steel utensils in our kitchens, metals shape our world with their resilience and
versatility.

Physical properties of metals

1. Metals are solids at room temperature except mercury and gallium which
are liquids at room temperature.
2. Metals are lustrous. They have the quality of reflecting light from its surface
and can be polished e.g. gold, silver, and copper.
3. Metals are malleable. They have the ability to be beaten into different shapes
without breaking into pieces.
4. Metals are ductile. They can be drawn into flexible wires.
5. All solid metals are hard except alkali metals (sodium, rubidium, caesium,
lithium, and potassium) which are soft and can be cut with a knife.
6. Metals have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms. They form
cations by donating the electrons in their valence shells.
7. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because they have
free electrons. Silver and copper are the two best conductors of heat and
electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury, and
iron are also poor conductors.
8. Metals are very heavy and have high densities. Iridium and osmium have
the highest densities while lithium has the lowest.
9. Metals have high melting and boiling points.
10. Some metals are sonorous (they produce a sharp ringing sound when hit by
an object.)
Very good learners, You will do an activity!

Activity 3:

Scenario: Imagine you’re a budding scientist working in a laboratory, eager

to explore the fascinating world of thermal conductivity in metals. Your task
is to design and conduct an experiment that demonstrates how different metals
conduct heat.
Aim: To investigate the thermal conduction properties of a selection of metals.
What you need: source of heat (e.g.. Bunsen burner, coal pot), Vaseline or
Shea butter, copper, iron, brass, and aluminium rods (you can use stainless
steel in place of brass rods. You can also get the metals from household items

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

such as canned drinks, iron nails, copper wire. Ensure that the sizes of rods/
strips used are the same.) stopwatch, drawing pins, tripod stand, cardboard or
paper, matches.
What to do:
1. Stick the flat end of a drawing pin to the end of each metal rod using the
Vaseline/shea butter. Try to use the same amount for each drawing pin.
2. Place the cardboard on the tripod (this insulates the metal rod from the
metal tripod).
3. Balance the metal rods on the cardboard so that one end is over the
Bunsen burner but not too close that it catches fire.
4. Light the Bunsen burner.
5. Using a stopwatch, time how long until each pin drops off.
6. Record your results in a table.

Figure 2.4: Experimental set-up for thermal conductivity of metals.

Results and recording: Record your results in the following table

Type of metal Time taken for pin to drop off (seconds)

Iron
Copper
Brass
Aluminium

Write down your observations and conclusions.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Key Questions:
1. Which metals exhibited the fastest temperature increase along their
length, indicating higher thermal conductivity?
2. How did the rate of temperature change vary between different metals?
3. Were there any observable differences in thermal conductivity among
metals with similar physical properties?
4. How did the thickness or surface area of the metal samples affect their
thermal conductivity?
5. What real-world applications or implications does the observed variation
in thermal conductivity have for different metals?
6. How would you modify the experiment to investigate additional factors
influencing thermal conductivity, such as temperature gradients or
surface treatments?

Hope you enjoyed the experiment. Great, let us do another one!

Activity 4:

Scenario: Imagine you are a metal specialist conducting an experiment to

demonstrate the malleability of metals. Malleability refers to the ability of a
material to deform under pressure without breaking, allowing it to be shaped
into various forms. Your task is to design and conduct an experiment that
investigates the malleability of metal
Aim: to investigate the malleability of different metals by striking them with
a hammer.
What you needed: Pieces of iron, zinc, lead, and copper, hammer, an anvil,
or solid block of iron to act as an anvil. You can also include a non-metallic
control sample for comparison, such as plastic or ceramic.
Task:
1. Note the initial shape and measurement of each piece of metal.
2. Take a piece of iron and place it on the block of iron or anvil.
3. Strike the piece of iron five times with a hammer.
4. Observe and record any changes in the shape of the piece of iron.
5. Repeat the same process with pieces of zinc, lead, and copper.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

6. Conduct multiple trials for each metal sample to ensure consistency and
reliability of results. Take measurements and observations at regular
intervals during each trial.
7. Record observations and note any differences in how each metal changes
shape.
8. Repeat the experiment using a non-metallic control sample (e.g., plastic
or ceramic) to compare its behaviour under pressure with that of the
metal samples.

Write down your observations and conclusions.

Figure 2.5: Striking an iron nail with a hammer.

Key Questions:
1. Which metals exhibited the greatest degree of deformation under
pressure, indicating higher malleability?
2. How did the amount of pressure required to deform each metal sample
compare to its malleability?
3. Were there any observable differences in the behaviour of metals with
similar physical properties, such as density or atomic structure?
4. Did the control sample (non-metallic) exhibit similar deformation
characteristics under pressure, or was there a noticeable difference
compared to the metal samples?
5. How does the malleability of metals contribute to their usefulness
in various applications, such as metalworking, construction, or
manufacturing?
6. How would you modify the experiment to investigate additional factors
influencing the malleability of metals, such as temperature or alloy
composition?

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Observation: Metals have varying degrees of malleability and there should

be a range of deformations amongst the four metals being investigated here:
copper and lead are more malleable than zinc or iron.
Conclusion: metals can be hammered into different shapes.
Hello learner, how was that activity? Interesting, isn’t it? Good. You will
continue with the next activity.

Activity 5:

Scenario: Imagine you are an architect conducting an experiment to showcase

the lustrous nature of metals for a big project. The lustre of a material refers
to its ability to reflect light, resulting in a shiny or glossy appearance. Design
and conduct an experiment to help you select lustrous metals for your project.
Aim: To compare the lustre of different metals.
What you need: Samples of iron, copper, aluminium, gold, silver and
sandpaper. Plastic, ceramic, wood. Ensure that the samples are clean and free
from tarnish or corrosion. A bright light source, such as a lamp or flashlight,
to provide uniform illumination for the experiment. A dark non-reflective
surface to be used for the testing.
What to do:
1. Observe and note the appearance of each metal sample under normal
ambient lighting conditions. Note any inherent lustre or shine present on
the surface of the metals.
2. Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing it with sandpaper.
3. Position the light source at an angle relative to the metal samples,
ensuring that the light reflects off the surface of the metals.
4. Observe and note any changes in appearance of the samples.
5. Repeat the experiment using non-metallic materials, such as plastics,
ceramics, or wood, as control samples. Note any differences in the
appearance and reflectivity of the non-metallic materials compared to
the metals.

Write down your observations and conclusions.

Key Questions:
1. Which metals exhibited the most pronounced lustre or shine when
exposed to direct light, and why?

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2. Were there any noticeable differences in lustre among metals with similar
physical properties, such as density or atomic structure?
3. Did the non-metallic control samples exhibit any lustre or reflective
properties similar to the metals, or was there a distinct difference in
appearance?
4. How does the lustrous nature of metals contribute to their aesthetic
appeal and value in various applications, such as jewellery, architecture,
or decorative arts?
5. How would you modify the experiment to investigate additional factors
influencing the lustre of metals, such as surface finish, alloy composition,
or surface treatment?

Good job learners. Now let us explore on the hardness of metals in the next
activity.

Activity 6:

Scenario: Imagine you are a materials scientist tasked with conducting

an experiment to demonstrate the hardness of metals. Hardness refers to a
material’s ability to withstand deformation, indentation, or scratching when
subjected to external forces. Design and conduct your experiment.
Aim: To demonstrate the hardness of metals compared with other non-metal
materials
What you need: Various objects made of varied materials (e.g., metal spoon,
key, rubber band, plastic ruler, piece of cloth, wood), a coin.
What to do:
1. Place each metal sample on the testing surface and position the hardness
testing device directly above it (in this experiment you can use a coin).
Apply a controlled force to the surface of the metal sample using the
coin, ensuring uniform pressure across the entire surface. Try to scratch
the surface of each object with the coin.
2. Record your observations.
3. Repeat the experiment using non-metallic control samples, such as
plastics, ceramics, or wood, to compare their hardness properties with
those of the metal samples.

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Write down your observations and conclusions. Try to explain these using
your scientific knowledge of metals.
Key Questions:
1. Which metals exhibited the highest resistance to indentation or
deformation when subjected to the applied force, indicating greater
hardness?
2. How did the observations obtained for each metal sample compare to
their known hardness ratings or properties?
3. Were there any noticeable differences in hardness among metals with
similar physical properties, such as density or atomic structure?
4. Did the non-metallic control samples exhibit similar hardness properties
to the metals, or was there a distinct difference in resistance to
deformation?
5. How does the hardness of metals influence their suitability for specific
applications, such as cutting tools, machinery components, or structural
materials?

How would you modify the experiment to investigate additional factors

influencing the hardness of metals, such as alloy composition, heat treatment,
or surface finish?

Well done learner! Let us take a dive into the chemical properties of metals.

Chemical Properties of Metals

Reactivity: This is the ability of metals to undergo chemical reactions with oxygen,
water or acids. Metals vary in their reactivity with oxygen, water or acids. Some
metals, like zinc and aluminium, react with acids to produce hydrogen gas and a
metal salt. Others are resistant to reaction. Some metals are more reactive than
others and can be ordered into a reactivity series from most to least reactive (e.g.,
Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn)

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Let us do an activity!

Activity 7:

Scenario: Assume you are a chemist tasked with creating a metal reactivity
series to predict the relative reactivity of different metals. Design and conduct
your experiments to verify the reactivity series of samples of metals.
Aim: To show the reaction of metals with acids.
What you need: sample metals e.g., magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, and lead,
test tubes, dilute HCl, test tube rack, matches or splint
What to do:
1. Obtain samples of several metals, including magnesium, zinc, iron,
copper, and lead.
2. Prepare and label test tubes containing solutions of dilute hydrochloric
acid.
3. Place small pieces of each metal into a labelled test tube and observe the
reactions.
4. Record your observations, noting any effervescence (formation of
bubbles), colour changes, or the release of gas.
5. Test bubbles with a flaming splint and observe a pop sound.
6. Based on your observations, arrange the metals in order of decreasing
reactivity, creating a metal reactivity series.

Write down your observations and conclusions.

Hello learner, well done with the experiment. Let us turn our attention now to
corrosion.

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What is corrosion?

Figure 2.6: metal parts under going rusting

Look at the picture above and write your observations. You may discuss with
your friends. If you work in groups, the should not be more than 5 members. Cite
examples of similar situations in your environment and discuss with your group.

Corrosion
Many metals undergo corrosion. It is a chemical reaction with substances in
the environment that leads to the deterioration of the metal. Iron, for example,
corrodes to form rust in the presence of oxygen and water.
Corrosion is a natural chemical process (oxidation) that occurs when a metal
reacts with oxygen/air in the presence of water to form an oxide. Rusting refers
specifically to the corrosion of iron or steel (an alloy of iron). Other metals such
as aluminium can also corrode.

Formation of Alloys
Metals can form alloys which are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and
a non-metal. Alloying often enhances the properties of metals such as increased
strength or resistance to corrosion.
Hello learners, you will explore the uses of metals!

Uses of metals
• Gold, silver, platinum, and copper are widely used in jewellery.
• Iron and steel (an alloy of iron) are widely used in building and home
construction.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

• Cooking utensils are best made from metals like steel, aluminium, and
copper.
• Sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and many others are
available as micro-nutrients in our body.
• Iron, steel, titanium and aluminium are used in machinery and auto-mobile
construction.
Dear learner, surf the internet to find three further examples of the uses of metals.

Activity 8:

Scenario: Imagine you are a Chemist studying the corrosion of iron in

different environmental conditions. Design and conduct an experiment to
investigate the corrosion of iron.
Aim: To demonstrate the conditions necessary for rusting of iron
What you need: Test tubes, iron nails, cork, distilled water, oil, Anhydrous
calcium chloride.
What to do:
1. Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each
2. Label these A, B, and C.
3. Pour some water into a test tube A and cork it. The water should cover
the nails.
4. Pour enough previously boiled and cooled water into test tube B to cover
the nails, add about 1 ml of oil and cork it. The oil will float on water
and prevent the oxygen from dissolving into the water. Boiling removes
dissolved oxygen from the water.
5. Put approximately 5g of anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and
cork it. Anhydrous calcium chloride will absorb any moisture from the
air.
6. Leave the test tubes for a week and then observe and note the results.

Write down your observations and conclusions.

18
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Figure 2.7: laboratory set-up for rusting experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMr4vse7Ybo

Key Questions
1. What was the role of the oil in test tube B?
2. How can you relate the oil in test tube B to the use of oil based paints on
iron or steel based materials exposed to harsh weather conditions?
3. What are the mechanisms by which environmental conditions promote
corrosion?

Great work done my dear learner. End the activity by researching the following
ways in which the rusting of metals can be prevented:
1. Painting
2. Clear Coats and Sealants coating
3. Galvanising
4. Plating
5. Alloying
6. Keeping the metal in cool dry place
7. Desiccants
8. Let us explore the corrosion of iron a bit deeper.
9. Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)

Welcome learner, do you remember what you read about corrosion of metals? Yes,
corrosion is said to happen when metals deteriorate due to a reaction between the
metal and chemical elements within its environment. Corrosion in other metals
are referred to as tarnish. However, corrosion in iron is referred to as rust.

19
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Let us explore the chemical process of rust.

The chemical reaction involved in rusting can be represented as follows:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) →Hydrated Iron (III) Oxide (Rust)
4Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe203.H2O
From the chemical equation,
Conditions necessary for rusting to occur are:
1. Water (moisture)
2. Air (oxygen)
Rust is a reddish-brown coating that forms on the surface of the iron. It weakens
the metal over time, causing it to deteriorate and lose its structural integrity. This
process can be accelerated in warm, salt-water, or acidic conditions.

Non- Metals
Non-metals, from the essential oxygen we breathe to the vibrant carbon in all
living things, play crucial roles in the chemistry of life and the environment.
Non-metals are chemical elements that do not have the properties of a metal for
example, Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O).
they are found on the right-hand side of the Periodic Table. They accept electrons
from metals in a chemical reaction to become anions. They also share valence
electrons to form covalent bonds.

Physical properties of Non-metals

1. Physical state: Most non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at
room temperature: gases such as oxygen and solids such as carbon.
2. Low Ductility: Non-metals are usually very brittle and cannot be rolled into
wires or pounded into sheets.
3. Poor conductivity: Non-metals are typically poor conductors of electricity
and heat. However, graphite (a form of carbon) is a notable exception.
4. Poor lustre: Non-metals often have dull, non-reflective surfaces.
5. Low malleability: Solid non-metals cannot be easily hammered or pressed
into different shapes without fracturing.

20
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Chemical Properties
1. Reactivity: They form acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen. Non-metals
tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions, making them reactive towards
metals.
2. Electronegativity: They have higher electronegativity compared to metals,
meaning they attract electrons more strongly.
3. Ionization: Non-metals easily gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
or share electrons to form covalent bonds.
4. Acidity: Many non-metals form acidic oxides when they react with oxygen,
such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
5. Hydrogen Bonding: Non-metals like oxygen and nitrogen exhibit hydrogen
bonding, influencing their properties in compounds.
Well done learners, let us explore the uses of non-metals. Great!

Uses of Non-metals.
• Nitrogen can be used as a food preservative and in light bulbs. Nitrogen
and phosphorus are used in fertilizers to help plants grow. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are used in fertilizers to help plants grow.
• Sulphur is used in making black gunpowder, matches, and fireworks. Sulphur
is used to vulcanize rubber.
• Chlorine can be used as a bleaching agent and in the treatment of water to
make it safe to drink.
• Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity from oxygen and hydrogen.
• Oxygen used in space rockets as fuel, in respiration, in welding.
• Iodine is used as an antiseptic in a purple solution on wounds.
• Carbon in the form of Charcoal is used in the sugar industry for decolorization.
Graphite another form of carbon is used to make pencil leads.
• Other materials: Non-metals are used to make gunpowder, fireworks,
matches, rubber, cement, ceramics, glass, and lime products.
Well done my dear learner. Let us explore semi-metals.

21
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Semi-Metals (Sometimes called Metalloids)

What are semi-metals?
Semi-metals are elements found along the “staircase” line in the periodic table,
bordering the region between metals and non-metals. The semi-metals include
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
Semi-metals show some properties of both metals and non-metals making their
classification intermediate between the two groups.
Properties of semi-metals
Conductivity of electricity: Partial conductivity - better than non-metals but not
as good as metals.
Malleability: Intermediate between metals and non-metals
Ductility: Also intermediate between metals and non-metals.
State: All semi-metals are solid at room temperature
Look at the picture below carefully. You may work alone or with friends in a
group. Use the internet to search more about the characteristics of each of the
elements.

Figure 2.8: semi-metals

Differences Between Metals and Non-Metals

The classification of solids into metals, non-metals, and semi-metals helps in
understanding the fundamental properties and behaviours of different elements,
and it provides a foundation for studying their various chemical interactions and
applications.

22
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Find in the Table 1 below differences between metals and non-metals

Table 1: Differences between metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals

Metals are good conductors of Non-metals are typically poor

electricity due to the mobility of conductors of electricity because
their valence electrons that can their valence electrons are tightly
move freely within the metal. held and do not move as freely.
Metals are higher conductors of Non-metals have lower heat
heat, allowing heat to be transferred conductivity, so they are less
quickly through the material. efficient at conducting heat.
Many metals have a shiny Non-metals lack lustre and appear
appearance or lustre when freshly dull in their natural state.
cut or polished.
Metals are malleable and can be Non-metals are brittle and cannot
hammered or pressed into various be easily hammered.
shapes without breaking.
Metals are ductile and can be Non-metals cannot be drawn into
drawn into thin wires without wires without breaking.
fracturing.

Differences between semi-metals and non-metals

Table 2: Differences between semi-metals and non-metals.

Semi-metals Non-metals

They may be brittle like non-metals They are typically brittle in solid
and have intermediate malleability form.
and ductility.
Semi-metals often have intermediate They have low thermal conductivity
thermal conductivity. making them good insulators in
most cases.
Semi-metals have intermediate They are bad conductors of
electrical conductivity. electricity.

23
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Differences Between Metals and Semi-Metals

Table 3: Differences between metals and semi-metals.

Metals Semi-metals

Are excellent conductors of Have intermediate electrical

electricity. conductivity.
Metals have high heat conductivity. Have intermediate heat conductivity.
Metals are often malleable and Semi-metals can be brittle, making
ductile. them less suitable for applications
where malleability and ductility are
important.
Metals tend to be reactive. Semi-metals have intermediate
reactivity.
Metals typically have a shiny, Semi-metals may have a metallic
metallic lustre due to the reflection appearance but can also appear dull
of light from their surface. or non-metallic.

Activity 9

Create a poster summarising your understanding of the classification of

metals, non-metals and semi-metals.

24
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

ANNEX 2.1 – POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO

ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

An element is a pure chemical substance that cannot be broken down or changed

into another substance by chemical means. It is made up of only one kind of
atom. They are thought of as basic building blocks for everything around us,
whether solids, liquids or gases. Some examples of elements are hydrogen
(H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), fluorine (F) and calcium (Ca). Elements are
represented by symbols (like those in the brackets) and fit into the Periodic
Table of elements, which shows them all. There are 118 elements on the
periodic table, with 94 of them occurring naturally. The rest are synthetic
elements that have been created in a laboratory.

Activity 3

Observation: The pin stuck to the copper rod should drop off first as copper
is the best conductor of heat and the Vaseline will melt first.
Conclusion: Metals vary in their thermal conductivity with copper having
the best in this selection.

Activity 4

Observation: Metals have varying degrees of malleability and there should

be a range of deformations amongst the four metals being investigated here:
copper and lead are more malleable than zinc or iron.
Conclusion: Metals can be hammered into different shapes.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 5

Observation: Silver and gold shine the most (are the most lustrous) than
other metals such as copper, iron and aluminium.
Conclusion: Metals exhibit a shining surface known as metallic lustre, the
degree of lustre varies amongst metals.

Activity 6

Observe: You should have noted which objects resist scratching and which
ones are easily scratched by the coin.
Conclusion: The metal objects should be difficult to scratch, whilst the softer
materials should show visible scratches indicating that they are less hard.
Explanation: Metals are harder than other materials because their atoms
are arranged in strong, ordered structures. This makes it difficult to deform
or break the metal’s surface when scratched. Softer materials have weaker
atomic bonds, making them more susceptible to scratches and dents.

Activity 7

Observation: effervescence will be observed in each of the test tubes with

the most reactive showing more and rapid release of bubbles and the least
reactive showing slow and least release of bubbles.
Conclusion: the metals arranged from the most to the least reactive metal are
magnesium, zinc, iron, lead and copper.

Activity 8

Observation: Iron nails will rust in test tube A but they should not rust in test
tubes B and C. In test tube A, the nails are exposed to both oxygen and water.
In test tube B, the nails are exposed to only water, and the nails in test tube C
are exposed to only to oxygen.
Conclusion: Oxygen (in air) and water are required for rusting to take place.

26
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Methods for the prevention of corrosion include:

1. Painting: Paint provides a protective layer that seals the metal surface and
blocks moisture and oxygen from reaching the metal.
2. Clear Coats and Sealants coating: Transparent coatings like lacquers and
clear sealants can be used to protect metal surfaces while preserving their
natural appearance.
3. Galvanising: Galvanising involves electro-coating the iron (or steel) with a
thin layer of zinc. This has two modes of protection - the thin layer of zinc
acts as a barrier to water and oxygen; and zinc is more reactive than iron and
corrodes instead of the iron (called sacrificial protection).
4. Plating: Plating involves depositing a layer of another metal onto the
surface of the base metal. This outer layer serves as a protective barrier. For
example, chrome plating is commonly used for decorative and corrosion-
resistant purposes.
5. Alloying: Alloying involves mixing two or more different metals or non-
metal and a metal. This helps to improve its corrosion resistance. An example
of this is stainless steel which contains chromium which reacts with oxygen
to form a thin, invisible oxide layer on the metal’s surface. This layer acts as
a barrier, protecting the underlying metal from rust.
6. Keeping the metal in cool dry place: Keeping metal objects dry and clean
reduces the likelihood of corrosion.
7. Desiccants: The use of moisture-absorbing substances like silica gel packets
or other desiccants when storing metal objects in enclosed spaces can reduce
corrosion and is used in many commercial products within the packaging.

