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Lecture Notes in Bioengineering

Albert A. Rizvanov
Bikesh Kumar Singh
Padma Ganasala Editors

Advances in
Biomedical
Engineering
and Technology
Select Proceedings of ICBEST 2018
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering

Advisory Editors
Nigel H. Lovell, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
Luca Oneto, DIBRIS, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
Stefano Piotto, Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
Federico Rossi, Department of Earth, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Siena, Italy
Alexei V. Samsonovich, Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, George Mason
University, Fairfax, VA, USA
Fabio Babiloni, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Rome Sapienza,
Rome, Italy
Adam Liwo, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
Ratko Magjarevic, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of
Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering (LNBE) publishes the latest developments in
bioengineering. It covers a wide range of topics, including (but not limited to):
• Bio-inspired Technology & Biomimetics
• Biosensors
• Bionanomaterials
• Biomedical Instrumentation
• Biological Signal Processing
• Medical Robotics and Assistive Technology
• Computational Medicine, Computational Pharmacology and Computational
Biology
• Personalized Medicine
• Data Analysis in Bioengineering
• Neuroengineering
• Bioengineering Ethics
Original research reported in proceedings and edited books are at the core of LNBE.
Monographs presenting cutting-edge findings, new perspectives on classical fields
or reviewing the state-of-the art in a certain subfield of bioengineering may
exceptionally be considered for publication. Alternatively, they may be redirected
to more specific book series. The series’ target audience includes advanced level
students, researchers, and industry professionals working at the forefront of their
fields.
Indexed by SCOPUS and Springerlink. The books of the series are submitted for
indexing to Web of Science.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11564

Albert A. Rizvanov Bikesh Kumar Singh
• •

Padma Ganasala
Editors

Advances in Biomedical
Engineering and Technology
Select Proceedings of ICBEST 2018

123
Editors
Albert A. Rizvanov Bikesh Kumar Singh
Kazan Federal University Department of Biomedical Engineering
Kazan, Tatarstan Republic, Russia National Institute of Technology Raipur
Raipur, India
Padma Ganasala
Gayatri Vidya Parishad College
of Engineering
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

ISSN 2195-271X ISSN 2195-2728 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Bioengineering
ISBN 978-981-15-6328-7 ISBN 978-981-15-6329-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6329-4
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Organising Committee of ICBEST-2018

Chief Patron

Prof. A. M. Rawani, Director, NIT Raipur

Patron

Prof. S. Sanyal, TEQIP III Coordinator, NIT Raipur

Internal Adivsory Committee

Dr. Shrish Verma, Dean Academics, NIT Raipur

Dr. A. P. Rajimwale, Dean Faculty Welfare, NIT Raipur
Dr. P. Diwan, Dean, Student Welfare, NIT Raipur
Dr. (Mrs.) Shubhrata Gupta, Dean, R & C, NIT Raipur
Dr. G. D. Ramtekkar, Dean, P & D, NIT Raipur
Dr. P. Y. Dhekne, Registrar, NIT Raipur

Chairman

Dr. Bikesh Kumar Singh, Department of Biomedical Engineering, NIT Raipur

v
vi Organising Committee of ICBEST-2018

Conference Secretaries

Dr. Neelamshobha Nirala, Department of Biomedical Engineering, NIT Raipur

Dr. Arindam Bit, Department of Biomedical Engineering, NIT Raipur
Dr. Saurabh Gupta, Department of Biomedical Engineering, NIT Raipur
Contents

Extraction and Phytochemical Analysis of Coccinia indica Fruit Using

UV-VIS and FTIR Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Alok Sharma, Bidyut Mazumdar, and Amit Keshav
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict Air Flow and Contaminant
Control in a Multiple Bed Intensive Care Unit of Hospital . . . . . . . . .. 9
Arvind Kumar Sahu, Shobha Lata Sinha, and Tikendra Nath Verma
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
A Simple Robust Image Processing Algorithm for Analysis
of Static Foot Pressure Intensity Image to Detect Foot Risk
Areas in Diabetic Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 21
Hari S. Nair, Navya Thomas, and R. Periyasamy
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Foot Image Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Image Processing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