27
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

EXTENDED READING
Access the links below to read more about metals, Non-metals, and metalloids
and their characteristics.
https://www.meadmetals.com/blog/whats-the-difference-between-metals-
nonmetals-and-metalloids#:~:text=Metals%3A%20Metals%20are%20
highly%20ductile,ductile%2C%20while%20others%20are%20not.
https://chemistrytalk.org/properties-of-metals-nonmetals-semimetals/
Hello, learners! In the with the next topics, you will revisit the discussions on the
properties of solids and further describe how these properties apply to everyday
uses.
Remember, whilst all solids have fixed shapes and volumes, each material has its
own unique properties that play a critical role in its use.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
From your previous discussions, you classified solids as either metal, non-metal
or metalloid (semi-metals). Unlike liquids and gases, which can flow and change
shape easily, solids maintain their shape and volume under normal conditions.
As mentioned earlier, solids are characterised by intermolecular forces which are
greater in magnitude than the energy of the individual particles. These forces hold
their constituent particles such as atoms, ions, or molecules in a fixed arrangement.

Activity 10

A) In a mixed group with no more than 3 other members of your class, sort
the following materials into metallic and non-metallic groups. As an
extension think about how each of these materials would be used in the
construction of a house:

Materials:
• Concrete

• Aluminium

• Wood

• Zinc

• Plastic

• Iron

• Copper

• Glass

B) Now discuss and list materials that are used or needed in constructing
the following items and form concept map for each – glassware, vehicles,
computers, bottles, bowls, tables, sculptures and bridges. Generate
a concept map (similar to the example solution to Activity 10 part A,
found in Annex 2.2) for each.

Solids can be sub-categorised into the following groups which share

similar properties:
• Polymers
• Crystalline structures
• Metals
• Fibrous materials

29
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Table 4: Classification of materials

Classification Examples of solids Reason(s)

Polymers Polyethylene, • They are large molecules

polyvinyl chloride made up of repeating subunits
(PVC) called monomers
• They are flexible and have a
high strength-to-weight ratio
• Low conductivity of
electricity and heat
Crystalline Table salt, • Exhibit well-defined
sugar (sucrose), geometric shapes
diamond, quartz • They have a highly ordered
and repeating arrangement of
particles (crystals)
• High melting point
Fibrous Wood • Flexible
material • They do not form crystals
• Low conductivity of
electricity and heat
Metal Copper • Conducts electricity
• High melting point
• Good thermal conductivity

From Table 4, some solids have been sampled and classified. Now discuss
with your friends the reasons assigned to each classification.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Properties of solid metals and some of their uses

Study the following properties of solid metals as captured in the Table 5 and see
how it applies to everyday use.
Table 5: Properties of solid metals and some of their uses
Property Examples use(s)

Conductivity: A high This property is valuable in electrical

conductivity allow fast wiring, power transmission, electronics,
movement of heat and/or and heating.
electricity.
Magnetic properties: Iron, This characteristic or property is
nickel, and cobalt exhibit essential for electrical motors, generators,
magnetic properties. This transformers, and magnetic storage
means they will exhibit a force devices.
on each other when brought
into one another’s magnetic
fields.
Lustre/Reflectivity: Solids This property is used in applications such
which often have a smooth as mirrors, reflectors, and solar panels
surface and have high where efficient reflection is required.
reflectivity for light and heat.
High melting and boiling Metals with extremely high melting
points: Most metals have high points, such as tungsten and molybdenum,
melting and boiling points produce refractory materials capable of
allowing them to withstand withstanding very high temperatures.
high temperatures (mercury is
Metals with high melting points are used
the exception to this rule as it is
to make crucibles and moulds for casting
a liquid at room temperature).
other materials such as ceramics and
alloys. The crucible or mould remains
stable and doesn’t deform during casting.
Other metals (such as lead) with lower
melting points are used in soldering
and brazing processes to join different
components.

31
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Property Examples use(s)

Density: The density of metals In military and defence applications,

refers to how much mass is high-density metals like depleted uranium
packed into a given volume of are used in armour-piercing ammunition
the material. due to their ability to penetrate heavily
armoured targets.
Understanding the density of metals
is crucial for recycling and waste
management. By identifying and sorting
metals based on their densities, recycling
facilities can efficiently separate and
process different metals for reuse,
reducing the environmental impact of
metal production.

Having discussed the properties of solid metals and how they are used in everyday
life, I want you and your group members to try the following experiments to prove
the realities of these properties.

Activity 11:

(You can do this activity alone or in a group of 2-4 classmates)

Aim: To compare the magnetic properties of various materials.
Materials needed: Bar magnet, iron nail, copper wire, aluminium foil, coin,
paper clips, plastic ruler, wooden stick, plastic bottle cap, Styrofoam ball and
rubber band.
Task
a) Position the bar magnet on a level surface.
b) In turn, bring each of the other pieces of equipment close to the bar
magnet one at a time to see if there is any attraction or repulsion between
them.
c) Classify each object as magnetic or non-magnetic and list these in a
table.

32
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Observations
What are your observations? Discuss it with your friends and compare them
with the observations and conclusions in Annex 2.2.

Extension task:
Think of some activities where magnetism would be beneficial, as well as
some where magnetism would be detrimental. Outline in a few sentences why
magnetism can be useful or not for use in the applications you have chosen.

Activity 12:

(You can do this activity alone or in a group of 2-4 classmates)

Aim: To investigate the densities of different solid materials.
Materials needed: Various metal samples such as iron (e.g., nail, iron rod
piece), lead (e.g., lead from electronic shops), aluminium (e.g., canned drink
containers), copper (e.g., copper wires from electrical wires), zinc (e.g.,
battery case or disposed zinc roofing sheet), balance, measuring cylinder,
beaker, water, forceps, scale.
Task:
a) Start by collecting samples of the metals you want to test. Make sure
they are clean and free of any dirt or debris.
b) Weigh the mass of each metal sample and record in grams.
c) Fill the measuring cylinder with a known volume of water and record.
d) Carefully lower the first metal sample into the water using a pair of
forceps. Make sure the metal is fully submerged.
e) Measure and record the new increased in volume of water after adding
the metal sample. Measure volume in ml/cm3 (1 ml = 1cm3).
f) Repeat for each metal sample.
g) Calculate the volume of each metal sample by subtracting the initial
volume of water from the final volume of water.
h) Use the formula: Density = Mass / Volume to calculate the density of
each metal sample.

33
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

i) Record your results and compare the densities of the different metals.

Fig. 2.9: illustrates how the volume of the metals are determined

Observations: What are your observations? Discuss it with your friends and
compare them with the observations and conclusions in Annex 2.2.

Activity 13:

Aim: To investigate the electrical conductivity of different solid materials.

Materials needed: Solid objects composed of a range of materials e.g., metal
rod, key, wooden stick, plastic ruler, graphite rod, pencil, etc., battery, LED
bulb and wires. Be guided by the image in Figure 2.10

Figure 2.10: activity to show which materials are good conductors of electricity

34
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Task:
a) For each material you are going to test; predict whether or not they will
conduct electricity. Make a note of your predictions, justifying them
with a reason.
b) Construct a simple circuit set-up with a battery, LED bulb, and wires.
c) Check if the circuit conducts electricity, the battery is functioning, and
the bulb is working by connecting the free wire ends to complete the
circuit. If the bulb lights, the circuit is working.
d) One by one, introduce the metal rod, wooden stick, plastic ruler, graphite
rod, and pencil lead into the circuit to complete it.

Note: the pencil lead is in fact graphite, ensure the wires are connected to the
lead of the pencil rather than the surrounding wood.
e) Does the bulb light up? Record your results in a suitable table and write
a suitable set of conclusions to your experiment. Remember to refer back
to your predictions.

Observations: What are your observations? Discuss it with your friends and
compare them with the observations and conclusions in Annex 2.2.

Activity 14

Your group should create a poster or oral presentation to demonstrate your

findings from the three experiments outlined above, considering how you can
make your presentation of most interest to an

35
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

ANNEX 2.2 – POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO

ACTIVITIES

Activity 10

A)
Example answer:

B)

Structures Examples of solids used in the structures

Building Concrete, Steel, wood, brick.

Glassware Sand is a raw material in the making of
glass, glass wool, glass beads.
Vehicle Metals, glass, plastics, leather, cushion,
connecting wires.
Gadgets (e.g., computer) Glass, plastics, Copper, metals, etc.
Plastic materials (e.g., bottles, Polyethylene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).
bowls)
Table Wood, nails, Steel, plastic, glass.
Sculptures Stones, marble, metal, or wood.
Bridges Steel, concrete, stone.

36
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 11

Observation
From this activity, you are likely to observe that:
• Materials such as the iron nail, paper clips, and copper wire will be
attracted to the magnet, showing magnetic properties.
• Materials like the aluminium foil, plastic ruler, wooden stick, plastic
bottle cap, styrofoam ball, and rubber band will not be attracted to the
magnet and are considered non-magnetic.

Conclusion: You will now come to the realisation that certain materials
exhibit magnetic properties and are attracted to a magnet whilst others do not
show any magnetic response.

Activity 12

Observations: From the activity, you will observe that different metals will
have different densities.
Conclusion: Metals vary in density and have different uses e.g. Lead is often
used in adding ballast (weight) as it is very dense and therefore heavy for
its volume. Aluminium is one of the less dense metals and is often used in
applications which require low weight such as spaceflight or aviation.

Activity 13

Observations: You will observe that the metal rod, pencil lead and graphite
rod will all conduct electricity (the bulb lights up) and the wooden stick and
plastic ruler will not.
Annex 2.2 – Further Information

37
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Uses of Polymers in relation to their properties

Read the table below to identify how the properties of polymers are used in
everyday life.

Table 6: Properties and example uses of polymers

Property Polymer(s) exhibiting this Use(s)
property

Strength (ability Polyethylene (PE) and Packaging

to withstand load Polypropylene (PP)
Pipe work
without deformation)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
and Durability Bulletproof
(resistance to wear) Aramid fibres vests

Flexibility and Rubber Elastic bands

Elasticity (ability
to bend and stretch
without breaking)
Thermal Stability Polyimides (PI) Aerospace
Chemical Resistance Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Storage tanks
(resistance to acids, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Pipework
corrosion or solvents)
Electrical Insulation Polyethene (PE) and Cable
Polypropylene (PP) insulation
Transparency Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic) Lenses
Water Resistance Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Water bottles
Biodegradability Polylactide (PLA) Compost bags
(can be degraded
naturally by
decomposers and
environmental
processes over time)
Adhesive Cyanoacrylate Glue

38
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

The properties and uses of crystalline solids (e.g. glass)

Table 7 shows the properties of different types of glass and its everyday uses.
Table 7: The properties and uses of crystalline solids
Glass Properties Use
Soda-lime glass Transparent Windows, bottles, and jars
and scientific glassware
Chemical resistance - it is
non-reactive
Soda-lime glass has a
moderate coefficient
of thermal expansion
meaning it expands and
contracts evenly when
exposed to temperature
changes
Borosilicate Exhibits high chemical Laboratory glassware,
resistance chemical storage
containers, and
High thermal resistance
pharmaceutical packaging
Durability where the material needs
to withstand corrosive
substances. Also, cookware
e.g., Pyrex and high-end
lighting fixtures.
Lead crystal It contains a significant Fine glassware,
amount of lead oxide chandeliers, and decorative
giving it exceptional items.
clarity, brilliance,
luxurious appearance, and
weight.

39
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Glass Properties Use

Fused silica Its high purity, thermal Lenses, mirrors, and
stability, optical precision optics in
transparency, and scientific instruments.
chemical resistance makes
fused silica is a versatile
material used in a wide
range of industries
Aluminosilicate Contains aluminium Smart phone screens,
glass oxide and silica offering armoured vehicle windows,
high strength, chemical and aerospace components.
resistance, and thermal
shock resistance.

40
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

EXTENDED READING:
1. Properties of solid materials
https://www.vaia.com/en-us/explanations/physics/solid-state-physics/
solids/
2. The property of materials and their everyday uses
https://www.primaryresources.co.uk/science/pdfs/rsc_tc_nc1.pdf
3. Images of solid materials
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2659-properties-of-materials-
introduction

41
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

BINARY COMPOUNDS

Figure 2.11: Table salt (NaCl) Figure 2.12 - Water (H2O)

Hello, learner. Think about the ingredients in your favourite dish! Like cooking,
chemistry is all about combining the right elements in proportions to create
something new and useful. Instead of using vegetables and fish, we use elements
and valencies to form compounds. Just like in cooking, knowing the name of
each ‘ingredient’ and how they come together is crucial. In this session, you will
explore how two elements combine to form a binary compound, and how you can
identify these compounds just like a chemist. You will also understand the logic
behind their composition. Ready to solve some chemical mysteries? Let’s get
started with an activity!

Activity 15

1. Define the following terms:

a) Element
b) Ion
c) Molecule
d) compound
2. Categorise the following into element, ion, molecule or compound (note,
they could belong to more than one of these categories!

H2O, O2, NaCl, Fe, Ca2+

42
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 16:

You are going to become a chemical detective and unlock the secrets of binary
compounds. To start, let’s see if you can solve a few mysteries about some
common compounds.

Materials needed: Periodic table, pen/pencil and exercise book.

What to do: You are provided with three clues. Carefully read each of the
following clues and answer the questions:
a) What is the common name of this compound?
b) What two elements make up this compound?

Clue 1: “I am a white crystalline substance commonly found in kitchens. I am

essential for flavouring food and preserving it.”
Clue 2: “I am a liquid that is vital for all known forms of life. I cover about
71% of the Earth’s surface.”
Clue 3: “I am a colourless gas. I am produced by burning fossil fuels. Plants
need me for photosynthesis.”
Find the answers in Annex 2.3.

What is a binary compound?

A binary compound is a chemical compound composed of exactly two different
elements. These elements combine in fixed ratios to form a new substance with
unique properties.
Binary compounds are basic building blocks in chemistry. They can be classified
into two main types based on the nature of the elements involved:

Binary Ionic Compounds

Composition: These compounds consist of a metal and a non-metal.
Formation: Metals lose electrons to become positively charged ions (cations),
while non-metals gain electrons to become negatively charged ions (anions).
These oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic bond. Thus, the
metals transfer electrons to the non-metals to form the compound.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), where sodium (Na) is a metal that loses one
electron to become Na+, and chlorine (Cl) is a non-metal that gains one electron
to become Cl–. The resulting compound is NaCl.
Let us learn how to draw the individual elements, followed by the bond that is
formed in table salt (sodium chloride).
1. Draw the electron configuration of each atom in the compound (sodium and
chlorine).

Figure 2.13:

2. Draw the electron configuration of the two ions after the transfer of electrons
from sodium to chlorine, surround them with square brackets, and write the
charge of each ion in the top right hand corner.

Fig. 2.14:

Figure 2.13 and 2.14 - Transfer of electron from Sodium to Chlorine resulting in
Na+ and Cl-
The electrostatic force of attraction between the two ions results in the formation
of sodium chloride (NaCl).

44
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

This can be represented in another way:

Sodium atom (Na) loses an electron to become sodium ion (Na+)
Na – e- -------> Na+
(2,8,1) (2, 8)
Chlorine atom (Cl) accepts the electron from sodium to become chloride ion (Cl-)
Cl + e- ---------> Cl-
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
The electrostatic force of attraction between the two ions pulls them together to
form a compound.
Na+ + Cl- ---------> NaCl

Activity 17

Scenario: You are a chemist tasked with identifying a newly discovered ionic
compound composed of calcium and chlorine.
Question: How is the compound formed?
Materials needed: Periodic table, pens/pencils, exercise book
What to do:
1. Use the periodic table to identify the elements.
2. Draw the electron configuration diagram of the elements.
3. Draw the electron configuration diagrams of the two ions after the
transfer of electrons.
4. Write the formula of the compound formed.
5. Confirm your result with the solution in Annex 2.3.

Follow up questions:
Using the same method draw the electron configuration for the following
atoms and then the ions they form when combined into compounds:
1. Fluorine and lithium
2. Beryllium and chlorine
3. Oxygen and calcium
4. Magnesium and iodine

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

5. Aluminium and fluorine

6. Gallium and oxygen.

Good job learner, now explore the properties of ionic compounds.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Property Description

State of matter Most ionic compounds exist in a solid state at room

temperature. The strong electrostatic forces between
positively and negatively charged ions create a stable
crystal lattice structure.
Melting and Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
boiling points The strong ionic bonds require a substantial amount of
energy to break. High temperatures are needed for these
compounds to undergo phase changes.
Solubility in Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. When
water placed in water, the ions separate and disperse
throughout the solution. However, not all ionic
compounds are equally soluble, and some may show
limited solubility or are insoluble.
Conductivity in Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in
aqueous solutions water or in molten form. In these states, the ions are free
to move and carry an electric current. However, in their
solid state, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
and are good insulators.

Figure 2.15: In an ionic solution, the A+ ions migrate toward

the negative electrode, while the B− ions migrate toward the
positive electrode.

46
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Crystal structure Ionic compounds form a regular and repeating three-

dimensional crystal lattice structure. The arrangement
of positive and negative ions in this structure contributes
to the stability of the compound.

Figure 2.16 (a): Sodium Figure 2.16(b): Copper (II)

Chloride crystals

Hardness and Ionic compounds are typically hard and brittle. The
brittleness crystal lattice structure can fracture when subjected to
force as like-charged ions repel each other.

Figure 2.17: (a) The Figure 2.17(b): C(b) When struck

Sodium Chloride crystal is by a hammer, the negatively
shown in two dimensions. charged. Chloride ions are forced
near each other and the repulsive
force causes the crystal to shatter.

Density Ionic compounds have high densities. The arrangement

of ions in the crystal lattice contributes to the overall
mass of the compound in each volume.
Colour Pure ionic compounds are often colourless. However,
certain metal ions, especially transition metals, can
impart colour to the compound. For example, Copper
ions can give a blue or green colour to an ionic
compound as seen in figure (2.16b).

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Binary Covalent Compounds

Composition: These compounds consist of two non-metals.
Formation: Non-metals share electrons to form covalent bonds. This sharing
allows each atom to attain a stable electron configuration.
Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2), where carbon (C) shares electrons with two
oxygen (O) atoms forming covalent bonds, water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and
methane (CH4).

Figure 2.18: Examples of covalent compounds

Figure 2.19: the sharing of valence electrons to form a covalent bond

Molecules such as hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) also consist of covalent bonds.
In the formation of hydrogen gas, each of the two atoms of hydrogen contributes
its electron to be shared with the other hydrogen atom. Sharing of electrons
ensures that each hydrogen atom gains an additional electron in its valence shell.
This ensures that the shell has a stable configuration.

48
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Figure 2.20: Formation of hydrogen gas (H2)

Similarly in a molecule of Oxygen Gas (O2 ), the two atoms of Oxygen contribute
a pair of electrons each to be shared. This ensures that each of the two atoms
attains an inert configuration of 8 electrons in the valence shell.

Figure 2.2: Formation of oxygen gas (O2)

Covalent bonds can be single, double or triple bond.

Activity 18:

Scenario: Imagine you are an environmental scientist studying the water

cycle. To understand how water forms, you need to investigate the bonding
between hydrogen and oxygen atoms to form water (H2O). You are tasked to
construct a model of water molecule.

49
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Materials needed: Molecular model kits or play dough/plasticine/coloured

clay/coloured polystyrene materials and toothpicks/broom sticks.
What to do:
1. Draw the electron configuration of H2O on paper.
2. Ensure that each Hydrogen atom shares one electron with the Oxygen
atom, forming two covalent bonds.
3. Select and use suitable materials to build a model of a water molecule,
showing the sharing of electrons between Hydrogen and Oxygen.
4. Answer the following key questions:

Key Questions:
a) What is a covalent bond, and how does it differ from an ionic bond?
b) How do hydrogen and oxygen atoms share electrons to form a water
molecule?
c) Why is water considered a binary covalent compound?
d) How do the shared electrons create a stable molecule.

Very good learner, compare your electron configuration diagram of water

molecule to the one provided.
Compare your home-made water model to the one in the picture in Annex 1.
Properties of Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds contain covalent bonds and exhibit the following
properties:
• They normally exist as gases, liquid, or soft solids
• Their melting and boiling points are very low
• They can be insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
• They are non-conductors of electricity in solid, molten, or aqueous state
• They have weak intermolecular forces of attraction.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 19:

Aim: To examine water’s electrical conductivity as a representative covalent

compound.
Materials needed: Two electrodes (e.g., copper or graphite), electrical circuit
with connecting wires, ammeter, switch, batteries, beaker and distilled water.
a) Set up an electrical circuit by connecting two electrodes to an ammeter,
switch, and battery in series.
b) Fill a beaker with distilled water and place the electrodes into the water,
ensuring they do not touch each other.
c) Observe and record changes in the ammeter reading as the electrodes are
submerged in the water.
d) Repeat the experiment with other substances like salt (NaCl) dissolved
in water and sugar (sucrose) dissolved in water.

Take safety precautions while conducting the experiment, such as wearing

safety goggles, lab coats, and following standard laboratory practices.
Perform each test multiple times to ensure reliability of results.
Use distilled water to maintain consistency and reduce the influence of
impurities on the experiment.

Observations: What are your observations? Discuss it with your friends and
compare them with the observations and conclusions in Annex 1.

Activity 20:

Scenario: The Chemistry Detective

Imagine you are a detective in a forensics lab. You have been given two
mysterious white powders found at a crime scene. Your job is to determine
whether these powders are ionic or covalent compounds by investigating their
properties through a series of tests.

Key Questions to answer before starting the investigation:

1. Physical properties of ionic and covalent compounds.
a) How do their melting points and boiling points differ?
b) How do their electrical conductivity and solubility in water differ?

51
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

2. Molecular structures of ionic and covalent compounds.

a) How do ionic compounds arrange their ions?
b) How do covalent compounds arrange their atoms?
3. How do ionic and covalent compounds behave when dissolved in
water?
4. What happens to their electrical conductivity in aqueous solutions?

Activity 21:

Aim: To compare the properties of the given powders to determine whether

they are ionic or covalent compounds.
Materials needed: Two white powders (e.g., NaCl (table salt) and C12H22O11
(sugar)), distilled water, multimeter, beakers or clear cups, stirring rods, hot
plate, thermometer, measuring spoons, safety goggles and gloves.
What to do:
1. Solubility Test:
a) Fill two beakers with equal amounts of distilled water.
b) Label them as Powder A and Powder B.
c) Add a teaspoon of Powder A to one beaker and a teaspoon of
Powder B to the other.
d) Stir each solution until the substances dissolve.
Note how quickly each substance dissolves and whether any residue is
left.
2. Conductivity Test:
a) Use a multimeter to measure the electrical conductivity of both
solutions.
b) Record the readings for the solutions of Powder A and Powder B.
Note which solution conducts electricity and which does not.
3. Melting Point Test:
a) Place a small amount of Powder A on one side of a hot plate and a
small amount of Powder B on the other.
b) Slowly increase the temperature and observe the temperature at
which each substance starts to melt.
Note the melting points of both substances.

52
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

From your observations, conclude which substance is table salt (ionic) and
which is sugar (covalent). Find explanations in Annex 2.3.
Understanding the composition and naming of binary compounds is crucial
for identifying the types of chemical bonds and the elements involved. Ionic
compounds form through the transfer of electrons between metals and non-
metals, leading to the creation of cations and anions. Covalent compounds
form through the sharing of electrons between non-metals.

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

ANNEX 2.3 – POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO

ACTIVITIES

Activity 15

1.
Element - An element is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atom.
Ion - Atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of
one or more electrons.
Molecule - A particle which consists of two or more atoms chemically bonded
together.
Compound - A substance made up of two or more different chemical elements
combined in a fixed ratio.

2.
H2O – molecule and compound
O2 - molecule
NaCl – molecule and compound
Fe - element
Ca2+ - ion

Activity 16

Clue 1: This is table salt. The elements in table salt are sodium (Na) and
chlorine (Cl).
Clue 2: This is water. The elements in water are hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O).
Clue 3: This is carbon dioxide. The elements in clue 3 are carbon (C) and
oxygen (O).

54
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 17

You will observe that calcium loses two electrons while chlorine receives one
electron. Two chlorine atoms are therefore needed to take up or accept the
two electrons from calcium to balance the reaction. Your diagram may look
like this:

Giving CaCl2.
Ca – 2e- -------> Ca2+
(2,8,8,2) (2,8,8)
2Cl + 2e- ---------> 2Cl -
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
Ca2+ + 2Cl- ---------> CaCl2

Activity 18

You would observe that there was no reading by the ammeter when the
probes were placed in the distilled water. Pure water does not conduct
electricity because it does not contain ions, so the electrons do not move

55
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

through the solution. Thus, pure water is a poor conductor of electricity and
is actually an excellent insulator.
There was no reading either when sugar was dissolved in the water. Sugar
solution is also a poor conductor of electricity because sugar molecules are
neutral and don’t have a charge. When sugar is dissolved in water, it doesn’t
break apart into ions, so the solution only contains neutral sugar and water
molecules. These neutral molecules can’t attract to and move to opposite ends
of electrodes like ions can, so they can’t conduct electricity.
However, when the salt (NaCl) was added, the ammeter gave some readings.
This is because the salt dissolves into ions, which means that the electrons
can move freely through the solution.

Activity 19

Solubility Test - Usually, ionic compounds like NaCl dissolve easily/faster in

water, dissociating into ions, while covalent compounds like sugar disperse
without dissociation.
Conductivity Test - The solution of the ionic compound (NaCl) conducts
electricity because it dissociates into ions. The solution of the covalent
compound (sugar) does not conduct electricity because it does not form ions
in water.
Melting Point Test - The ionic compound (NaCl) has a higher melting point
due to strong ionic bonds. The covalent compound (sugar) has a lower melting
point because covalent bonds are generally weaker than ionic bonds.

Conclusion:
• Ionic Compounds: High melting and boiling points, conduct electricity
in solution, generally soluble in water, composed of positive and negative
ions.
• Covalent Compounds: Low melting and boiling points, do not conduct
electricity in solution, may or may not be soluble in water, composed of
molecules with shared electrons.

56
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

EXTENDED READING
Build models for Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane gas (CH4) and Ammonia (NH3)
molecules using local materials from your environment.
https://gardenandplate.com/water.html
https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/5-differences-between-ionic-compound-
and-covalent-compound/
https://hydrogenatomgirikosa.blogspot.com/2017/06/hydrogen-atom-bond.html
Read more on the uses of common ionic and covalent compounds such as NO2,
CO2, MgO, CaO, SiO2 in everyday life.

57
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Welcome learners! In this lesson you will learn about a standardised way to identify
and communicate the composition of compounds. The naming conventions for
compounds help to convey vital information about the elements present and their
respective charges. By following specific naming rules, chemists can determine
the exact combination of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively
charged ions) within a compound. This knowledge is essential for understanding
chemical reactions, predicting the behaviour of substances, and effectively
communicating information about the structure and properties of compounds.

WRITING OF CHEMICAL FORMULAE FOR AND

NAMING OF BINARY COMPOUNDS
Hello, learner. Please follow the steps below to learn how to write the chemical
formula for a compound!
1. Identify the two elements present in the compound.
2. Write the chemical symbols of the two elements that combine to make up
the binary compound. In an ionic compound, the atom that forms a positive
ion (cation) is written first followed by the negative ion (anion).
3. Determine the valency of each of the atoms. Valency is the combining power
of an element. It refers to the number of electrons that an atom loses or gains
to form a compound with a different element. Knowing the charge on an ion
gives an important clue about its valency. E.g., Mg2+ has a valency of 2, N+
has a valency of 1, O2- has a valency of 2 and Cl- has a valency of 1.
4. Exchange the valencies of the two different elements and write them as
subscripts at the right-hand side of the chemical symbol of each atom. In the
example below, the cation of magnesium (Mg2+) has a valency of 2 which is
exchanged with the valency of the anion of nitrogen (N3-) which is 3.
5. Simplify the subscripts by finding the common factor. This step is often
skipped if the values are already simplified.
6. Additionally, if the valency is one (1), it is not written.

Another example: Let us consider the compound formed between calcium (Ca)
and oxygen (O).

58
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Calcium is a metal and forms cations with a charge of +2. Oxygen is a non-metal
and forms anions with a charge of -2.
Based on their charges, it can be inferred that each of these atoms has a valency
of 2.

The valences of the two atoms are exchanged as shown in the preceding paragraph.
Because 2 is a common factor to the two subscripts, the subscripts are simplified
by dividing each of them by two, giving us the chemical formula of the compound
as CaO.

Activity 20:

When naming a binary compound, the first word is always the name of the
positive ion (cation). The second word is derived from the name for the
negative ion (anion) but ends in the letters ‘ide’. For each of the following
compounds A-E, give the correct word that would appear as the second word
in its name:
1. KCl
2. CaS
3. AlI3
4. Al2O3
5. Ba3N2
6. NaCl

Indicate which of these is a common household substance and give the name
of the substance.

59
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Activity 21:

Aim: To write the formula for various compounds including sodium chloride
Materials needed: Cuttings of cardboard with names of different elements,
written in words and symbols with different charges e.g.
Na 1+ Na 2 - Na 2- Na 3+
Cl 3+ Cl 2 - Mg 2- Mg 2+
Mn 2- I 1+ I - 1- I 2+ I 2-
O 2- O 2+ - O 2- O 1-

Method:
1. Create your cards (as listed above).
2. Pick a pair of cards with the correct symbols and charge for the following
named elements: sodium and chlorine, manganese and chlorine,
potassium and iodine, sodium and iodine.
3. Put the pair side by side.
4. Draw a cross (X) as shown in the examples above for the pair of elements
you have selected.
5. Write their charges and exchange their numbers as valencies.
6. Write the formula of the combination of the pair of elements.
7. Simplify the result if required.
8. Name the resultant compound formed.
9. Have a go with a few more pairs of elements!

Activity 22

Create a flowchart for writing the formula of the binary compound KCl
Aim: To draw a flowchart to write the formula of a binary compound
Materials needed: Potassium metal, boiling tube containing chlorine gas,
fume cupboard.

60
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

Method: (note: this demonstration should only be performed by your teacher;

chlorine gas is poisonous):
1. Observe your teacher drop the piece of the potassium metal in the tube
of chlorine gas.
2. Observe what happens in the boiling tube.
3. Draw a flowchart or write a step-by-step method which could be used by
another student to find the chemical formula of the compound produced.
Include an explanation as to how the compound should be named.

61
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

ANNEX 2.4 – POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO

ACTIVITIES

Activity 20

A) KCl - Chloride
B) CaS - Sulfide
C) AlI3 - Iodide
D) Al2O3 - Oxide
E) Ba3N2 – Nitride
F) NaCl – Chloride (sodium chloride – table salt)

Activity 22

Annex 2.4 – Further information

62
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

• Element: An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into

any other substance. Every element is made up of its own type of atom.
This is why the chemical elements are all very different from each other.
Examples iron, Sulphur, gold, chlorine.
• Atom: The smallest part of a substance that can be broken down
chemically into fundamental particles. Each atom has a nucleus (centre)
made up of protons (positive particles) and neutrons (particles with no
charge). Electrons (negative particles) move around the nucleus.
• Electron: is a negatively charged subatomic particle that can be either
bound to an atom or free (not bound). An electron that is bound to an
atom is one of the three primary types of particles within the atom - the
other two are protons and neutrons.
• Valence: A whole number that represents the ability of an atom or a
group of atoms to combine with other atoms or groups of atoms. The
valence is determined by the number of electrons that an atom can lose,
add, or share.
• Valency: is the number of atoms of a particular element that is combined
with one atom of another element to form a molecule. Valency is a
measure of the combining power of an atom. The valency of an element
is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost shell.
• Ion: any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or
negative electrical charges. Positively charged ions are called cations;
negatively charged ions, anions. For example, Na+, Cl-
• Compound: a substance made from two or more different elements that
have been chemically joined. Examples of compounds include water
(H2O), which is made from the elements hydrogen and oxygen, and table
salt (NaCl), which is made from the elements Sodium and Chlorine.
• Binary Compound: is a chemical substance that is made of two different
elements only. An element is the fundamental building block of all
chemical compounds. The presence of only two different elements in a
compound is what classifies a compound as a binary compound.
• Chemical Formula: A chemical formula identifies each constituent
element by its chemical symbol and indicates the proportionate number
of atoms of each element.

63
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

EXTENDED LEARNING:
1. Find out the social uses of the following binary compounds: CO2; NaCl;
CaCl2; H2O; MgO by browsing the internet entering “Social uses of binary
compounds” in your search bar.
1. Refer to the following references on Page and read about other forms of
naming binary compounds. E.g. IUPAC Naming.

64
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Questions 2.1

1. Enumerate three properties each of metals, non-metals and semi-metals.
2. In tabular form, outline four differences between metals and non-metals.
3. Explain why metal objects should be kept dry and clean.
4. Explain how metals are used in the production of cooking utensils and
why certain metals are chosen for specific cooking tasks.
5. Discuss the role of non-metals in the manufacturing of electronic
devices and semiconductor components.
Research Work
6. Use the internet and other resources to search on the topic ‘how are semi-
metals utilized in the production of solar panels and other renewable
energy technologies?’ Present your report which should include posters,
diagrams and charts about your findings to the class.

Review Questions 2.2

1. For each of the following properties, list as many everyday items as you
can think of which rely on them:
o High conductivity
o Magnetic properties
o Lustre
o High melting and boiling points
2. Why is it important for metallic cookware be designed including
materials that are good conductors but also materials that are good
insulators?

Review Questions 2.3

1. Identify at least four examples of binary compounds in everyday life.
2. Describe how magnesium oxide is formed.

65
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

3. Explain the role of electron transfer in the formation of binary ionic

compounds.
4. Explain how covalent compounds are different from ionic compounds.
Give precise examples to support your explanation.
Research Work
Evaluate the importance of understanding the differences between ionic and
covalent compounds in practical applications, such as in medicine, materials
science, and environmental science and present your findings in class.

Review Questions 2.4

1. Two elements X and Y have charges +3 and -2 respectively. Write the
molecular formula for the compound formed.
2. Write the formula of a compound made of elements Y and Z whose
valences are 2 and 2 respectively.
3. What basic concepts of naming binary compound will you consider
if you are working alone? You may work with a friend to share your
views on the concepts of naming binary compounds and put your views
together and come out with patterns and rules to be used in naming
binary compounds.
4. Name the following compounds and indicate the valencies of each
component element in the compound:
a) MgCl2
b) CO2
c) Na3N
d) BeO
e) MgH2
f) KI

66
SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

REFERENCES

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/uses-of-metals-and-non-metals-2/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMr4vse7Ybo
https://practical-science.com/2023/03/14/reactivity-series-reactions-of-metals-and-water-
includes-model-data-and-conclusion/#:~:text=Fill%20each%20beaker%20with%20
distilled,the%20production%20of%20gas%20bubbles.
Anne Marie, H. (2024) How to Use a Periodic Table of Elements. Retrieved on May 2024
from thoughtco.com/how-to-use-a-periodic-table-608807.
Anne Marie, H. (2023) Hydrogen Facts - H or Atomic Number 1. Retrieved on Apr. 5,
2023, from thoughtco.com/hydrogen-element-facts-606474
Solid State Materials Chemistry: Patrick M. Woodward, Pavel Karen, John S. O. Evans,
Thomas Vogt
Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials; Richard J. D. Tilley, First published:27
July 2004 ; Print ISBN:9780470852750 |Online
Internet resources such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), for example:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Basics_of_General_
Organic_and_Biological_Chemistry_(Ball_et_al.)/03%3A_Ionic_Bonding_and_
Simple_Ionic_Compounds/3.06%3A__Characteristics_of_Ionic_Compounds
https://www.chemistrylearner.com/chemical-bonds/covalent-bond
https://www.priyamstudycentre.com/2020/09/covalent-bond.html
Internet resources such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), for example
www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4MdZx1fgbA;
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcF8E8aAOGs
www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTq4sgGd2QU)
Smith, W. F., & Hashemi, J. (2006). Principles of Materials Science and Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Education.
Callister Jr., W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2017). Materials Science and Engineering: An
Introduction (10th ed.). Wiley.
Revie, R. W., & Uhlig, H. H. (2008). Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An Introduction to
Corrosion Science and Engineering (4th ed.). Wiley

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SECTION 2 EXPLORING MATERIALS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

68
 General Science Year 1

SECTION

3
DIFFUSION AND
OSMOSIS
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

PROCESSES FOR LIVING

Essentials for Survival

INTRODUCTION
Hello, students! Welcome to the fascinating world of substance movement! In
both living organisms and the non-living environment, captivating phenomena
known as diffusion and osmosis exist. This process involves the spontaneous
movement of particles, whether they are gases, liquids, or solids. From the complex
biological processes within our bodies to the dynamic interactions occurring in the
surrounding world, the appreciation of substance movement in biotic and abiotic
media reveals a deeper understanding of our universe’s fundamental principles.
In this section we will look at identification of real-life examples of diffusion and
osmosis explain how they are relevant to those situations as well as conduct a
simple experiment to demonstrate diffusion as well as osmosis and interpret the
results. So, let us embark on a journey to explore the captivating world of diffusion
and osmosis and their significance in both living and non-living systems.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Appreciate the movement of substances in biotic and abiotic media.

• Design, model, and explain the process of osmosis and indicate its
application in everyday life.

KEY IDEAS

• Diffusion is the process of particles or molecules spreading out or dispersing

from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The
movement of the particles is spontaneous, unpredictable, and irregular.
• Active transport is a process that happens inside living cells to move
substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher
concentration. It is like going against the flow.
• Osmosis involves the movement of water (solvent) molecules from
where there is more water (dilute solution) across a selectively permeable
membrane to where there are less water molecules (concentrated solution).

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

• A dilute solution contains more water molecules (solvent) compared

with the solute molecules, while a concentrated solution has more solute
molecules compared with solvent molecules.
• Osmosis occurs in both plant and animal cells as well as in non-living
tissues.
• A selectively permeable membrane allows some substances to pass
through and prevents others from passing through it.

CONCEPTS OF DIFFUSION AND ITS

APPLICATION IN LIFE

Concepts of Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration until the molecules are evenly distributed. The
driving force behind diffusion is the concentration gradient, which is the difference
in concentration between two regions. Diffusion always tends to equalise the
concentration gradient leading to a uniform distribution of molecules and equal
concentration throughout space or solution.

Examples of Diffusion in Living and Non-Living Cells:

1. Diffusion in Living Cells
a. Oxygen diffuses from areas of high concentration (such as the blood) into
cells where its concentration is lower. This process is crucial for cellular
respiration, where cells use oxygen to produce energy.
b. After cellular respiration, carbon dioxide, a waste product, accumulates
in cells and diffuses out into the blood, where its concentration is lower.
This diffusion process helps to remove carbon dioxide from the cells and
transport it to the lungs for exhalation.
c. Glucose, a primary energy source, diffuses into cells from areas of higher
concentration (like the blood) to areas of lower concentration (inside the
cells). This diffusion is often facilitated by specific transport proteins in
the cell membrane, ensuring cells receive the glucose needed for energy
production through glycolysis and other metabolic pathways.

3
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Below is a link to a video on diffusion in living cells. Click on the link to watch it.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRP3jCmkYiM

2. Diffusion in Non-Living Cells

a. If you leave a cup of hot chocolate on the table, you will notice that the
steam rises and the aroma spreads in the air. This is because the hot
chocolate particles move through diffusion, spreading out and mixing with
the air particles.
b. When you add a spoonful of sugar to a cup of tea or coffee without
stirring it, the sugar particles dissolve and spread throughout the liquid.
This happens because of diffusion, where the sugar particles move from
a higher concentration (the spoonful) to a lower concentration (the rest of
the liquid).
The examples above show how diffusion is a natural process that happens in both
living and non-living cells, allowing particles to spread out and fill the available
space.

Factors that Affect Diffusion

Dear learner, click on the links below to watch the videos and describe your
observations.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E30DSfmAW4s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxHMJaXOzP4

4
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Activity 3.1

Describe and explain how each of the following factors affects the rate of
diffusion.
1. Concentration gradient
2. Temperature
3. Particle size/molecular weight
4. Nature of media through which the diffusion occurs.

Activity 3.2: Demonstrating the spread of permanganate ions in solution

Aim: The purpose of this demonstration is to show how particles move from
an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration; the process of
diffusion.
Materials needed: Beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystal and
spatula.
Procedure
1. Fill the beaker with water.
2. Put a piece of potassium permanganate crystal at the bottom of the
beaker containing water using a spatula. Be careful so that the water is
not overly disturbed and that the crystal is positioned at the bottom of the
beaker without much mixing.
3. Observe what happens over a few minutes. Describe and explain your
observations. Solutions can be found in Annex 1.
4. Extension task: Repeat this experiment with colder water, what do you
predict will happen? Conduct the experiment to test your hypothesis.

Fig. 3.1: Process of diffusion using potassium permanganate crystal.

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

The video link below will give you a better understanding:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNlFmvx8o7Y

Activity 3.3: Demonstration of diffusion in gases using perfume

Aim: To investigate the diffusion of perfume molecules through air.

Material needed: A bottle of inexpensive perfume.
Procedure:
1. Pour a small volume of perfume onto a piece of tissue and leave it in
one corner of the classroom or open a bottle of perfume and leave it in a
corner of the classroom.
Note: Spraying is not suitable for demonstrating the effect of diffusion.
2. Raise your hands when you can smell the perfume.
3. Describe and explain how the location of the learner and the time taken
to smell the perfume are related. Find solutions in Annex 1.

Fig. 3.2: Demonstration of diffusion by students

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Application of Diffusion in Everyday Life

Now learners, observe the following everyday activities and point out those you
are very familiar with:
Perfume/Cologne: When you spray perfume or cologne onto the skin, the scent
particles evaporate from the skin and diffuse through the air spreading from
an area of high concentration (your skin) to an area of low concentration (the
surrounding space).
Cooking: During cooking, food particles diffuse through the kitchen and
sometimes beyond, allowing you to smell the food even if you are not standing
directly over the stove. The food particles’ movement in the air gives the food its
aroma.
Room Fresheners: Air fresheners or diffusers release fragrance into the air. The
fragrance molecules disperse and diffuse throughout the room, creating a pleasant
scent.
Tea/Coffee Brewing: When you place a tea bag or coffee grounds in hot water,
the flavour compounds diffuse from the concentrated source into the surrounding
liquid resulting in a flavoured beverage.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Exchange: In the human body, diffusion is vital
for gas exchange in the lungs. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses from the lungs
into the bloodstream, while Carbon Dioxide diffuses into the lungs to exhale.

EXTENDED READING
Access the link below for an example of diffusion.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWByFMo32Qg

7
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

OSMOSIS AND ITS APPLICATION IN OUR DAILY

LIFE
Hello learner, we hope you enjoyed the demonstration about diffusion in your
previous lesson. You are going to experience another interesting phenomenon
which also talks about movement of substances both in living and non-living
things. This process is osmosis. Without osmosis many biological systems may
not function. For example; plants will find it difficult to absorb water through their
root hairs and may eventually die.
Osmosis is defined as the process by which solvent (water) molecules move
from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution across a selectively permeable
membrane. In effect, there is a net movement of water molecules across a
selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration (of the water molecules). The selectively permeable membrane
could be a living or non-living tissue.
Osmosis does not require energy from the cell to occur. It takes place naturally
to ensure that concentration of water molecules on both sides of the selectively
permeable membrane is equal.
The direction and rate of osmosis depends on the relative concentration of solutes
on either side of the membrane.
Several factors affect the rate of osmosis. Notable amongst them are concentration
gradient, temperature (greater temperature leads to a faster rate of osmosis) and
presence of selectively permeable membrane.
Now learner, observe the illustration in Fig 1 closely and carry out the tasks in
Activity 1 alone or with your friends.

Fig 3.3: Illustration of Osmosis

8
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Activity 3.4: Osmosis at home.

1. Name a common household substance that contains solvent molecules.

2. Name a common household substance that contains solute molecules.

3. (a) From the illustration, which molecules are moving?

(b ) In which direction are the molecules moving?
4. Describe the solutions A and B.
5. What process is causing the molecules identified in 3(i) to move?

Activity 3.5: Quick or slow swell.

Place a small handful of raisins or any dried fruits into a clear cup of water
and take a photograph of them. Leave them for 24 hours and then take a new
photograph.
Compare the appearance of the raisins before and after the experiment. Write
a brief explanation of your observations.
Good, I believe you have got a clear idea of osmosis.

Activity 3.6: Movement of molecules.

Research on YouTube to give you more insight into osmosis with respect to
movement of molecules.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=sUpFhbHo9lQ
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGALyEW4ZFY
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30yV3RaU03g

1 2 3

9
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Activity 3.7: Investigating osmosis in model cells with different internal

water concentrations.

Aim: To investigate the process of osmosis on model cells with different

internal water concentrations immersed in pure water/distilled water.
Note: The selectively permeable membrane used here as model cell is the
Visking tubing.

Materials needed: 4 beakers/transparent containers, sugar/sucrose solution

of concentrations 5%, 10% and 15% (weight by volume), water, Visking
tubing, scissors, funnel, measuring tape, string and a ruler.

Fig (a): Investigating osmosis in a model cell using Visking tubing.

Procedure:
1. Fill each beaker/transparent container with pure water almost to the
brim.
2. Cut equal lengths (12cm) of Visking tubing.
3. Tie one end of each piece of Visking tubing using string.
4. With the help of a funnel, pour pure/distilled water into the first piece of
tubing and tie the other end.
5. Measure the circumference of the filled tubing using more string and the
ruler and place the model into one of the beakers/transparent containers.
6. In the same way fill the next piece of Visking tubing with 5% sucrose
solution and place it in beaker 2.
7. Repeat for 10% sugar/sucrose and 15% sugar/sucrose solution and place
them into beaker/transparent containers 3 and 4 respectively.

10
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

8. Leave the experiment for 24 hours and measure again the circumference
of the model cells.
9. Observe how the model cell feels in comparison to the beginning of the
experiment.
10. Record your results in the table given.

Note: The model cells contain different sucrose solutions and therefore
different water concentrations. 0% sucrose has the highest water
concentration, and 15% sucrose has the lowest water concentration. Water
can move freely into or out of the Visking tubing but sucrose cannot.
Good. Now input your results into Table 3.1.

Observation/Results:
Table 3.1

Beaker Visking Circumference Circumference Firmness of

tubing at start after 24 hours model cell
containing

1 Water
2 5% sucrose
3 10% sucrose
4 15% sucrose

Explanation: Explain your observation from the results obtained above.

Let’s proceed to the next activity.

Activity 3.8: Investigating osmosis in plant/living tissues.

Aim: To investigate osmosis in plant tissues.

Materials you will need: Potato, borer/knife, sucrose solution (0%, 5%,
10%, 15%), 4 beakers, measuring cylinder, ruler, weighing balance.
Procedure:
(Note: you are welcome to adapt the procedure to investigate different
solutes and/or different living tissues. You may also choose to use samples
of different dimensions. Carry out your own research using the internet to

11
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

design an experiment that will produce conclusive results. Alternatively,

follow the method below):
1. Make up the four concentrations of sucrose solutions.
2. Pour 50cm3 of pure/distilled water into beaker 1, 50cm3 of 5% sucrose
into beaker 2, 50cm3 of 10% sucrose into beaker 3, 50cm3 of 15% sucrose
solution into beaker 4.
3. Use the borer to remove 4 cylinders from the potato.
4. Cut the potato cylinder into 3cm lengths and dry with a paper towel.
5. Measure the mass, diameter, and length of each potato piece.
6. Record the results.
7. Place one potato cylinder into each beaker.
8. Leave for 24 hrs.
9. Record the mass, diameter, and length of each potato cylinder.

Water 5% sucrose 10% sucrose 15% sucrose

Fig (b): Investigating osmosis in plant tissue

Now record your results in Table 3.2

Observation/Results:
Table 3.2

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Data analysis:
For each concentration of sucrose solution:

1. a. Calculate the percentage change in mass.

Hint: percentage changes can be found by finding the difference between the
original value and the new value, then dividing this by the original value.
Multiply your result by 100 to find the percentage change. Note that if the
new value is less than the original value then the difference is negative and
therefore the percentage change is also negative.

b. Calculate the percentage change in length.

c. Calculate the percentage change in diameter.
d. Explain your observations.
2. Draw a line graph to present some of the results with sucrose concentration
on the x-axis and percentage change in mass (or length or diameter) on
the y-axis.
3. Present your findings to the rest of your class in a 3-minute oral
presentation using visual aids if possible. Ensure that everybody in your
group has a role in the presentation.

EXTENDED READING
Click on the links for more information on transport in living things and on
osmosis.
• https://unacademy.com/content/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/10/
Transport-in-Plants.pdf
• https://biologyreader.com/endosmosis-examples.html
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGALyEW4ZFY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30yV3RaU03g
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKsTsmD6b1k
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=povvINECyb0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55W29p6sgJ0

13
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

ANNEXES

Annex 3.1 – Solutions to Activities on Diffusion

Activity 3.1

• Concentration gradient: The concentration gradient is the difference

in concentration between two regions. The greater the concentration
gradient, the faster diffusion will occur.
• Temperature: Temperature directly affects particle kinetic energy.
Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy, causing particles to
move more vigorously. As a result, diffusion happens at a faster rate
in higher temperatures. Conversely, lower temperatures lead to slower
diffusion due to reduced particle movement.
• Particle size/molecular weight: Smaller particles diffuse more quickly
than larger particles. Collisions with other particles hinder smaller
particles. Larger particles, on the other hand, have more mass and
experience greater resistance, leading to slower diffusion rates.
• Nature of media through which diffusion is occurring: Diffusion
occurs faster in less dense or viscous media. For example, it occurs more
rapidly in air than in a thick liquid.

Activity 3.2

Observation: When a Potassium permanganate crystal is placed in water,

the crystal dissolves and the permanganate ions are concentrated in one area.
As the crystal dissolves in the water, a net movement of permanganate ions
occurs throughout the beaker of water.
The water and the permanganate ions are eventually equally distributed
throughout the beaker.

Conclusion: Permanganate ions move from an area of high concentration to

an area of low concentration until the ions are evenly distributed.

14
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Activity 3.3

Observation: You will smell the perfume sooner if you sit at a short distance
from the perfume bottle, and as the distance increases the time taken to smell
the perfume increases (as the perfume molecules diffuse throughout the
classroom).
Conclusion: Diffusion of gas particles also occurs as the perfume evaporates
forms a cloud of high perfume concentration and diffuses throughout the
classroom until the gas is evenly distributed throughout the classroom.

Annex 3.2 – Solutions to Activities on Osmosis

Activity 3.4

1. Name a common household substance that contains solvent molecules.

Paint, ink, nail polish.
2. Name a common household substance that contains solute molecules.
Alcohol, water, salt, sugar.

3. (i) From the illustration, which molecules are moving?

The solvent molecules.
(ii) In which direction are the molecules moving?
To the left.
4. Describe the solutions A and B.
Solution A is a solvent and solution B is a solute.
5. What process is causing the molecules identified in 3(i) to move?
Osmosis.

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Activity 3.5

Fig.(a): An example of osmosis using common household items (raisins and water)

Explanation: There has been a net movement of water molecules across a

membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Activity 3.7

Explanation:
The Visking tubing acts as a semi-permeable membrane just like a cell
membrane.
The water concentration was higher in the beaker than inside the model cell
(aside from the 0% sucrose solution, which was equal to the concentration of
the water outside). Water then moved through the tubing from the outside to
the inside and the model cell increased in circumference and felt firmer.

Activity 3.8

Explanation:
The potato cell membrane acts as the semi permeable membrane. There is
a difference in the concentration of water in the cells making up the potato
tissue and the concentration of water in the solution.
• In beaker 1, the highest concentration of water is outside the cell in the
beaker. So, water moves into the potato tissue. The cells expand leading
to an increase in length, mass and diameter of the potato cylinder.
• In the beakers 2, 3 and 4 water is likely to either move into the potato,
increase the measurements (length, mass and diameter), or out of them
leading to a decrease of them.

16
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

• If there is no change in the measurements, then water has not moved

because concentrations on either side of the semi-permeable membrane
are equal. Using this knowledge, we can use our line graph to find the
concentration at which there is a zero percent change in the mass/length/
diameter of the potato. This tells us the concentration of the potato itself.

Annex 3.3 – Further Information

APPLICATIONS OF OSMOSIS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Food Preservation: Osmosis is utilised in food preservation techniques such as
pickling and curing. In these processes, salt or sugar is used to create a high
concentrated solution, which draws water out of the food and the microorganisms
present in the food. This removal of water inhibits the growth of bacteria and
other spoilage-causing organisms, thus extending the shelf life of the food.
Below is a link that will explain the preservation process better to you:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKsTsmD6b1k

Kidney Function: Osmosis is integral to the functioning of the kidneys, which

filter waste products from the blood and regulate water and electrolyte balance. The
movement of water and solutes across the renal tubules occurs through osmosis,
allowing the kidneys to concentrate urine and reabsorb necessary substances back
into the bloodstream.
Below are two links that will explain osmosis in kidney function better to you:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdNwdC7eCT0
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEzKQmqV2WQ

17
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Brining: Brining is a process used to enhance the flavour and juiciness of meat,
poultry, and fish. It involves soaking the food in a solution of salt and water.
During brining, osmosis occurs as the salt concentration in the brine is higher
than the concentration of salt in the meat or fish. Water moves from the meat or
fish into the brine, resulting in decreased moisture content and improved flavour.
Below are links that will explain osmosis in brining of meat better to you:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=povvINECyb0
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55W29p6sgJ0

18
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Questions 3.1

1. A man walking behind the kitchen of a house was able to smell the nice
aroma coming from the soup being prepared. Explain how he was able
to smell the scent of the soup.
2. Give at least three examples of diffusion in everyday life.
3. When the weather is hot, and a baker is baking bread the aroma goes
farther from the bakery. What is the explanation for this?
4. What role does diffusion play in biological systems?

Review Questions 3.2

1. A boy accidentally watered a potted plant with salt solution. The next
morning it was found that the plant was dying. Suggest a possible means
for him to revive the plant. Explain your answer.
2. In dry Harmattan seasons most plants with shallow roots usually do not
survive. However, plants with deep roots do survive. Briefly explain
why this is so.
3. Ama and Ali (group A) and Emefa and Adjetey (group B) were
performing an experiment to demonstrate osmosis. With all other
factors being equal, Group A used water at room temperature while
Group B used warm water. Whose experiment will be faster and why?

19
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Questions 3.1

1. The man was able to smell the aroma of the soup being prepared in the
kitchen due to the process of diffusion.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. In this case, the aromatic
molecules from the soup were released into the air and gradually spread
out, reaching the man’s location by diffusing through the air.
2. Here are three examples of diffusion in everyday life:
• Perfume or cologne spreads through a room as the fragrance
molecules diffuse through the air.
• The smell of fresh-baked bread or cookies wafting from a bakery
as the aroma molecules diffuse outward.
• The gradual mixing of sugar or salt in a glass of water as the solute
molecules diffuse throughout the liquid.
3. When the weather is hot, the aroma from the baking bread can travel
farther from the bakery due to the increased kinetic energy of the air
molecules. In hot weather, the air molecules have more thermal energy
and move faster, which enhances the rate of diffusion. This allows the
aromatic molecules from the bread to spread out more quickly and reach
a larger area surrounding the bakery.
4. Diffusion plays a crucial role in various biological systems:
• Gas exchange in the lungs: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide molecules
diffuse across the alveolar-capillary membrane during respiration.
• Nutrient absorption in the digestive system: Nutrients, such as
glucose and amino acids, diffuse from the lumen of the intestines
into the bloodstream.
• Cell membrane transport: Certain molecules, like water and
Oxygen, can diffuse across the cell membrane, while others require
active transport mechanisms.

20
SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

• Signaling in the nervous system: Neurotransmitters and ion molecules

diffuse across the synaptic cleft during the transmission of nerve
impulses.
• Diffusion of hormones and other signalling molecules within the body,
allowing for communication between different tissues and organs.

Review Questions 3.2

1. You should flood the soil around the plant with water. Watering the
plant with salt solution increases the solute molecules outside the root
cell sap. This causes water molecules to move out of the cell (where
they are at a higher concentration). The plant wilts and will eventually
die.
2. There is less water in the shallow soil during the Harmattan season.
This causes water to move out of the root hair cells into the soil leading
to the death of the plants. The deep-rooted plants have access to soil
with a greater water concentration.
3. Group B. Molecules of the warm water gain kinetic energy causing
them to move faster. The higher the temperature the faster the rate of
osmosis.

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

REFERENCES
1. Adams WK, Wieman CE (2011). Development and validation of instruments
to measure learning of expert-like thinking. Int J Sci Educ33, 1289–1312.
2. Anderson DL (2003). Natural selection theory in non-majors biology:
instruction, assessment, and conceptual difficulty. PhD Dissertation, San
Diego and San Diego State University, San Diego, CA: University of
California.
3. Anderson DL, Fisher KM, Norman GJ (2002). Development and evaluation
of the conceptual inventory of natural selection. J Res Sci Teach39, 952–978
4. https://bio.libretexts.org/Learning_Objects/Worksheets/Biology_Tutorials/
Diffusion_and_Osmosis
5. Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., & Lightfoot, E. N. (2006). Transport Phenomena
(2nd ed.). Wiley.
6. NewPath Learning. (2014). Osmosis and Diffusion Science Learning Guide.
Life Science Learning Guides. NewPath Learning

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SECTION 3 Diffusion and Osmosis

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

23
 General Science Year 1

SECTION

4
REPRODUCTION
IN PLANTS AND
HUMANS
SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

PROCESSES FOR LIVING

Essentials for survival

INTRODUCTION
This section explores the fascinating world of reproduction in both plants and
humans. We will begin by examining the key parts of flowering plants and how
they contribute to plant reproduction, including the differences between sexual
and asexual reproduction and how seeds are dispersed. We’ll then trace the life
cycle of a flowering plant. Moving on to humans, we will identify the main parts
of the male and female reproductive systems, describe the process of sexual
reproduction, explain the menstrual cycle, and analyse its significance in human
reproduction, including the role of hormones.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain reproduction in plants

• Reproduction in animals
• Explain the female menstrual cycle and show how that can be used to
address reproduction-related issues

KEY IDEAS:

• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms give rise to

younger ones of their own kind. There are two types of reproduction:
Sexual and Asexual.
• A flower is the reproductive structure of a flowering plant. The flower
typically consists of four main parts, each of which plays its own role in
reproduction.
• A seed is the mature ovule that contains the embryo, a food storage tissue
called the endosperm, and a protective seed coat.
• Fruits develop from the ovary and surround and protect the seed(s).
• Seed Dispersal: The scattering of seed away from the parent plant. There
are many methods of seed dispersal.

2
SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

• Humans reproduce sexually, meaning that both male and female sex cells
are involved in the production of offspring.
• The Menstrual Cycle refers to a natural monthly phenomenon
experienced by women of reproductive age. This happens when an
unfertilised egg is released from the ovaries and is discharged through
the vagina as blood and mucus.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Today we’re going to explore the fascinating topic of plant reproduction. Have
you ever wondered how flowers are able to create new plants? It’s a complex but
beautiful process that we’re going to dive into together.

Activity 4.1: What is reproduction?

Research and fill in the blanks below.

Learners, reproduction can take place in ______ or in humans/animals.
Reproduction in plants is a fundamental biological process that allows plants
to propagate and ensure the ____________ of their species. Through these
mechanisms, plants can produce _________, disperse their genetic material,
and colonise new habitats.
There are two types of reproduction: _________ reproduction and __________
reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction
Learners, just as we have a male and female coming together to reproduce, in
plants sexual reproduction also involves a male and a female part coming together
to reproduce offspring. Sexual reproduction in plants is, therefore, the process
by which a male sex cell fuses with a female sex cell to form a zygote. These
specialised reproductive cells are called gametes, which are involved in the fusion
of genetic material. The key processes involved in sexual reproduction in plants
are pollination, fertilisation, seed production and dispersal, germination, and
subsequent growth.

3
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In flowering plants, male and female reproductive structures can often be found
in the same individual plant. The main organ of sexual reproduction is the flower.
Let’s take a closer look at the main components of a flower.

Activity 4.2

Using some real flower specimens (possibly gathered on a nature walk), such
as hibiscus, bougainvillea, pride of Barbados and flamboyant, perform a
plant dissection. If you have time, you should compare the structure of one
type of flower with another. Use the diagram below to identify the different
parts of the flower, then use online resources (or any others that your teacher
has provided) to research the function of the parts specified in Table 1.

Fig. 4.1: Parts of a flower

Table 4.1

Part Structure Function

Sepals
Petals
Stamens
Stigma
Ovary

So how do the pollen and ovules come together to create new seeds and
offspring? This process is called pollination.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Pollination
When pollinators visit the flower to feed on its nectar, they inadvertently pick up
pollen on their bodies. As they fly from bloom to bloom, they transfer this pollen
to the receptive stigmas.
Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it grows a tiny tube that extends down through
the style and into the ovary. The sperm cells within the pollen then fuse with the
egg cells in the ovules, fertilising them. This fertilisation process forms seeds,
which contain embryos that can germinate and grow into new plants.

Activity 4.3

Draw a diagram or storyboard showing the stages of sexual reproduction in

plants. Research and discuss the descriptions and explanations that should
be added to each stage of the diagram; pollination, fertilisation, seed
production and dispersal, germination, and subsequent growth.

Agents of Pollination
Pollination requires some agents or vectors to help transfer pollen from one flower
to another. The agents can be:
1. Insects (and other invertebrates)
2. Wind
3. Animals (bats, birds, mammals, birds, reptiles)
4. Water

Fig 4.2: Agents of pollination

NB: Insects and wind are the major agents of pollination.

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Table 4.2: Characteristics/Adaptations of Insect and Wind-Pollinated Flowers

Compared.

Insect-pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers

Petals are brightly coloured to attract Petals, if present, are dull in colour
insects
Flowers are scented Flowers are not scented
Have sticky stigma Have feathery stigma
Have short and stout filaments Have long filaments
Produces less pollen grains Produce abundant pollen grains

See Annex 4.2 – Further Information for more detail on the advantages of wind
and insect pollinators

Activity 4.4: Pollination Simulation Processes

Aim: To investigate the processes of pollination and the role of different

pollination agents in the transfer of pollen grains
Materials needed:
• Mobile phone or other recording devices
• Flower models or dissected flowers
• Pens, pencils and paper
• Pollinator models (e.g. bee, butterfly and hummingbird)

Procedure:
1. Watch this video on pollination and discuss the key points before you
start the activity below.
Pollination Explained (youtube.com)

2. In groups of 3-4 people, produce a short video demonstrating the

process of a) wind pollination and b) insect pollination using 3D models
or drawings to aid visualisation. You should speak over the video to
describe what is happening during each step of the process.
3. If you are unable to create a video, you should instead act out the
scenarios.
4. Present your video or play to the rest of the class.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

5. Offer constructive feedback to your peers once you have seen their video
or play.

Fertilisation
Dear learners, let us now discuss in detail what fertilisation is. Fertilisation is the
fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete to
form a zygote. Fertilisation takes place in the ovule, which contains the female
gamete - the ovum. Ovules are found inside the ovary. Each ovule contains an
egg. When a mature pollen grain lands on a mature stigma, it absorbs water and
nutrients from the stigma and swells up. The wall of the pollen grain ruptures, and
a pollen tube protrudes which penetrates the stigma and grows through its tissues
into the style. This is the germination of the pollen grain. The pollen tube nucleus
moves to the tip of the pollen tube. The pollen tube enters the ovule through the
area called the micropyle. The pollen grain travels to the egg and fuses with it
resulting in fertilisation. The fertilisation results in zygote formation which later
develops into a seed. Following fertilisation, the zygote starts to divide, and it
eventually turns into an embryo within the seed. The embryo is kept latent in a
seed capsule until the right environmental factors allow it to germinate and grow
into a new plant.
Following fertilisation, the ovary swells and forms the fruit. The role of fruit is
in seed dispersal. Fruit can be considered the mobile stage in a plant’s life cycle.
Some fruits are carried by the wind, others are explosive and fire seeds far from
the mother plant, others are attractive to animals are eaten and the indigestible
seeds are transported and deposited in animal faeces, other fruits are sticky and
transported after sticking to the animal’s fur.

Fig.4.3:Fertilisation in Plants

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.5

Follow the QR code below to watch a video of an experiment that can be done
in the lab to observe pollen germination.

Conclusion:
The experiment has demonstrated the intricate process of fertilisation in
flowering plants, where the transfer of pollen, the growth of pollen tubes, and
the eventual fusion of male and female reproductive cells lead to the formation
of seeds, a crucial step in the plant’s life cycle. Understanding this process is
essential for appreciating the remarkable adaptations and strategies employed
by flowering plants to ensure their successful reproduction and propagation.

Activity 4.6: Comparing the Costs and Constraints of Sexual vs. Asexual
Reproduction in Plants.

Note: this is a long-term experiment which should take place over several
weeks.
Aim: To investigate the key disadvantages that plants face when relying on
sexual reproduction, compared to asexual reproduction strategies.
Materials needed:
• Seeds or seedlings of two plant species, one that reproduces primarily
sexually (bean seed) and one that reproduces asexually (cassava sticks)
• Potting soil and containers for growing the plants
• Measuring tools (e.g. ruler, scale, and stopwatch)
• Access to pollinators (e.g. beehive, butterfly enclosure) or ability to
manually pollinate
• Notebook and pen/pencil for observations

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Procedure:
1. Plant the seeds/seedlings of the sexually reproducing and asexually
reproducing plant species in separate containers with the same soil and
growing conditions.
2. For the sexually reproducing plant introduce pollinators or manually
pollinate to facilitate seed production.
3. Extension: Simulate environmental stresses, like nutrient deprivation or
rapid climate changes, to observe how each species responds.
4. Monitor the growth, resource allocation, and reproductive output of each
species over time, keeping notes in your notebook.
5. Write a conclusion including comments about the advantages and
disadvantages of being a sexual or asexual reproducer (cost, time
commitment and dependence on external factors are all important
considerations).

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction that does not involve the fusion
of male and female gametes and produces individuals genetically identical to
the parent. Asexual plant reproduction occurs through many modes including
suckers, runners, bulbs, tubers, and layering. No flowers are required for this
method. Asexual reproduction in plants is often termed vegetative propagation
and can take place naturally or artificially.

Natural Asexual or Vegetative Reproduction

This method of propagation enables plants to reproduce without the need for seeds
or the involvement of external agents like pollinators. Instead, new individuals are
generated from specialised plant parts such as roots, stems, bulbs, or leaves.

Table 4.3: Natural Methods of Asexual Reproduction

Method Description
Runners and Some plants grow horizontal stems called runners
Stolon or stolon along the ground. At different points on
these stems, new plants can grow from the nodes,
forming clones of the parent plant. Examples include
strawberries and spider plants.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Method Description
Rhizomes Rhizomes are underground stems that spread
horizontally and produce new shoots and roots at the
nodes. Plants like ginger and bamboo use rhizomes to
grow and spread over large areas.
Bulbs and Tubers Certain plants store nutrients in underground structures
called bulbs (like onions) or tubers (like potatoes). These
structures can sprout and grow into new plants.
Fragmentation If a part of the plant breaks off, it can sometimes grow
into a completely new individual. For example, pieces of
succulents like aloe vera or jade plants can develop roots
and shoots when placed in the right conditions.
Roots Some plants can produce new plants from modified roots
called tubers. An example is the sweet potato.
Leaves In some plants, small new plants called plantlets can
grow from the edges of detached leaves, like in the
Bryophyllum plant.

Artificial Propagation
Artificial propagation refers to the deliberate human intervention in the reproductive
processes of plants and animals to produce offspring under controlled conditions.
These methods are employed in various fields such as agriculture, aquaculture,
and horticulture.
Artificial propagation allows people to grow more of the plants they want, often
faster and more reliably than waiting for natural reproduction. This is important
in agriculture to produce food crops, in gardening to grow ornamental plants, and
in other fields where specific plants are needed.

Artificial Propagation Methods

In the following section, you will learn about various methods by which humans
can artificially propagate plants and will perform experiments to replicate these.
The main mechanisms are:
1. Cuttings
2. Grafting
3. Layering

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

4. Micropropagation

Activity 4.7

Research the terms listed above and give a brief summary of the processes
involved.

Activity 4.8: Vegetative Propagation of Plants through Cuttings

Watch the following short videos on cuttings and perform the activity below:
1. (241) Asexual Reproduction | Vegetative Propagation : Cutting - YouTube

2. How to Propagate plant cutting ,Grow more trees by vegetative

propagation (youtube.com)

Fig 3.4: Cutting Method

Aim: To investigate the process of vegetative propagation in plants using stem

cuttings and to observe the factors that influence the success of this asexual
reproduction method.
Materials needed:
• Healthy, mature parent plant (donor plant) of the species to be propagated
• Sharp, clean scissors or pruners
• Potting mix or rooting medium (e.g., perlite, vermiculite, or a combination)
• Small pots or containers with drainage holes
• Rooting hormone powder (optional)
• Clear plastic bag or propagation dome (optional)
• Water spray bottle
• Labels and markers

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Procedure:
1. Select a healthy, disease-free parent plant and identify the appropriate
stem sections for taking cuttings.
2. Cut 4-6-inch stem segments, making a clean, diagonal cut just below a
leaf node.
3. Remove the lower leaves, leaving only the top 2-3 leaves on the cutting.
4. Dip the cut end of the cutting in rooting hormone powder (optional).
5. Plant the cuttings in the prepared potting mix or rooting medium,
ensuring the leaf node is buried.
6. Water the cuttings gently and place them in a warm, shaded location.
7. (Optional) Cover the cuttings with a clear plastic bag or propagation
dome to maintain high humidity.
8. Monitor the cuttings regularly, keeping the soil moist but not waterlogged.
9. Observe for the development of new roots and shoots over the next few
weeks, noting your findings with regards to:
a. Rooting success rate of the cuttings
b. Time taken for the development of new roots and shoots
c. Differences in rooting and growth between cuttings treated with
and without rooting hormone
d. Variations in rooting and growth among different stem positions or
plant species
e. Challenges or issues encountered, such as fungal infections or
drying out of the cuttings

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.9:Vegetative Propagation of Plants through Grafting

Learners, let us watch the video below on grafting:

(241) What is Grafting? l Artificial Propagation (Animation) - YouTube

Fig. 4.5: Diagram showing whip/tongue slanted-grafting

Fig. 4.6: Diagram showing Cleft/V-Shaped grafting

Aim: To investigate the process of vegetative propagation in plants using the

grafting technique and to observe the factors that influence the success of this
asexual reproduction method.
Materials needed:
• Two compatible plant species or cultivars (one as the rootstock and one
as the scion)

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

• Sharp, clean grafting knife or razor blade

• Grafting tape or parafilm
• Grafting wax or sealant (optional)
• Potting mix or growing medium
• Pots or containers with drainage holes
• Labels and markers

Procedure:
1. Select a healthy, vigorous rootstock plant and a scion (the upper part of
the plant to be grafted) from the desired cultivar or species.
2. Prepare the rootstock by making a clean, horizontal cut across the stem,
leaving a smooth surface.
3. Prepare the scion by making a clean, sloping cut at the base, creating a
wedge-shaped end.
4. Carefully align the cambium layers (the thin, living tissue just under the
bark) of the rootstock and scion, ensuring a tight fit.
5. Wrap the graft union securely with grafting tape or parafilm, leaving the
tip of the scion exposed.
6. (Optional) Apply a thin layer of grafting wax or sealant over the graft
union to protect it.
7. Plant the grafted plant in the potting mix or growing medium, ensuring
the graft union is slightly above the soil level.
8. Place the grafted plant in a warm, shaded location and maintain consistent
soil moisture.
9. Monitor the graft union regularly for signs of successful union, such as
new growth from the scion. Note your findings with regards to:
a. The time taken for the scion (the upper part of the plant being
grafted) to start growing and integrate with the rootstock.
b. Differences in the graft union success between various plant species
or cultivars that were used in the experiment.
c. Challenges or issues encountered during the grafting process, such
as the rejection of the scion or the development of disease problems.
10. After several weeks, gradually expose the plant to more light as the graft
union strengthens.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Learners, let us now delve into layering and see how it is operated.

Activity 4.10

Let us watch the video below, discuss the content and perform the activity
below.
(241) Science Grade 10 English medium Layering plant propagation -
YouTube

Fig 4.7: Layering

Aim: To investigate the process of vegetative propagation in plants using the

layering technique and to observe the factors that influence the success of this
asexual reproduction method.
Materials needed:
• Healthy, mature parent plant with flexible, low-growing stems
• Sharp pruners or scissors
• Rooting hormone powder (optional)
• Potting mix or growing medium
• Small pots or containers with drainage holes
• Rocks or pebbles
• Rooting medium (e.g., perlite, vermiculite, or a mixture)
• Wooden or plastic stakes
• Twine or plant ties
• Water spray bottle

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

• Labels and markers

Procedure:
1. Identify a healthy, flexible stem on the parent plant that can be bent
down and partially buried in the soil.
2. Prepare the layering site by clearing away any debris or weeds and
loosening the soil.
3. Make a shallow wound or cut on the underside of the stem where it will
be in contact with the soil.
4. (Optional) Apply rooting hormone powder to the wounded area.
5. Gently bend the stem and bury the wounded portion in the soil, securing
it in place with a stake or weight.
6. Cover the buried portion of the stem with a rooting medium, such as a
mixture of perlite and potting mix.
7. Water the layered stem gently and keep the soil moist but not waterlogged.
8. Monitor the layered stem for the development of new roots over the next
few weeks.
9. Once the new roots have formed, carefully sever the layered stem from
the parent plant and transplant it into a separate pot or container.
10. Make and note observations regarding:
a. The rooting success rate of the layered stems.
b. The time taken for the development of new roots on the layered stems.
c. Differences in the rooting and growth patterns between the layered stems
that were treated with rooting hormone and those that were not.
d. Variations in the rooting and growth characteristics among different
plant species or cultivars that were subjected to the layering process.
e. Challenges or issues encountered during the experiment, such as stem
damage or drying out of the layered portion.

Dear learners, the next and last method of artificial propagation for this week is
Micropropagation, also known as Tissue Culture.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.11

The following videos will help you to understand what micropropagation is.
1. Tissue Culture (youtube.com)

2. (241) Tissue Culture - YouTube

The following experiment will be performed in the school laboratory, where

possible. If you lack access to the appropriate facilities, you should watch
the videos above with more care and summarise the information presented in
your own words.

Fig. 4.8: Micropropagation of plants

Aim: To investigate the process of vegetative propagation in plants using the

tissue culture technique and to observe the factors that influence the success
of this asexual reproduction method.
Materials needed:
• Healthy, young plant material (e.g., leaves, stems, or root tips)
• Sterile workspace (e.g., laminar flow cabinet or clean table)
• Sterilised tools (e.g., scalpel, forceps, scissors)
• Culture media (e.g., Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium)
• Plant growth regulators (e.g., auxins, cytokinins)

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

• Petri dishes or culture vessels with lids

• Autoclave or pressure cooker for sterilising equipment
• Parafilm or plastic wrap for sealing culture vessels
• Incubator or growth chamber with controlled temperature and lighting
• Disinfectants (e.g., bleach, alcohol) for surface sterilisation
• Magnifying glass or stereomicroscope (optional)

Procedure:
1. Prepare the work area by thoroughly cleaning and sterilising the surfaces
and equipment.
2. Collect the healthy plant material (e.g., young leaves, stem tips, or root
tips) from the parent plant.
3. Wash the plant material under running water to remove any dirt or debris.
4. Disinfect the plant material by submerging it in a diluted bleach solution
(e.g., 10% bleach) for a few minutes.
5. Rinse the plant material with sterile distilled water several times to
remove any traces of the disinfectant.
6. Prepare the culture medium according to the specific protocol, including
the necessary plant growth regulators.
7. Aseptically transfer the plant material to the culture vessels containing
the prepared medium.
8. Seal the culture vessels with parafilm or plastic wrap to maintain a sterile
environment.
9. Place the culture vessels in the incubator or growth chamber with the
appropriate temperature and lighting conditions.
10. Monitor the cultures regularly for signs of growth and development, such
as callus formation, shoot or root initiation, and plantlet regeneration.
Note your findings.
a. The survival rate of the plant explants (the small specialised plant
parts used for tissue culture) in the culture medium.
b. The time taken for the initiation of callus formation, shoot
development, or root formation.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

c. Differences in the growth and development patterns between the

explants cultured on media with varying concentrations of plant
growth regulators, such as auxins and cytokinins.
d. Variations in the overall success rate of the tissue culture process
among different plant species or cultivars that were subjected to the
same experimental conditions.
e. Challenges or issues encountered during the tissue culture
propagation, such as contamination of the cultures, browning of
the explants, or lack of regeneration of complete plantlets.
11. Carefully transfer the regenerated plantlets to larger vessels or soil for
further growth and acclimatisation.

EXTENDED READING
• Curriculum document
• Ramawat, K. G., Merillon, J.-M., & Shivanna, K. R. (2016). Reproductive
Biology of Plants. CRC Press.
• Tissue Culture (youtube.com)
• (241) Tissue Culture - YouTube
• (241) Science Grade 10 English medium Layering plant propagation -
YouTube
• (241) What is Grafting? l Artificial Propagation (Animation) - YouTube
• (241) Asexual Reproduction | Vegetative Propagation : Cutting - YouTube
• How to Propagate plant cutting ,Grow more trees by vegetative propagation
(youtube.com)
• Fertilisation and Seed Formation (youtube.com)
• Pollination Explained (youtube.com)

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Hello learner, you are about to learn about the mechanism by which humans
reproduce. When sexually mature females and males engage in sexual intercourse,
it is possible for conception to take place under the right conditions.
To start with you will learn about the female human reproductive system, followed
by the male reproductive system to appreciate how the two systems work together
to produce offspring.
The female reproductive system is responsible for the production of eggs (ova),
the reception of sperm for fertilisation, and the support of embryo development.
It consists of several structures each with unique functions contributing to the
reproductive process.

Fig. 4.9: Structure of Female Reproductive System of Humans

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.12

Look at Figure 4.9 carefully. Suggest the functions of each structure. Copy
and complete the table below with your suggested functions of each structure.
Find the solutions in Annex 4.1 to correct and complete your Table 4.4 below.

Table 4.4: The main reproductive structures and their functions in the female
reproductive system

Description Function
Ovaries
Oviducts
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Vulva

Activity 4.13: Drawing and Labelling the Female Reproductive System of

Humans.

Materials needed:
• Hb pencil well sharpened
• Eraser
• Sheet of plain A4 paper

Procedure:
1. Look at the diagram of the female reproductive system carefully taking
into consideration the proportion of the parts forming the system. Re-
read your completed table from Activity 1.
2. Put all your notes and diagrams away; you will now replicate them from
memory.
3. Using a pencil and paper, make an outline of the female reproductive
system proportionately.
4. The outline must be entire, there should be no broken line or woolly
outline.
5. If you make a mistake in the outline, use the eraser to clean the mistake
and redo that part clearly and smoothly.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

6. If it is a vertical/longitudinal section you are drawing, use double lines

to show the thickness.
7. Avoid shading of any kind.
8. Label each vital part of the female reproductive system, giving its name
and function.
9. Give your drawing an appropriate heading E.g. A Drawing of Longitudinal
Section of a Female Reproductive System of Human.
10. Display your drawing for your friends or classmates to see and critique.

Hello learner, you are making progress. Now you are going to learn something
about the male reproductive system of humans and appreciate how it compliments
the female reproductive system in the reproduction of humans.

Structure of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is responsible for the production and delivery
of sperms which are necessary for the fertilisation of the egg. Hormones
such as testosterone play a crucial role in regulating the male reproductive
system’s functions.

Fig. 4.10: Vertical Section of Male Reproductive System

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.14

Look at Figure 4.10 carefully. Suggest the functions of each structure. Copy
and complete the table below with your suggested functions of each structure.
Find the solutions in Annex 4.1 to correct and complete your table below.

Table 4.5: The main reproductive structures and their functions in the male
reproductive system

Description Function
Testes
Epididymis
Vas Deferens
Seminal Vesicles,
Prostate Gland and
Bulbourethral Glands

Activity 4.15: Drawing and Labelling the Male Reproductive System of

Humans.

Materials needed:
• Hb pencil well sharpened
• Eraser
• Sheet of plain A4 paper

Procedure:
1. Look at the diagram of the male reproductive system carefully taking
into consideration the proportion of the parts forming the system. Re-
read your completed table from Activity 4.14.
2. Put all your notes and diagrams away; you will now replicate them from
memory.
3. Using a pencil and paper, make an outline of the male reproductive
system proportionately.
4. The outline must be entire, there should be no broken line or woolly
outline.
5. If you make a mistake in the outline, use the eraser to clean the mistake
and redo that part clearly and smoothly.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

6. If it is a vertical/longitudinal section you are drawing, use double lines

to show the thickness.
7. Avoid shading of any kind.
8. Label each vital part of the male reproductive system, giving its name
and function.
9. Give your drawing an appropriate heading. For example, a drawing of
the longitudinal section of a male reproductive system of humans.
10. Display your drawing for your friends or classmates to see and critique.

Processes of Reproduction in Humans

1. Copulation: Also known as sexual intercourse, copulation involves the
insertion of the erect penis into the vagina. During this process, semen is
ejaculated into the vagina.
2. Fertilisation: Fertilisation is the fusion of male and female sex cells in the
oviduct. This forms a zygote, the single-cell embryo with a complete set of
chromosomes from both parents.
3. Implantation: Implantation is the attachment of an embryo to the uterine
wall for nourishment. After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes several
divisions to form a blastocyst. The blastocyst moves down through the
oviduct until it enters the uterus, it then implants itself into the lining of the
uterus (endometrium), where it continues to grow and develop.
4. Foetal Development: Following implantation, the blastocyst develops into
an embryo, and then into a foetus. During foetal development, organs and
systems begin to form and differentiate. This stage spans three trimesters
(each three months long), with distinct milestones such as the development
of limbs, organs, and the nervous system.
5. Role of the Placenta: The placenta forms from tissues of both the embryo
and the mother. It serves as the interface between the maternal and foetal
circulatory systems facilitating the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and
waste products. Moreover, toxins such as nicotine and alcohol can cross
the placenta from the mother’s bloodstream and damage the foetus. The
placenta also produces hormones essential for pregnancy maintenance.
6. Birth: Labour is the process by which a foetus is expelled from the uterus
through the birth canal (vagina). It involves uterine contractions coordinated
by hormonal signals. After birth, the umbilical cord is typically clamped
and cut, separating the newborn from the placenta.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

7. Breastfeeding: Breastfeeding is the process of feeding a newborn with

breast milk produced by the mother’s mammary glands. Breast milk
provides essential nutrients, antibodies, and other factors crucial for the
baby’s growth, development, and immune system function. It also fosters
bonding between the mother and the infant. In some cases, mothers choose
not to or are unable to breastfeed, for a variety of reasons, and in these
scenarios, formula derived from cow’s milk is available.

Activity 4.16

Copy the link that follows into a browser and click to view and listen to a video
of some processes of human reproduction: https://youtu.be/N66sAZH1VA8

Afterwards, make a schematic diagram or storyboard to show the stages of

reproduction in humans.

Activity 4.17

Research some of the primary medical conditions which can adversely affect
the function of both male and female sex organs. Create a fact sheet or poster
summarising these, as well as giving advice as to how these conditions may
be avoided, where possible.

EXTENDED READING
Access the websites and the resources below and read further about the reproductive
systems of humans and how a new individual is produced.
• https://youtu.be/RFDatCchpus
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvYacgt7O48
• https://youtu.be/wuJsyojTGz4
• https://youtu.be/wd3gE9qgdos
• https://youtu.be/9rs2gNchQig

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Hello learners. In this lesson, you will discuss menstruation, describe how it
occurs and identify hormones responsible for menstruation. You will also look at
the significance of the menstrual cycle in sexual reproduction.

Overview of the Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur in a woman’s body
every month, if she is of reproductive age. It involves a series of hormonal,
physiological and behavioural changes in the body that prepare it for potential
pregnancy.
Menstruation starts at puberty, usually between 8 and 15 years of age. It usually
begins two years after breasts and pubic hair start to develop and ends at menopause.
However, the cycle will usually stop while a woman is pregnant.
The menstrual cycle typically lasts around 28 days, although it can vary from
woman to woman. This varies between 20 and 40 days and sometimes from
cycle to cycle. It is counted from the first day of a period (appearance of vaginal
bleeding) to the first day of the next period.
It is important to mention that the cycle is regulated by the complex interplay of
hormones which are produced by the ovaries and the pituitary gland.

Significance in Reproduction
The menstrual cycle plays a crucial role in reproduction as it regulates ovulation
and the release of an egg from the ovaries. Additionally, the menstrual cycle
prepares the uterus for potential pregnancy by thickening its lining. If fertilisation
occurs, this lining provides a nourishing environment for the embryo to implant
and develop into a baby. If fertilisation does not occur, the lining is shed during
menstruation making way for a new cycle to begin.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Activity 4.18

In groups of 2-4, observe the image below and discuss the following:

Fig. 4.11: The 28-day Menstrual Cycle. Image source:

1. In which phase of the cycle do you think pregnancy can occur?

2. Explain your answer.
3. Share your thoughts as part of a whole-class discussion.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

In this discussion, you will focus on the phases of the menstrual cycle. Be
reminded that, the female reproductive system includes a cycle of events called the
menstrual cycle. There are four key phases of the menstrual cycle: the follicular
phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation. It is tightly controlled by the
release and interplay of four main hormones. You will discuss more on hormones
later. Discuss the cycle days below.

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1. Days 1-5 Menstruation – here, bleeding occurs

2. Days 6-14: Follicular phase – when an egg matures in the ovarian follicle,
and the uterine lining prepares to receive a fertilised egg (embryo)
3. Day 14: Ovulation – the ovary releases the egg, which can be fertilised by a
man’s sperm if present
4. Days 15-28: Luteal phase – the egg travels through the fallopian tubes
(oviducts) to the uterus; if fertilised, the embryo may attach to the uterine
lining and the woman will become pregnant; if the egg is not fertilised, the
uterine lining will shed, and the cycle will begin again.

Hormones involved in the menstrual cycle

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system
and released into the bloodstream. They regulate various physiological functions
in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, mood, sexual
function, and reproduction. Hormones interact with specific target cells or organs,
where they exert their effects by binding to hormone receptors.

Hormonal Regulation
Hormone levels are controlled by the pituitary and ovaries. Progesterone and
oestrogen are produced in the ovaries whilst Luteinising Hormone (LH) and
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) are produced in the pituitary.

Table 4.6: Hormones associated with the menstrual cycle.

FSH FSH stimulates the growth and development of follicles (fluid-

filled sacs) in the ovaries. Within each follicle is an immature
egg. FSH is produced in the pituitary.
Oestrogen As the ovarian follicles grow and mature, they produce
increasing amounts of oestrogen. Oestrogen plays a key role in
thickening the uterine lining (endometrium) in preparation for
potential implantation of a fertilised egg.
LH LH surge triggers ovulation, the release of a mature egg from
the ovary. LH is also produced in the pituitary.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Progesterone After ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into a

structure called the corpus luteum which produces and
secretes progesterone. Progesterone helps maintain the uterine
lining and prepares it for implantation of a fertilised egg. If
fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down,
leading to a decline in progesterone levels.

Importance of Ovulation
Ovulation is crucial in the menstrual cycle because it marks the release of a mature
egg from the ovary, making pregnancy possible. Tracking ovulation is essential
for those trying to conceive or avoid pregnancy as it indicates the most fertile
window of the cycle; see Annex 4.3 – Further Information for more detail.

Contraception
Teenagers who are aware of their menstrual cycle are better equipped to choose
suitable contraception methods. Having discussed forms of birth control and their
efficacy, it is important to know what contraceptive is consistent and appropriate
particularly during the days in the menstrual cycle where conception is most likely
to occur. Medical professionals can be engaged to provide advice on contraception.
Contraception refers to methods or techniques used to prevent pregnancy. There
are many methods used to prevent pregnancy from hormonal pills, inter-uterine
devices, condoms, and hormonal implants. The methods of tracking ovulation
(OPKs, cervical mucus monitoring and BBT) can also be used to plan periods of
sexual abstinence when fertilisation is most likely. This can be used as a method
of contraception though it is unreliable in younger women when periods are
unpredictable and vary from month to month.

Activity 4.19

Research and summarise how the following contraception methods work:

Method How it works

Hormonal pills
Inter-uterine devices (e.g. the hormonal
coil / the copper coil)
Condoms
Cycle tracking

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Menstrual Disorders
Issues affecting a woman’s regular menstrual cycle are referred to as menstrual
disorders, these come in a variety of forms. Issues can vary from painful, heavy
periods to no periods at all. Menstrual patterns vary widely, but women should
be concerned if their periods continue longer than 10 days or if they occur less
frequently than 21 days or more. Such occurrences could be a sign of ovulation
issues or other illnesses. Some examples of menstrual disorders are given in
Annex 4.3.

Reproductive Health Issues

Reproductive health refers to the state of physical, mental, and social well-being
in all matters relating to the reproductive system. It encompasses a broad range
of issues, including fertility, contraception, sexually transmitted infections (STIs),
menstrual health, pregnancy, childbirth, and reproductive cancers. It is crucial
to address these issues through education, access to healthcare, and support
services to ensure individuals can make informed decisions and maintain their
reproductive health.

Menstrual Health
Good menstrual health and hygiene practices can prevent infections, reduce
odours, and help stay comfortable during your period. Some menstrual products
that can be used to absorb or collect blood during your period, include sanitary
pads, tampons, menstrual cups and menstrual discs. The tips in Annex 4.3 can be
followed to keep you safe and healthy.

Activity 4.20

As a group, watch these videos and take part in a whole-class discussion

surrounding the questions that follow:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42WIByexiXc

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2NjzlvAV1lc

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Is1LOacgWkc

a. From the videos, how would you describe reproductive health?

b. Identify at least four challenges associated with menstrual health
and reproductive health.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

c. As either a male or a female, how will you stay healthy during the
reproductive stage?

Adolescent Reproductive Health

It is important to discuss among yourselves issues of menstruation cleanliness,
fertility awareness, where to find reproductive healthcare services, and normal or
abnormal changes during puberty. Sharing thoughts and experiences is the best
way to keep everybody safe.

EXTENDED READING
• Menstrual Hygiene: Reading Material for ASHA - https://www.nhm.gov.
in/images/pdf/programmes/mhs/Training_Materials/PDF_English/reading_
material.pdf
• The Integration of Menstrual Health into Sexual and Reproductive Health
and Rights Policies and Programmes. https://www.nhm.gov.in/images/pdf/
programmes/mhs/Training_Materials/PDF_English/reading_material.pdf
• Take Charge Of Your Cycle: 4 Period Books That Every Woman Needs To
Read https://thefoundationblog.com/blog/4periodbooks

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

ANNEXES

Annex 4.1 – Possible Solutions To Activities

Activity 4.1

Learners, reproduction can take place in plants or in humans/animals.

Reproduction in plants is a fundamental biological process that allows plants
to propagate and ensure the continuation of their species. Through these
mechanisms plants can produce offspring, disperse their genetic material, and
colonise new habitats.
There are two types of reproduction: sexual reproduction and asexual
reproduction.

Activity 4.2
Parts of a Structure Function
flower
Sepals The sepals are the Brightly coloured sepals attract
outermost whorl which is pollinators to pollinate the
small and green in colour. flower.
Green sepals perform
photosynthesis to manufacture
food for the plant.
They protect the delicate flower
bud before it opens.
Petals Petals are large and Produces scent to attract
brightly coloured. pollinators.
Produces nectar to attract insect
pollinators.

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Parts of a Structure Function

flower
Stamens This is male organ of the The male sex organs. The
plant and consists of the anthers produce pollen which
anther and the filament. can be considered the male
The filament holds the gametes of the plant.
anthers.
Stigma The stigma is on the top Stigma collects pollen grains.
of the style connected to
the ovary. The stigma,
style and ovary can be
considered the female parts
of the flower.
Ovary Located above or below Produces ovules which will
the petals/sepals, the ovary develop into seeds once
holds the ovules. fertilised.
The ovary develops into a fruit at
the same time.

Activity 4.3

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Activity 4.6

Observations:
• The sexually reproducing plant may exhibit slower overall growth and
allocate significantly more resources to reproductive structures compared
to the asexually reproducing plant. For example, the bean seed may start
germinating after one week, while the cassava sticks may start showing
its buds within three days.
• The sexually reproducing plant’s reproduction may be highly dependent
on the presence and activity of pollinators.
• Under environmental stress, the sexually reproducing plant may struggle
to maintain seed production, while the asexual reproducer may be more
resilient.
• The asexually reproducing plant may be able to spread and colonise new
areas much more quickly than the sexually reproducing plant.

Conclusion:
The experiment demonstrates key disadvantages that plants face when relying
on sexual reproduction, including the higher energy costs, dependence
on pollinators, and slower rates of reproduction. These factors can make
sexually reproducing plants less competitive, especially in rapidly changing
or resource-limited environments, compared to plants that can reproduce
asexually. Understanding these trade-offs is important for predicting vegetation
dynamics and informing conservation strategies.

Activity 4.7

• Cuttings: Portions of stems or roots are cut and planted in suitable

conditions to grow into new plants. Typically, cuttings are obtained from
healthy, established plants while they are actively growing. Rooting
hormone is then applied to the cutting to promote the formation of roots.
The cutting is placed in a growing medium to facilitate further growth
after the roots have formed.
• Grafting: Grafting is a technique in which the parts of two separate plants
are connected so that they develop as a single plant. During grafting, the
stems of two separate plants are cut and joined together in such a way
that they grow as a single plant. One of the two cut stems has roots and

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is referred to as stock. The other stem, known as the scion, is cut without
roots. Scion and stock cut surfaces are fitted and stitched together with
a piece of cloth before being covered with a polythene cover. It guards
the stem against infections and other issues. Soon, the stock and scion
combine to form a new plant. This is often done where the delicate fruit-
bearing variety is grafted onto a hardier rootstock.
• Layering: This technique involves bending a lower branch of a plant and
covering it with damp soil leaving the developing tip exposed. Before
the stem is bent down, a ring of bark is sometimes removed. When it
has rooted, it can be separated from the parent plant and grown as an
independent plant. In some species, long branches emanating from the
tree trunk or bush stem can touch the surrounding soil surface (or are
pinned to the ground) and soon start to develop roots which anchor the
branch to the soil and start to draw water and nutrients. Once established,
the layered branch detaches (or can be cut) from the mother trunk and the
rooted branch becomes an independent plant. For instance, grapevine,
strawberries, bougainvillaea, and jasmine.
• Micropropagation (Tissue Culture): Involves the growth of plant
cells, tissues, or organs in a sterile nutrient medium under controlled
conditions. A little portion of tissue, an organ, or even just one cell is
removed from the plant and placed in an aseptic, sterile container with
a nourishing medium. The tissue quickly becomes an unorganised lump
known as a callus. There is no limit to how long the callus can persist and
grow. Plantlets, or tiny plants, are created when little amounts of tissue
are transplanted to a different specialised media containing hormones.
This process drives differentiation. The plantlets are grown into mature
plants and can be gradually transplanted into pots or soil.

Activity 4.8

The experiment demonstrates the feasibility of vegetative propagation

through stem cuttings, which allows for the asexual reproduction of plants.
The success of this method depends on factors such as the health and vigour
of the parent plant, the proper selection and preparation of the cuttings,
the rooting medium, and the environmental conditions. The use of rooting
hormone can potentially enhance the rooting process, but it is not always
necessary. Understanding the principles of vegetative propagation can help in

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the multiplication and conservation of desirable plant varieties, as well as the

rapid propagation of plants for commercial or ecological purposes.

Activity 4.9

The experiment demonstrates the process of vegetative propagation through

grafting, which allows for the combination of desirable traits from different
plant varieties. The success of grafting depends on factors such as the
compatibility between the rootstock and scion, the quality of the graft union,
and the environmental conditions during the grafting and healing process.
Grafting is a valuable technique for propagating plants that are difficult to
reproduce through other methods, as well as for creating new plant varieties
with improved characteristics. Understanding the principles of grafting can
be beneficial in horticulture, agriculture, and plant breeding applications.

Activity 4.10

The experiment demonstrates the process of vegetative propagation through

layering, which allows for the asexual reproduction of plants. Layering is a
useful technique for plants that are difficult to propagate through cuttings or
other methods. The success of layering depends on factors such as the health
and flexibility of the parent plant, the proper preparation of the layered stem,
the rooting medium, and the environmental conditions. The use of rooting
hormone can potentially enhance the rooting process, but it is not always
necessary. Understanding the principles of layering can be beneficial in
propagating plants for horticultural, agricultural, or conservation purposes,
as it allows for the multiplication of desirable plant varieties without the need
for seeds or other specialised equipment.

Activity 4.11

The experiment demonstrates the process of vegetative propagation through

tissue culture, which is a powerful technique for the rapid multiplication of
plants. Tissue culture allows for the asexual reproduction of plants from small,
specialised plant parts (explants) under controlled laboratory conditions. The
success of tissue culture propagation depends on factors such as the choice
of explant, the composition of the culture medium (including plant growth

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regulators), the sterile techniques employed, and the environmental conditions

maintained during the culture period.
By understanding the principles of tissue culture, this method can be
leveraged for a wide range of applications, including the mass propagation
of rare or valuable plant species, the conservation of endangered plants, and
the production of disease-free planting materials. This experiment provides a
valuable hands-on experience for grade 8 students to explore the intricacies
of this advanced vegetative propagation technique.

Activity 4.12
Description Function
Ovaries The ovaries are a pair of 1. Egg Production.
small, almond-shaped 2. Hormone Production.
organs in the pelvic
cavity.
Oviducts The oviducts are two 1. The oviduct is the site of
narrow tubes that extend fertilisation where the egg meets
from the ovaries to the the sperm.
uterus. 2. The oviduct subsequently
carries the fertilised egg
(zygote) to the uterus.
Uterus The uterus, or the womb, 1. Site for implantation.
is a hollow, muscular 2. The uterus wall supplies
organ in the pelvis. It is nourishment and oxygen to the
lined with tissue with an developing foetus.
enhanced blood supply
called the endometrium. 3. Provides protection and support
to the developing foetus.
Cervix The cervix is the lower 1. Muscular entrance and exit of
part of the uterus that the uterus.
connects it to the vagina. 2. Allows the entry of sperm and
the exit of menstrual blood, and
through which the baby passes
from the uterus to the vagina in
childbirth.

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Description Function
Vagina The vagina is a muscular 1. Accepts the penis during sexual
canal that serves as intercourse.
the birth canal during 2. Allows the exit of menses
childbirth and as the site during menstruation.
for sexual intercourse.
3. The birth canal allowing the
baby to pass through into the
outside world.
Vulva The external parts of 1. The labia protect the opening of
the female reproductive the urethra and vagina.
system comprised of the 2. The labia and clitoris provide
labia majora, labia sexual sensations making sex
minora, and clitoris. pleasurable.
Labia minora are folds
of skin protected by the
outer labia. The clitoris
is the main site of female
sexual pleasure located
above the urethra.

Activity 4.14
Description Function
Testes The testes, or testicles, are 1. Sperm production.
the primary reproductive 2. Hormone production –
organs in males. especially testosterone.
Epididymis The epididymis is a coiled 1. Site for sperm
tube located on the surface maturation.
of each testis. It functions as 2. Temporary storage of
a storage and maturation site sperms.
for sperm cells.
Vas Deferens The Vas Deferens is a 1. Sperm transport.
muscular tube that connects 2. Provides sensation.
the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct.

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Description Function
Seminal These accessory glands The seminal vesicles
Vesicles, produce fluids that combine and glands produce a
Prostate with sperm to form semen. fluid rich in fructose
Gland and and other nutrients that
Bulbourethral provide energy for sperm.
Glands The fluid also contains
prostaglandins, which
help in sperm motility
and fertility. They make
up a significant volume of
semen.

Annex 4.2 - Further Information on Reproduction in

Plants
Pollination

Wind Pollination Insect Pollination

1. Wind pollination is really 1. Insect pollination is an efficient
good for plants that live in way for plants to reproduce, as it
places where there aren’t many relies on specialised pollinators
other pollinators like bees or that help facilitate the process.
butterflies. The wind is always
blowing, so the plants don’t have
to wait for a special visitor to
come by.
2. Insect pollination promotes
2. The wind can carry pollen long cross-pollination, where insects
distances, even to plants that carry pollen from one flower to
are far apart. This is helpful for another as they forage for food,
plants that live in areas where allowing for genetic diversity
there aren’t a lot of other plants among the plant population.
around.

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Wind Pollination Insect Pollination

3. Wind-pollinated plants have 3. Plants have adapted to attract
special adaptations to help them insects by producing nectar,
make the most of the wind. scents, and vibrant colours,
They produce lots of lightweight which enhance the success
pollen that can easily blow away of pollination by making the
in the breeze. flowers more enticing to the
4. Unlike flowers that need insects, pollinators.
wind-pollinated flowers don’t 4. Insect-pollinated flowers often
have nectar, smells, or bright have specific structures, such
colours to attract bugs. This as landing pads or specialised
saves the plant energy that it can shapes, that make it easier for
use for other important things. the insects to access the pollen
5. Some plants rely on specific and facilitate its transfer.
pollinators, but wind-pollinated 5. This mutualistic relationship
plants are less affected by between plants and pollinating
changes in the number of insects ensures reproductive
pollinators or changes in the success for the plants, as the
environment that might hurt insects benefit from the nectar
certain insects. and the plants benefit from the
pollination.
6. Insect pollination has evolved as
a highly effective reproductive
strategy, especially in diverse
ecosystems where there is a
wide variety of plant and insect
species interacting with one
another.

In conclusion, the importance of insect pollination cannot be overstated.

From its role in maintaining genetic diversity and supporting crop production
to its contribution to ecosystem balance and environmental monitoring, this
ecological process is fundamental to the well-being of our planet and the
sustainability of human society.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Genetic Diversity 1. Requires More Energy and
When plants reproduce sexually, Resources
each parent contributes half of their Sexual reproduction in plants
genetic information to the offspring. requires more energy and resources
This means the offspring will have compared to asexual reproduction.
a unique combination of traits from The plant has to produce flowers,
both parents. This genetic diversity is pollen, and seeds, which takes a lot
important because: of the plant’s energy and nutrients.
- Some offspring may have traits
that help them survive better
in certain environments. This
increases the chances of the
species surviving and thriving.
- Genetic diversity makes the
population less vulnerable to
diseases or pests. If a disease
affects one type of plant, the
other genetically different plants
may be able to survive.

2. Evolutionary Advantage 2. Relies on Pollinators

Sexual reproduction helps plants Many plants need help from
evolve and adapt over time. By pollinators, like bees and butterflies,
creating new genetic combinations, to transfer the pollen from one flower
sexual reproduction provides the to another. If there are not enough
raw material for natural selection pollinators around, the plant may not
to work on. This allows plants to be able to reproduce sexually.
slowly change and adapt to new
environments and conditions over
many generations.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Advantages Disadvantages
3. Seed Dispersal 3. Slower Reproduction Rate
When plants reproduce sexually, The process of sexual reproduction,
they produce seeds. These seeds including pollination, fertilisation,
can be carried to new locations by and seed development, takes a
wind, animals, or water. This allows long time. This slower rate of
the plant’s offspring to spread out reproduction can be a disadvantage
and grow in different areas. This for plants that need to grow and
helps the plant species establish new spread quickly, especially in
populations in new habitats. environments that are changing
rapidly.

Advantages of Natural Asexual Reproduction in Plants vs Artificial

Propagation of Plants
Natural Artificial
1. Asexual reproduction in plants 1. Consistency - Artificial methods
is efficient, as it does not require can ensure that new plants have the
the time and energy needed for same desirable traits as the parent,
pollination or the production of like the colour of their flowers or
seeds. how well they resist diseases.
2. Offspring produced through 2. Rapid Production - Techniques
asexual reproduction are like tissue culture allow growers to
genetically identical to the parent quickly produce large numbers of
plant, ensuring consistency in identical, healthy new plants from
desirable traits such as disease just a small piece of the original
resistance or fruit quality. plant.
3. Rapid propagation of plants with 3. Propagating Sterile or Hybrid
favourable traits occurs without the Plants - Some plants don’t
need for genetic recombination. make good seeds, but artificial
propagation provides a way to still
grow more of them.
4. Asexual reproduction allows plants 4. Year-Round Production - Artificial
to colonise new environments methods allow plants to be grown
rapidly, enabling them to spread anytime, not just during the normal
even from a single individual. growing season. This keeps the
supply steady.

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Natural Artificial
5. Some plants can reproduce 5. Conservation - Endangered
asexually under adverse conditions plant species can be protected
such as drought or nutrient by artificially propagating them
scarcity, serving as a survival to prevent the plants from going
strategy. extinct.
6. Genetic purity is maintained as 6. Disease Prevention - When
there is no mixing of genetic starting with sterile plant material,
material from different plants, artificial propagation reduces the
preserving specific traits that are risk of spreading plant diseases to
well-adapted to environments. the new plants.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Artificial Propagation

Methods
Advantages Disadvantages
Cuttings 1. Cuttings root quickly and 1. Cuttings are more prone
can establish themselves to disease and rot since
as new plants in a short they lack a developed
time. root system and are
2. Cuttings produce plants more vulnerable to
that are genetically environmental stress.
identical to the parent 2. Some plant species are
plant, ensuring desirable challenging to propagate
traits are maintained. from cuttings due to low
3. Cuttings allow for rooting success rates.
precise control over the 3. Newly rooted cuttings
size and growth habits of may experience transplant
the resulting plants. shock when moved to a
4. Cutting propagation new environment, requiring
is often cost-effective extra care and attention.
as it requires minimal
materials and equipment.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Advantages Disadvantages
Grafting 1. Grafting allows for the 1. Grafting success depends
combination of different on genetic compatibility
plant varieties or species, between the scion (upper
enabling the creation portion) and the rootstock
of plants with desirable leading to potential
qualities such as disease incompatibility issues.
resistance, improved 2. Grafting can be a labour-
yield, or unique intensive process requiring
characteristics. specialized skills and
2. Grafted plants often equipment leading to
exhibit faster growth higher production costs
rates and earlier fruiting compared to other
compared to plants propagation methods.
propagated by other 3. Grafting can potentially
methods. transmit diseases from
3. Grafted plants can the rootstock to the scion
benefit from the root especially if proper
system of a vigorous sanitation practices are not
rootstock, providing followed
improved nutrient
uptake, drought
resistance, and overall
resilience.
4. Grafting can be used to
repair damaged plants
or rejuvenate old or
weak specimens by
incorporating them into
a new, healthier root
system.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Advantages Disadvantages
Layering 1. Layering is a delicate 1. Compared to cuttings,
and non-invasive method layering may result in
of growing new plants established plants more
since it resembles slowly because roots need
natural plant growth time to grow while still
techniques. connected to the parent
2. Having established plant.
roots prior to being split 2. In general, layering
off from their parent produces fewer young
plant, layered plants plants at a time than cutting
have a better chance of propagation techniques.
establishing themselves. 3. To accommodate the
3. Layering encourages expanding branches,
branching and general layering might need
plant vigour, which additional room in the
results in stronger, nursery or garden.
healthier plants.
4. Plant species that are
challenging to reproduce
by cuttings can benefit
from layering.

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SECTION 4 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

Advantages Disadvantages
Micro- 1. Micropropagation 1. Micropropagation can
propagation enables the rapid lead to genetic uniformity
production of many among propagated plants,
plants from a small which may result in
amount of plant material reduced genetic diversity
making it an efficient and increased susceptibility
method for commercial to pests and diseases.
plant production. 2. Setting up and maintaining
2. Micro-propagated plants a tissue culture facility
are grown in sterile can be expensive, making
conditions, reducing micropropagation a
the risk of disease costly method of plant
transmission, and propagation.
producing healthy stock 3. Micro-propagated plants
free from pathogens. may require care and
3. Micropropagation acclimatization post-
preserves the genetic propagation to transition
integrity of plant successfully from sterile
varieties, ensuring the laboratory conditions to
propagation of true-to- outdoor environments.
type plants with desired
traits.
4. Micropropagation
allows for continuous
production of plants
regardless of seasonal
limitations, providing
a consistent supply of
plant material.

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Annex 4.3 – Further Information on Menstrual Cycle

Methods of Tracking the Menstrual Cycle
These methods include monitoring basal body temperature, monitoring cervical
mucus (vaginal discharge) and ovulation predictor kits to identify the fertile
window.
Tracking basal body temperature (BBT): Tracking BBT can be useful for
monitoring ovulation patterns and fertility. To do this, you would measure your
temperature first thing in the morning just after waking. Consistent tracking over
time can help predict ovulation and optimise chances of conception if that is your
goal. There are various apps available to help track BBT and the menstrual cycle.
Cervical mucus changes: Hormonal variations cause the consistency of cervical
mucus to fluctuate during the menstrual cycle. During most of the menstrual cycle,
cervical mucus is very thick and viscous and forms a plug blocking the cervix.
As ovulation draws near, the cervical mucus becomes runnier, thinner, and much
less viscous (like egg white) as the cervical mucus plug breaks down potentially
allowing sperm to enter the uterus. This less viscous cervical mucus promotes
sperm motility and survival which makes conception easier. It gets thicker and less
abundant again after ovulation. It is possible to anticipate ovulation and fertility
by monitoring these changes in the vaginal discharge (which is cervical mucus).
Ovulation Predictor Kits: The image below shows an ovulation predictor kit
(OPKs). It is a tool used to predict ovulation to maximise the chances of pregnancy.
It work by detecting levels of luteinising hormone (LH) in urine which surges just
before ovulation. OPK’s can help women identify their most fertile days aiding in
conception or in contraception. It is essential to follow the instructions carefully
and consider other fertility signs for accurate predictions.

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How to use the ovulation predictor kits (OPKs)

Understand your cycle: Determine the length of your menstrual cycle. Typically,
ovulation occurs around 14 days before your next period starts, but this can vary.
1. Start testing: Begin testing a few days before you expect to ovulate based
on your cycle length. For example, if you have a 28-day cycle, start testing
around day 10.
2. Choose the time of day: Most kits recommend testing with your first
morning urine, as the LH surge (which indicates ovulation is about to occur)
is usually most concentrated then.
3. Follow the instructions: Read the instructions provided with your OPK
carefully. They typically involve either urinating on a stick or dipping it into
a cup of urine.
4. Interpret the results: Look for the appearance of a test line. If it is dark or
darker than the control line, it indicates a positive result meaning you are
likely to ovulate within the next 12-36 hours.
5. Time intercourse: Plan to have intercourse over the next couple of days
after receiving a positive result to maximise your chances of conception.
6. Continue testing: Keep testing daily until either you detect ovulation or
your cycle ends. Some kits come with multiple strips to cover your entire
fertile window.
7. Record your results: Keep track of your results and the days you had
intercourse to better understand your fertility pattern over time.

Menstrual disorders
Dysmenorrhea: Dysmenorrhea is severe, frequent cramping during menstruation.
Pain occurs in the lower abdomen but can spread to the lower back and thighs.
Menorrhagia: The medical word for noticeably heavier periods is menorrhagia.
There are numerous reasons for menorrhagia. An average woman sheds 30ml of
blood during a typical menstrual cycle and changes her sanitary items three to
five times a day.
Amenorrhea: Amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation and can result from
malnutrition or from heavy sustained exercise. Many female athletes have periods
of amenorrhea.
Oligomenorrhea and Hypomenorrhea: The disorder known as oligomenorrhea
causes menstrual cycles to be irregular and spaced apart by more than 35 days.
Early adolescence is a common time for it to occur, and it typically does not signify

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a medical issue. Before menopause and in the first years following menarche,
light, or insufficient flow (hypomenorrhea) is also typical.
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): PMS is a collection of behavioural, emotional,
and physical symptoms that often appear a week before menstruation in the final
week of the luteal phase. Usually, the symptoms do not appear until at least day
13 of the cycle and go away four days after the bleeding starts.

Menstrual Health
1. Wash your hands before and after using the restroom and before using a
menstrual product.
2. Discard used disposable menstrual products properly: Wrap them with toilet
paper, a tissue, or other material and then toss it in a trash bin. Do not flush
menstrual products down the toilet.
3. Sanitary pads: Change sanitary pads every few hours, no matter how light
the flow. Change them more frequently if your period is heavy.
4. Tampons: Change tampons every 4 to 8 hours. Do not wear a single tampon
for more than 8 hours at a time.
5. Use the lowest-absorbency tampon needed. If you can wear one tampon for
up to 8 hours without changing, the absorbency may be too high.
6. Sanitise menstrual cups after your period is over by rinsing them thoroughly
and then placing them in boiling water for one to two minutes.
7. Wear lightweight, breathable clothing (such as cotton underwear). Tight
fabrics can trap moisture and heat, allowing germs to thrive.
8. Change your menstrual products regularly. Trapped moisture provides a
breeding ground for bacteria and fungi. Wearing a pad or period underwear
for too long can lead to a rash or an infection.
9. Keep your genital area clean. Wash the outside of your vagina (vulva) and
bottom every day. When you go to the bathroom, wipe from the front of
your body towards the back, not the other way. Use only water to rinse your
vulva. The vagina is a self-cleaning organ. Changing the natural pH balance
of your vagina by washing or using chemicals to cleanse out the vagina can
be harmful and may result in a yeast infection or bacterial vaginosis.
10. Use unscented toilet paper, tampons, or pads. Scented hygiene products can
irritate the skin and impact your natural pH balance.
11. Drink enough liquids. This can help wash out your urinary tract and help
prevent infections, like vaginal candidiasis.

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12. Track and monitor your period. Your menstrual cycle is a valuable marker
for your overall health. Irregular periods can be a sign of conditions like
diabetes, thyroid dysfunction, and celiac disease. You can track your period
on a calendar or with an app on your phone designed for this purpose.
13. Talk to a doctor if you experience a change in odour, have extreme or unusual
pain, or have more severe period symptoms than usual (such as a heavier
flow or longer period).
14. Avoid using chemical products on your vulva.
15. Try to avoid a pad rash: A heavy flow can cause a pad rash. This will happen
as the pad can be wet for a longer time. Try to change the pad by staying
dry and using an ointment, as suggested by an expert after a bath and before
bed, this will heal the rash. Pad lining may cause irritation to sensitive skin
too. If rashes persist, the skin can be sensitive and indicate high blood sugar
or allergy to the product.
16. Do not forget to take a shower: This can help you to keep yourself clean, stay
fresh, get rid of any unpleasant odour down there, and prevent infections.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Questions 4.1

1. Why is reproduction an essential biological process for the survival and
continuation of plant and animal species?
2. How do the different types of plant reproduction, including sexual and
various asexual methods, differ in their mechanisms and outcomes?
3. Describe the key stages involved in the sexual reproduction process of
flowering plants, from pollination to seed and fruit formation.
4. Design and conduct a hands-on experiment to demonstrate one or
more vegetative propagation techniques, such as layering, grafting, or
taking cuttings, and explain the practical applications of these asexual
reproduction methods.

Review Questions 4.2

1. How will a blocked fallopian tube affect human reproduction?
2. What defect in the male reproductive system can cause the same effect
as in question 1?

Review Questions 4.3

1. What are some ways you could cope with menstrual cramps while in
school?
2. How should a girl handle talking to a male classmate or teacher about
needing to take a break for menstrual reasons?
3. How should one navigate the challenges of exercising or participating
in physical activities while menstruating?
4. How can access to reproductive health care contribute to overall health
and well-being for individuals and communities?
5. What steps should one take to track and monitor her menstrual cycle,
particularly if trying to manage symptoms like irregular periods?

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6. Emma is an 18-year-old woman who is in a long-term relationship and

wants to prevent unintended pregnancies. She is considering various
contraceptive options and is unsure which method would be best for
her. She has heard about different types of contraceptives such as the
birth control pill, contraceptive implant, and intrauterine device (IUD),
but is unsure about the potential side effects and effectiveness of each
method. Emma is also concerned about the cost and accessibility of
these contraceptive options. Guide her to make an informed decision
about which contraceptive method would be most suitable for her
lifestyle and health needs.

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ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

Review Questions 4.1

1. Answers should include comments regarding:
• The role of reproduction in maintaining genetic diversity within a
population
• How reproduction enables the continuation of a species by passing
on genetic information to the next generation
• The importance of reproduction for the growth and expansion of a
species’ population
• The evolutionary advantages conferred by the ability to reproduce
and adapt to changing environmental conditions
• The interdependence between reproduction and other essential life
processes, such as growth, development, and energy acquisition
2. Answers should include comments regarding:
• The role of gametes, fertilisation, and meiosis in sexual reproduction
versus the absence of these processes in asexual reproduction
• The genetic consequences of sexual reproduction, which introduces
genetic variation, versus the clonal nature of asexual reproduction
• The differences in the developmental pathways and structures
involved in sexual (e.g., flowers, seeds) versus asexual (e.g.,
vegetative structures, spores) reproduction
• The advantages and disadvantages of sexual versus asexual
reproduction in terms of adaptability, dispersal, and resource
allocation
• Examples of the various forms of asexual reproduction, such as
fragmentation, budding, and vegetative propagation, and how they
differ in their mechanisms and outcomes
3. When pollinators visit the flower to feed on its nectar, they inadvertently
pick up pollen on their bodies. As they fly from bloom to bloom, they
transfer this pollen to the receptive stigmas.

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Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it grows a tiny tube that extends down through
the style and into the ovary. The sperm cells within the pollen then fuse with the
egg cells in the ovules, fertilising them. This fertilisation process forms seeds,
which contain embryos that can germinate and grow into new plants.

Review Questions 4.2

1. The blockage will prevent sperms from meeting a released egg, therefore
no fertilisation will occur, and reproduction will not happen.
2. If any of the following defects occur:
• Undeveloped testes
• Blocked Vas Deferens
• Blocked epididymis
• Erectile dysfunction

Review Questions 4.3

1. Some ways to cope with menstrual cramps while in school include:
• Taking over-the-counter pain medication to help alleviate the pain.
• Using a heating pad or hot water bottle placed on the lower abdomen
to provide relief from cramps.
• Practicing deep breathing exercises or mindfulness techniques to
help relax and reduce stress, which can worsen cramps.
• Drinking warm herbal tea, such as chamomile or ginger, to soothe
the discomfort.
• Engaging in light physical activity or stretching during breaks to
help improve circulation and reduce cramps.
• Ensuring to stay hydrated by drinking plenty of water throughout
the day.
• Communicating with teachers or school staff about your discomfort
and possibly requesting accommodations if needed, such as extra
breaks or adjustments to seating arrangements.
2. When talking to a male classmate or teacher about needing to take a
break for menstrual-related reasons, it is important to approach the

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conversation with confidence and assertiveness. Here are some tips on

how to handle this situation:
• Be direct and honest
• Use clear language
• Express your needs
• Ask for understanding
• Advocate for yourself
• Educate if necessary
• Seek support
3. To navigate the challenges of exercising or participating in physical
activities while menstruating, consider the following strategies:
• Choose the right workout attire
• Stay hydrated
• Incorporate gentle exercises
• Manage discomfort
• Plan ahead: Be prepared by packing extra menstrual products,
wipes, and a change of clothes in your gym bag in case of leaks or
unexpected changes.
• Listen to your needs: If you feel too uncomfortable or fatigued to
exercise, it’s important to listen to your body and give yourself
permission to take a rest day without feeling guilty.
4. Access to reproductive health care plays a crucial role in promoting
overall health and well-being for individuals and communities in several
ways:
• Preventing unintended pregnancies
• Promoting maternal and child health
• Preventing sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
• Addressing reproductive health issues
• Supporting mental health
• Empowering individuals

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5. Tracking and monitoring your menstrual cycle can be helpful, especially

if you are trying to manage symptoms like irregular periods. Here are
steps you can take to effectively track and monitor your menstrual cycle:
• Start a menstrual calendar
• Track symptoms
• Monitor cycle length
• Check for patterns
• Consult with a healthcare provider
By taking these steps to track and monitor your menstrual cycle, you can
gain valuable insights into your reproductive health, identify patterns
or irregularities, and make informed decisions about managing your
symptoms and overall menstrual health.
6. Making an informed decision about which contraceptive method to
use involves considering factors such as effectiveness, ease of use, side
effects, health benefits, personal preferences, and lifestyle. Here are
steps you can take to make an informed decision:
• Educate yourself
• Assess your needs and preferences
• Consult with a healthcare provider
• Consider effectiveness
• Assess side effects and health benefits
• Try a trial period
• Consider long-term goals
• Seek support
By following these steps, educating yourself, consulting with a healthcare
provider, and considering your specific needs and preferences, you can
make an informed decision about which contraceptive method to use
that aligns with your reproductive health goals.

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REFERENCES
1. Hartman, H.T. et al (1997) Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices,
Sixth Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
2. Toogood, Alan, (1999), American Horticulture Society Plant Propagation:
The Fully Illustrated Plant-by-Plant Manual of Practical Techniques, AHS.
3. Heuser, Charles W. (Editor), Richard Bird, Mike Honour, Clive Innes, Jim
Arbury
4. (Contributing Authors), (1997) The Complete Book of Plant Propagation,
Taunton Press.
5. https://ncert.nic.in/vocational/pdf/kegr103.pdf
6. https://resourcecentral.org/plant-propagation-meth...
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_propagation
8. https://extension.umaine.edu/gardening/manual/prop...
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_tissue_culture
10. Internet resources such as
https://www.always.com/en-us/period-calculator
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/subjects/zhstqp3
https://www.webmd.com/baby/healthtool-ovulation-calculator;
https://www.unfpa.org/resources/adolescent-sexual-and-reproductive-
health;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBHRwkZPNac
https://crickethillgarden.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/bt-base.jpg
11. Internet resources such as https://www.webmd.com/baby/healthtool-
ovulation-calculator; https://www.unfpa.org/resources/adolescent-
sexual-and-reproductive-health; https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lBHRwkZPNac
12. Jones, R. E. (1997). Human Reproductive Biology, (2nd
ed.). Academic Press
13. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology (15th ed.). Wiley.
14. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology (15th ed.). Wiley.

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15. Ramawat, K. G., Merillon, J.-M., & Shivanna, K. R. (2016). Reproductive

Biology of Plants. CRC Press.
16. Jones, R. E. (1997). Human Reproductive Biology, Second Edition (2nd
ed.). Academic Press.

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GLOSSARY
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the
stigma of a pistil.
Ova: They are the cells produced by the female reproductive system when they
undergo reduction division to produce egg cells. The plural of ovum is ova.
Sperm cells: They are male reproductive cells that are produced in the testicles.
The sperm cells swim to meet the female egg for fertilisation.
Penis: It is a copulating organ, which males use to inseminate semen into the
body of a female.
Semen: It is a male reproductive fluid, containing spermatozoa in suspension.
Testicles: They are also called testes which are housed in the scrotum for protection
and regulation of their temperature. The testicles produce sperm and secrete a
hormone called testosterone.
Urethra: It is a duct that transmits urine from the bladder to the outside of the
body.
Hormones: They are chemical messengers secreted by ductless glands called
endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream.
Copulation: It is also known as sexual intercourse, copulation involves the
insertion of the erect penis into the vagina. During this process, semen is ejaculated
into the vagina.
Fertilisation: The fusion of male and female sex cells in the oviduct to form a
zygote.
Hormones are chemical substances that act like ‘messenger molecules’ in the
body. They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

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 General Science Year 1

SECTION

5
SOLAR PANELS
SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

VIGOUR BEHIND LIFE

Powering the future with energy

INTRODUCTION
In this section, you will dive into the exciting world of solar energy and discover
how sunlight can be transformed into electricity by the use of panels. But we won’t
stop at just learning the theory; you will get hands-on experience in designing and
building your solar panel using materials you can find around you.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the generation of electricity from solar cells/panels.

• Design and build solar panels.
• Design and build solar panels using locally available materials.

KEY IDEAS

• Solar panels are devices that are made up of multiple solar cells
(photovoltaic cells) that capture sunlight and convert it into electricity.
• Photovoltaic technology is the method used to convert sunlight directly
into electricity using materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect,
typically semiconductors like silicon.
• Sustainable methods are approaches that do not deplete resources or
harm the environment.

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

HOW SOLAR PANELS REDUCE THE RELIANCE

ON FOSSIL FUELS IN GHANA
Hello learner! Have you ever thought about the power of the Sun, which lights up
our world, and how it is useful in our homes, schools, and communities?

Activity 5.1

Quickly discuss with your neighbour some of the benefits that we, as humans,
get from the Sun. Produce a concept map to summarise your ideas, including
anything that you recall about solar energy from your studies in Junior High
School.
Ultimately, everything on Earth depends upon the Sun and the energy it
transfers to us. The energy we derive directly from the Sun is known as solar
energy.

Overview of Fossil Fuels

To better appreciate the usefulness of solar energy, let us discuss some facts about
fossil fuels.

Activity 5.2

Observe the items in Figure 5.1. Which of them are you familiar with? How
often would you say that you use them? And for how long? What would be
the most difficult aspect of your life without them?

Fig 5.1: Examples of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are natural energy sources formed from the remains of ancient plants
and animals that lived millions of years ago. These organisms were buried under
layers of sediment and rock, where heat and pressure over time transformed them

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

into coal, oil, and natural gas. They are a primary source of energy for modern
civilisations, powering everything from transportation to electricity generation.
However, they are non-renewable.
In addition to being non-renewable, they let out some gases into the air when they
are combusted. Some of these gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and sulphur dioxide (SO2). They are not good for our planet! These gases pollute
our air, making the Earth warmer, and leading to climate change. Obtaining fossil
fuels can be pretty messy, too! It can destroy habitats, errors in transportation can
cause oil spills and does lots of damage to nature. Therefore, it is super important
for us to think about how we can phase out the use of these fuels and find cleaner
options!
Do this activity to enhance your knowledge of fossil fuels.

Activity 5.3

Objective: To visually represent the environmental consequences of fossil

fuels and learn the importance of sustainable energy sources.
You can work alone as well as in a group.

What you need

• magazines, newspapers, brochures and online images related to fossil
fuels (e.g., images of oil spills, coal mines, smog-filled cities, pollution,
etc. You can sketch their own images too!)
• scrap paper, cardboard, or old boxes.
• glue, paste, or homemade paste.
• Scissors.
• markers, crayons, or coloured pencils.
• leaves, twigs, or small stones from the environment to incorporate into
the collage to represent nature and the impact of fossil fuels on it.

What to do
1. Plan the design of your collage. Think about the topic you want to
highlight (e.g., air pollution, oil spills, deforestation) and how you will
visually represent them.

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

2. Cut out relevant images, headlines, and text from the collected materials.
Think creatively about how to arrange your images on the base to tell a
compelling story about the impact of fossil fuels.
3. Glue or paste your images onto the cardboard or scrap paper. Arrange
the images in a way that draws attention to the negative impacts of fossil
fuels.
4. Use markers or crayons to add titles, labels, and any additional drawings
that will enhance the message of the collage. Highlight the key concepts
like “pollution”, “global warming”, “acid rain” and “habitat destruction”.
5. Add natural materials like leaves or twigs to represent the environment.
For example, leaves could symbolise the natural world that is affected by
fossil fuel pollution.
6. Present your work to the class. Explain the choices you made in your
design and the message you want to convey about the environmental
impact of fossil fuels.

Conclusion
Sustainable energy sources like solar and wind can help reduce the
environmental damage caused by fossil fuels. Through local initiatives,
education, and policy support, communities can contribute to a more
sustainable and lively energy future, improving both the environment and the
quality of life for current and future generations.

Solar Panels
As earlier mentioned, solar panels are devices also known as photovoltaic (PV)
panels. They capture sunlight and convert it into electricity using semiconductor
materials. This process is a clean and renewable way to generate power, meaning
it doesn’t produce harmful emissions like greenhouse gases or air pollutants.
In Ghana, the use of solar panels can significantly reduce the reliance on fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, which are the main sources of pollution and
environmental damage.

Activity 5.4

You can do this activity alone and share your findings with the class.
What you need: Manilla card/cardboard, pencils, markers, internet.

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

What to do
1. Draw a map of Ghana, clearly showing the 16 regions and their capitals.
You may use the Internet to help you with your work.
2. Using your own key, show the distribution of sunlight in each of the
regions.
3. Identify regions that receive the most as well as least amounts of sunshine.
4. Using a separate key, indicate the areas of Ghana which have the most
solar panels installed, currently.
5. Post your map on the wall of your classroom.

From Activity 5.4, you will agree that Ghana is blessed with abundant sunlight.
This makes solar energy a perfect solution for our energy needs. Unlike fossil
fuels, which are limited and can run out, sunlight is a renewable resource. It is
always available, during the daytime, although can be affected by cloud cover. By
harnessing this natural resource, Ghana can modify its energy sources and reduce
its dependence on fossil fuels. This is crucial for three key reasons:
1. Better Air Quality: Fossil fuels release pollutants into the air when
combusted, leading to health problems and environmental damage. Solar
panels generate electricity without combusting anything, which means no
air pollution.
2. Lower Carbon Emissions: Carbon emissions from fossil fuels contribute
to climate change, a global problem that affects everyone. By switching to
solar power, Ghana can reduce its carbon footprint, helping to slow down
climate change.
3. Energy Security: Relying on fossil fuels, especially imported oil, makes
Ghana open to unstable prices and supply disruptions. Solar energy, on the
other hand, is a stable and sure source of power that can be generated locally.
It is worth noting that the generation of solar energy using PV technology does
not contribute to carbon emissions or air quality. The manufacture of PV cells is
very energy-intensive and will require the use of fossil fuels (at least initially).

Activity 5.5

Make a list of the benefits and challenges associated with the introduction of
solar panels in Ghana. Find some suggested answers in Annex 5.1 – Solutions
to Some Activities.

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

The Future of Solar Energy in Ghana

Solar energy offers Ghana a transformative opportunity to build a more
sustainable and resilient energy system. By investing in solar power, we can
reduce our dependency on fossil fuels, combat climate change, and improve the
quality of life for all Ghanaians. Understanding how solar panels work and their
environmental benefits is key to making informed decisions about our energy
future and contributing to a global effort to transition to a low-carbon economy.
You will now carry out activities to demonstrate an understanding of how solar
panels reduce reliance on fossil fuels. You may work alone or with a friend. You
may discuss your observations and findings.

Activity 5.6

Scenario: Your community is debating whether to invest in solar panels

or continue using generators powered by diesel/petrol. They need clear
information on how solar energy differs from fossil fuels.
Task: Compare and contrast solar energy and fossil fuels, focusing on their
sources, environmental impact, and long-term sustainability. Highlight the
ways in which using solar energy can reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
Publish your findings in the form of a poster or an article for a school magazine.

How Solar Panels Are Installed In Ghana

Let us dive further with the following activities.

Activity 5.7

Scenario: You are a solar energy engineer in Ghana, and your job is to
bring clean, renewable energy to a community. But before you can install
solar panels, you need to go through a series of important steps to make sure
everything works perfectly. Let us explore this process together!
Step 1: Site Assessment – Where is the Best Spot?
Task: Draw a simple map of your home or school and mark the spots where
you think solar panels would get the most sunlight. Picture yourself standing
on the roof of the building. What do you see? Look around to see if there are
any tall trees or buildings that might block the sunlight. Is the roof facing the
sun most of the day?

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Share your map with a classmate and compare your choices!

Step 2: Designing the Solar System – How Many Panels Do We Need?

Task: Work in small groups to design a solar panel system for a small house.
You will need to decide how many panels to install.
What to do
1. Start by discussing the typical energy needs of a small house in the
community. Consider the number of rooms, electrical appliances used,
and daily energy consumption. You may want to make a list of all the
devices and appliances that would be used in the house, such as lights,
a refrigerator, a television, and a fan. Estimate how many hours each
device will be used per day.
2. Research the common output for a typical solar panel and outline how
many you think the house will need to install.
3. Use cardboard, aluminium foil, pane glass/plain polythene, old CDs,
charcoal, copper wires, markers and any available local material to create
a model of your solar panel set-up. Think about where each component
will be positioned and how they will be connected (in series or in parallel
with one another).

Step 3: Getting Permits and Approvals – What Do We Need to Do?

Role-Play: You are a solar energy engineer who needs to get permission to
install solar panels. You will need to visit different “offices” (your classmates
acting as local authorities) to ask for permits and approvals.
Simulation: Create a checklist of all the approvals you may need (research
these using the internet). Visit each of the relevant authorities (classmates in
your group) and explain why your project should meet their standards. Can
you get them all in time to start your installation?
Discussion Questions
a. Why is it important to follow local laws and guidelines when installing
solar panels?
b. What could happen if the installation doesn’t meet safety standards?

Final Challenge: Installation Day – Putting It All Together!

Installation Simulation: Now that you have everything ready, it is time
to “install” your solar panels. Using your model, explain to the class how

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

you decided on the number of solar panels needed, how you would place the
panels and how you would ensure that everything works properly.
Reflection Questions
1. How does installing solar panels help communities in Ghana?
2. What skills do you think are most important for someone working in
solar energy?
3. What do you think the purpose of the inverter is in the diagram below?
Why is it important?

Conclusion: By going through these steps, you have learned how solar
panels are installed in Ghana, from choosing the perfect spot to getting all
the necessary approvals. How might you use this knowledge to help your
community?

Fig. 5.2: A labelled diagram of the inverter installation

Let us do the next activity to consolidate the installation and testing process.

Activity 5.8

Aim: To install a solar panel kit, understand its components, and measure the
output voltage and current under different lighting conditions.
What we need: Solar panel kit (designed for educational purposes),
multimeter (to measure voltage and current), connecting wires, load (e.g.,
small motor or light bulb), mounting stand (optional), sunlight or artificial
light source, notebook and pen for recording data.

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SECTION 5 SOLAR PANELS

What to do
1. Carefully unpack the solar panel kit and identify all components.
Common components include the solar panel, connecting wires, a load
(such as a small motor or light bulb), and a stand.
2. If your kit includes a stand or frame, assemble it according to the
instructions provided.
3. Mount the solar panel onto the stand, ensuring it is secure.
4. The connecting wires attach the load (motor or light bulb) to the solar
panel terminals. Ensure correct polarity (positive to positive and negative
to negative).
5. Set the multimeter to measure voltage (V) and connect the probes to the
output terminals of the solar panel.
6. To measure current (I), you must set the multimeter to the current setting
and connect it in series with the load.
7. Vary the brightness of the light incident on the solar panel and record the
new voltage and current (see suggestions for how to achieve this below).

a. Outdoor in sunlight: Place the solar panel in direct sunlight, with

the plane of the panel’s surface pointing directly at the sun. Record
the voltage and current readings from the multimeter. Vary the light
intensity by changing the angle of the panel to the Sun slowly until
it is facing downwards, away from the Sun.
b. Artificial light: Bring the panel indoors and use a strong artificial
light source (e.g., a desk lamp). Start with the lamp very close to
the panel and record the readings. Slowly move the lamp to greater
and greater distances from the panel, recording the readings at each
interval.
Record Observations: For each lighting condition, note the following:
1. Voltage (V)
2. Current (A)
3. Power (P = V × I)

You can put your data in a table, which might look something like this:

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Table 5.1

Lighting Voltage (V) Current (I) Power (W) = V x I

condition

Direct sunlight
Partial shade
Artificial light

Analyse data: Compare the voltage and current outputs under different
lighting conditions.
Discuss how the intensity and type of light affect the solar panel’s performance.

Extension activity:
Drawing a graph with enable further and more specific analysis of how the
power output of the solar panel varies with light intensity.

Exploring the Impact of Environmental Factors on Solar

Panel Installation
The following activities are to deepen your understanding and application of the
impact of the environment on solar panel installation.
Work in groups for all of the following activities.

Activity 5.9

See conclusions to this activity in Annex 5.1

Task 1: Temperature Impact Experiment

What you need
• Two identical small solar panels or solar-powered fans/lights.
• Two clear plastic containers.
• Ice packs and hot water bottles.
• Thermometer.

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What to do
1. Place one solar-powered fan or light inside a plastic container with an ice
pack (to simulate a cooler environment) and the other in a container with
a hot water bottle (to simulate a warmer environment).
2. Place both containers under a bright light source or outside in direct
sunlight. Observe how the fans or lights operate in different temperature
conditions.
3. Use the thermometer to record the temperature inside each container.
4. Compare the performance of the solar devices in cooler versus warmer
environments. Discuss how temperature affects the efficiency of solar
panels and what can be done to reduce overheating.

Reflection Questions
1. How did temperature affect the performance of the solar-powered
devices?
2. What strategies can be used to keep solar panels cool and efficient?
3. Do you think this change in performance would continue to occur
infinitely if the temperature was continually decreased?

Task 2: Roof Orientation and Tilt Angle Experiment

What you need
• A protractor or angle finder.
• Small solar panel or light-sensitive material.
• Adjustable mount or cardboard to change the angle.
• Light source (flashlight or sunlight).

What to do
1. Place the small solar panel or light-sensitive material on the adjustable
mount. Use the protractor to set the tilt angle to different degrees (e.g.,
0°, 15°, 30°, 45°).
2. Shine the light source directly on the panel at each tilt angle. Measure
or observe the output (e.g., how brightly a connected LED lights up, the
reading on a multimeter or how much the material darkens).
3. Record the results and compare how different angles affect the amount
of light absorbed.

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4. Discuss why it’s important to install solar panels at the correct tilt angle
based on the location’s latitude and how roof orientation impacts the
overall energy production.

Reflection Questions
1. What tilt angle provided the best sunlight exposure for the solar panel?
2. How does the roof’s orientation (facing north, south, east, or west) affect
solar energy generation?
3. Why is it important to avoid shaded areas when installing solar panels?

Task 3: Wind and Weather Simulation

What you need
• A small solar panel (or a paper model representing a solar panel).
• Fan (to simulate wind).
• Spray bottle with water (to simulate rain).
• Sand or dust (to simulate dirt or debris).
• Small weights (to represent secure mounting).

What to do
1. Place the small solar panel or model in front of a fan. Gradually increase
the wind speed and observe how it affects the stability of the panel. Add
small weights to see how securing the panel can prevent movement.
2. Spray water on the panel to simulate rain and sprinkle sand or dust to
simulate debris. Observe how these factors affect the panel’s surface and
ability to generate power.
3. Try cleaning the panel with a cloth or brush and see how much its
efficiency improves after removing dirt and debris.
4. Discuss the importance of proper mounting and regular maintenance
to ensure that solar panels function efficiently despite environmental
challenges.

Reflection Questions
1. How can strong winds impact the installation and stability of solar
panels?
2. What effects do rain and dust have on the performance of solar panels,
and how can these issues be addressed?

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Maintenance of Solar Panels: Why is regular cleaning of

solar panels important?
Regular cleaning of solar panels is crucial because it ensures they operate at
maximum efficiency. Over time, dust, dirt, bird droppings, and other debris can
accumulate on the surface of the panels, blocking sunlight and reducing the amount
of energy they can generate. Even a small amount of shading can significantly
decrease the panels’ efficiency, leading to lower energy output and reduced cost
savings.
Cleaning the panels regularly helps maintain optimal performance, ensuring that
you get the most out of your solar investment. It also prolongs the lifespan of
the panels by preventing potential damage from corrosive substances that might
accumulate on their surfaces.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy to

the Economy of Ghana
Advantages of Solar Energy to Life in Ghana

Activity 5.10

Initial Set-up: The Pokuase community, located in the Greater Accra Region,
was part of a government initiative to provide solar power to under-served
areas. The project involved installing solar panels on rooftops of households
and public facilities, such as schools and clinics. The initiative was funded by
a combination of government grants and international aid.
Task
1. In your group, research and analyse the case study to identify the
advantages (e.g., on energy access, education and healthcare) and
disadvantages (e.g. initial costs, maintenance requirements).
2. Discuss how these factors influence the overall effectiveness of solar
panels in the case study.

Case Study 2: The Bui Solar Energy Project in Ghana

The Bui Solar Energy Project is a significant renewable energy initiative in
Ghana, designed to complement the existing Bui Hydroelectric Dam. Located
in the Bono Region, this project was developed by the Bui Power Authority
(BPA) as part of Ghana’s broader strategy to diversify its energy mix and

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increase the share of renewable energy in the national grid. The solar farm is
one of the largest in West Africa, with an installed capacity of 250 Megawatts
(MW).

Initial Set-up: The Bui Solar Project was planned as a three-phase

development. The first phase, completed in 2020, involved the installation of
50 MW of solar power capacity. Subsequent phases aim to expand this capacity
to 250 MW. The project was financed through a combination of government
funding, loans from international development banks, and partnerships with
private sector entities. The solar farm utilizes photovoltaic (PV) panels spread
over a vast area of land. The integration with the Bui Hydroelectric Dam
allows for hybrid energy generation, balancing solar energy during the day
with hydropower when solar output decreases.
Task
1. In your group, research and analyse the case study to identify the
advantages (e.g., on energy access and carbon emissions) and
disadvantages (e.g. initial costs, land use, maintenance requirements).
2. Discuss how these factors influence the overall effectiveness of solar
panels in the case study.

Conclusion and Class Discussion

After each group has examined the case studies, you will present your
findings to the class for a class-wide discussion on the impacts of the two
projects. The discussion will encourage critical thinking about the challenges
and opportunities of large-scale renewable energy projects in Ghana and their
implications for the country’s future development.

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ANNEXES

Annex 5.1 – Solutions To Some Activities

Activity 5.4

Map of Ghana showing location of solar panel installations studied (shown

in green, yellow, and red highlights) source (https://www.researchgate.net/
figure/Map-of-Ghana-showing-location-of-installations-studied-shown-in-
green-yellow-and-red_fig2_339220812)

Activity 5.5

Benefits of Solar Energy for Ghana

1. Economic Growth: The solar industry can create jobs in manufacturing,
installation, maintenance, and research, driving economic development.

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2. Technological Innovation: Investing in solar energy encourages the

development of new technologies and solutions, positioning Ghana as a
leader in renewable energy.
3. Environmental Sustainability: By reducing the need for fossil fuels,
solar energy helps protect Ghana’s natural environment and promotes a
healthier planet for future generations.

Challenges Associated with Solar Energy

1. Low generation potential on cloudy days or at nighttime. How will the
demand for nocturnal energy be met?
2. Difficulty in storing excess electricity/energy during times of plentiful
generation, for use during times of low generation.
3. High initial cost of manufacturing, installing, maintaining and disposing
of solar technology which does not have the required large-scale
infrastructure to do so.
4. Lack of flexibility in terms of energy/electricity output. In a time of
spiking demand, you cannot just turn up the Sun!

Activity 5.9

• Task 1 Conclusion:Solar panels are designed to operate efficiently within

a specific temperature range. While solar panels can still function in
high temperatures, extremely hot conditions can reduce their efficiency.
Panels produce less electricity as the temperature increases, so proper
ventilation and cooling measures may be needed.
• Task 2 Conclusion: The angle and direction of the roof or mounting
structure affect how much sunlight the panels receive throughout the
day. In Ghana, the optimal orientation for solar panels is typically facing
south, where they can capture maximum sunlight. The tilt angle should
be adjusted to match the latitude of the location to maximise energy
absorption.
• Task 3 Conclusion: The local climate, including wind, rain, and dust,
affects the durability and performance of solar panels. Heavy rainfall
can lead to water pooling and potential leakage issues if the panels are
not installed correctly. High winds may require more robust mounting
systems to prevent damage, while dust and dirt accumulation on panels

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can reduce their efficiency by blocking sunlight. High humidity levels

can lead to corrosion of metal components in the solar panel system.
In coastal areas of Ghana, where humidity and salt levels are higher,
corrosion-resistant materials should be used to ensure the longevity of
the installation. For ground-mounted solar panels, the type of soil and
ground stability are important considerations. In areas with frequent
flooding or erosion, the installation site must be carefully selected and
prepared to avoid damage.

Activity 5.10

Case study 1:

Benefits:
• Energy Access: The solar panels provided reliable electricity to a
community that had previously faced frequent power outages.
• Educational Impact: Schools in the area were able to extend learning
hours with the availability of electricity, improving student outcomes.
• Healthcare Improvements: The local clinic could operate medical
equipment and refrigeration for vaccines without relying on an unstable
grid.

Challenges Encountered:
• Initial Costs: Although the project was subsidized, some households
struggled with the upfront costs required for installation and maintenance.
• Maintenance Issues: A lack of local expertise meant that any technical
issues with the solar panels had to be addressed by technicians from
outside the community, leading to delays in repairs.
• Sustainability Concerns: Over time, concerns arose about the
sustainability of the project due to the costs of maintaining and replacing
parts of the solar systems.

Case study 2:
Benefits:
• Increased Energy Supply: The Bui Solar Project contributes
significantly to Ghana’s energy supply, providing clean, renewable

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energy to the national grid and helping to reduce the country’s reliance
on thermal power plants.
• Reduction in Carbon Emissions: By displacing fossil fuel-based power
generation, the project is expected to reduce Ghana’s carbon emissions
by several thousand tons annually, contributing to global climate change
reduction efforts.
• Hybrid System Efficiency: The integration with the hydroelectric dam
allows for more efficient energy use, as water can be stored for power
generation when solar energy is insufficient.

Challenges Encountered:
• High Initial Investment: The project required substantial upfront
capital, which posed challenges in securing adequate financing.
• Land Use Concerns: The large area required for the solar farm raised
concerns about land use and the potential impact on local agriculture
and communities.
• Technical and Maintenance Issues: As with any large-scale
infrastructure, maintaining the solar panels and ensuring optimal
performance involves ongoing technical challenges.

Annex 5.2 – Further Information

How Can Solar Panels Be Used in Ghana?
Solar panels can be installed in various settings to meet different energy needs:
1. Rooftop Installations: Homes and businesses can have solar panels
installed on their roofs to generate electricity for their own use, reducing
their reliance on the national grid and cutting down on electricity bills.
2. Solar Farms: Large-scale solar farms can generate electricity for entire
communities or regions, providing clean energy to many people at once.
3. Decentralised Systems: In rural areas where connecting to the national
grid is challenging, decentralised solar systems can provide electricity for
lighting, water pumping, and other essential services.

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How the Implementation of Solar Energy/Panel

Initiatives Impacts the Country’s Economic Growth and
Sustainability
Renewable energy, particularly solar energy, plays a significant role in fostering
economic growth and sustainability. Here’s a brief overview focusing on key
areas:

Impact of Solar Energy:

• Energy Independence - Reducing Reliance on Imported Fuels: Energy
independence refers to a country’s ability to meet its energy needs without
relying heavily on imported fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas.
• Reduction in Imports: By investing in solar energy, Ghana can reduce its
dependence on imported fossil fuels, which are often subject to unstable
global prices.
• Energy Security: Solar energy enhances energy security by providing a
reliable and locally sourced power supply. This reduces the vulnerability to
geopolitical tensions and supply disruptions that can affect imported energy
resources.
• Economic Diversification: As Ghana moves towards energy independence,
it diversifies its economy by reducing its reliance on sectors dominated by
fossil fuels, making it more resilient to global market shifts.
• Direct Employment: The solar industry creates jobs in manufacturing,
installation, maintenance, and sales of solar panels and related technologies.
This includes both skilled and unskilled labour, contributing to employment
across various levels of the workforce.
• Supporting Industries: The growth of the solar sector stimulates job creation
in related industries, such as supply chain management, transportation,
finance, and engineering services. These supporting industries benefit from
the demand generated by the solar energy sector.
• Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Solar energy fosters entrepreneurship
by encouraging the development of new businesses and innovations in
renewable technologies. This can lead to the creation of start-ups focused on
solar solutions, driving economic growth and technological advancement.
• Reduced Utility Bills: Once the initial investment in solar panels is made,
the ongoing costs of generating solar power are significantly lower compared
to conventional energy sources. This translates into reduced electricity bills
for both businesses and households.

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• Increased Disposable Income: Lower energy costs mean more disposable

income that can be spent on other needs, stimulating economic activity.
• Enhanced Competitiveness: Businesses that adopt solar energy can lower
their operating costs, allowing them to offer more competitive pricing or
increase their profit margins. This can make Ghanaian businesses more
competitive both domestically and internationally.
• Cost Stability: Solar energy provides more predictable and stable energy
costs, as it is less affected by market fluctuations compared to fossil fuels.

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REVIEW QUESTION

Review Questions 5.1

1. State 3 examples of fossil fuels.
2. Describe how a fossil fuel is made and explain why they are non-
renewable.
3. Explain why it would be beneficial for Ghana to transition away from
fossil fuels, specifically towards solar power.
4. Outline the impacts of solar power (both positive and negative) on the
Ghanaian economy.

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ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTION

Review Questions 5.1

1. Coal, natural gas, oil, propane, kerosene.
2. Fossil fuels—such as coal, oil, and natural gas—are formed from the
remains of ancient plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
Fossil fuels are considered non-renewable because the processes that
form them take millions of years—far longer than the human timescale.
We are consuming fossil fuels at a rate much faster than they are being
naturally replenished. Once we extract and use fossil fuels, they cannot
be quickly replaced. Therefore, their supply is finite, and they will
eventually run out, making them unsustainable as a long-term energy
source.
3. Transitioning away from fossil fuels towards solar power would offer
several significant benefits for Ghana, both environmentally and
economically. Here are some of the reasons why this shift would be
advantageous:

Abundant High Solar Potential: Ghana is located near the equator,

Solar giving it abundant sunlight throughout the year. The
Resources country receives an average of 5-6 hours of sunshine per
day, making solar energy a highly viable and reliable
source of power. Leveraging this natural resource could
provide a consistent and sustainable energy supply.
Environmental Reducing Carbon Emissions: Fossil fuels are a major
Benefits source of greenhouse gases, which contribute to global
warming and climate change. By transitioning to solar
power, Ghana could significantly reduce its carbon
footprint, helping to combat climate change and protect
the environment.

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Improving Air Quality: Burning fossil fuels, especially

coal and oil, releases pollutants that can degrade air
quality, leading to health issues such as respiratory
problems. Solar power generation, on the other hand,
produces no harmful emissions, leading to cleaner air and
better public health outcomes.
Economic Reducing Energy Costs: Once installed, solar power
Advantages systems have low operational costs, as sunlight is free.
Over time, this could reduce energy costs for consumers
and businesses in Ghana, making energy more affordable
and helping to stimulate economic growth.
Energy Independence: Ghana currently imports a
significant portion of its fossil fuels. Transitioning to
solar power could reduce dependence on imported fuels,
enhancing energy security and reducing vulnerability to
global fuel price fluctuations.
Job Creation: The solar energy sector has the potential
to create jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance,
and research and development. This could help to reduce
unemployment and boost local economies.
Long-term Renewable and Inexhaustible: Unlike fossil fuels, which
Sustainability are finite, solar energy is renewable and will not run out.
By investing in solar power, Ghana can ensure a long-
term, sustainable energy supply that can meet the needs of
future generations.
Resilience to Climate Change: As climate change
impacts become more pronounced, energy systems that
rely on fossil fuels could become less reliable. Solar
power, being decentralized and less vulnerable to climate-
related disruptions, could offer greater resilience to
extreme weather events.
Supporting Decentralised Energy: Solar power systems, particularly
Rural off-grid solutions, can be deployed in remote and rural
Electrification areas where extending the national grid is challenging
or costly. Bringing electricity to underserved regions,
enhancing the quality of life.

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Positive impacts Negative impacts

1. Energy Cost Reduction: 1. High Initial Capital Costs:

- Lower operational costs than - Upfront investment is high
fossil fuel power stations. and could be a strain for
- Reduced fuel import costs. the government, increasing
national debt.
2. Job Creation:
- Affordability issues: low-
- Employment opportunities. income households and
- Skill development. small businesses may
3. Economic Diversification: struggle to afford to install
solar panels.
- Reduced economic
vulnerability: Ghana’s 2. Intermittency and Reliability
economy can become less Concerns:
vulnerable to global oil - Energy supply variability.
price fluctuations and supply 3. Land Use Conflicts:
disruptions.
- Large-scale solar farms
- New market opportunities (e.g. require significant land,
battery storage and electric which might compete with
vehicles). agricultural land or other
4. Improved Energy Access: uses.
- Rural electrification. 4. Impact on Fossil Fuel-
5. Attracting Investment: Dependent Jobs:

- Green investments and - Job displacement.

international aid: A strong - Transition costs.
focus on renewable energy can 5. Dependence on Foreign
attract foreign investment. Technology and Expertise:
6. Environmental and Health Cost - Limited local
Savings: manufacturing.
- Reduced healthcare costs due - Skill gaps.
to the reduced levels of air
pollution.

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EXTENDED READING
• Solar energy basics: https://www.coursera.org/learn/solar-energy-basics
• Understanding Solar - a beginner’s guide: https://youtu.be/YtoU7167t5I
• “Solar Power Demystified: The Beginners Guide to Solar Power, Energy
Independence and Lower Bills” by Lacho Pop, Dimi Avram

REFERENCES
1. General Science Curriculum for Senior High Schools
2. “Solar Power Demystified: The Beginners Guide to Solar Power, Energy
Independence and Lower Bills” by Lacho Pop, Dimi Avram
3. Solar Electricity Handbook: A Simple, Practical Guide to Solar Energy –
Designing and Installing Solar Photovoltaic Systems” by Michael Boxwell
4. https://buipower.com/250mwp-solar-project, BUI SOLAR PROJECT
5. https://citinewsroom.com/2023/06/bui-power-authority-completes-first-
floating-solar-project-in-sub-region/
6. https://www.architecturaldigest.com/reviews/solar/how-to-install-solar-
panels
7. https://www.forbes.com/home-improvement/solar/how-to-install-solar-
panels/
8. https://www.skillstg.co.uk/blog/how-to-install-a-solar-panel/
9. https://www.solarreviews.com/blog/solar-panel-maintenance-everything-
you-need-to-know#:~:text=clean%20them%20manually.-,It%20is%20
generally%20recommended%20that%20you%20perform%20solar%20
panel%20cleaning,clean%20and%20in%20top%20condition.
10. https://www.solar.vic.gov.au/maintenance-guide

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
NAME INSTITUTION
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

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