Heavy Metal Ions Detection by Carbon Paste Electrode

as an Electrochemical Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 29
Arti Mourya, Bidyut Mazumdar, and Sudip K. Sinha
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1 Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Preparation of Electrode as a Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1 Cyclic Voltammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Effect of Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Median Filtering Detection Using Markov Process
in Digital Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... 35
Saurabh Agarwal and Satish Chand
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2 Feature Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Experimental Setup and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1 Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Differential of EMG Activity of Selected Calf Muscle During DLHR
Exercise in Relation to Performance Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
Monika, L. M. Saini, and Saravjeet Singh
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2 Material and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Advanced Encryption Standard Algorithm in Multimodal
Biometric Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 53
Sharmila S. More, Bhawna Narain, and B. T. Jadhav
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2 Multimodal Biometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1 Role of Multimodal Biometrics in AES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1 Proposed Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Module Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Contents ix

4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
In-Silico Construction of Hybrid ORF Protein to Enhance Algal Oil
Content for Biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Mohit Nigam, Ruchi Yadav, and Garima Awasthi
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Identification of Algal Gene and Its Functional Protein . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Hybrid ORF Construction Using Selected Conserved Regions
of Superfamilies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
3.3 Hybrid ORF Clone Designed Using Vector NTI Tool Kit . . . . . .. 70
3.4 Multi-template Homology Modeling of Hybrid ORF Protein
Using Schrödinger Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
3.5 Protein Structure Prediction of the Constructed Hybrid ORF
by Phyre2 Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
ANFIS Detects the Changes in Stressful Patterns of Sleep EEG . . . . . . 91
Prabhat Kumar Upadhyay and Chetna Nagpal
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.2 Neuro-fuzzy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3 Rules for Manual Scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.4 Observations on Fuzziness in Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.1 Data Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2 Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3 Sleep Stage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4 Stress Level Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Recent Advances in Deep Learning Techniques and Its Applications:
An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Abhishek Hazra, Prakash Choudhary, and M. Sheetal Singh
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2 Overview of Deep Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.1 Convolutional Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
x Contents

2.2 Recurrent Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

2.3 Long Short-Term Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3 Applications of Deep Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1 Action and Gesture Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2 Deep Learning for Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3 Deep Learning for Sentiment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.4 Deep Learning for Medical Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5 Deep Learning for Text Detection and Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6 Deep Learning for Image Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.7 Deep Learning for Object Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.8 Deep Learning for Object Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4 Software and Implementation Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5 Discussion Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Validation of a New Method of Pediatric Refraction: Large Aperture
Lens Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Anupam Sahu, Samrat Chatterjee, Deepshikha Agrawal,
and Pradeep Chand Dubey
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.1 Comparison Between Retinoscopy Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.2 Correlation Between Retinoscopy Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Comparative Evaluation of in Vitro Antioxidant, Amylase Inhibition
and Cytotoxic Activity of Cur-Pip Dual Drug Loaded Nanoparticles . . . 129
Trilochan Satapathy, Prasanna Kumar Panda, and Gitanjali Mishra
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.3 Preparation of Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.4 Amylase Inhibition Assay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.5 Analysis of Acarbose as Standard Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.6 Determination of Total Antioxidant Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.7 Bacterial Strain-Based Cytotoxicity Screening: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.1 Amylase Inhibition by Different Nanoformulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Contents xi

4 Conflict of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Improved ERP Classification Algorithm for Brain–Computer
Interface of ALS Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Vyom Raj, Shreya Sharma, Mridu Sahu, and Samrudhi Mohdiwale
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3 Dataset Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.2 Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3 Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Size Reduction in Multiband Planar Antenna for Wireless
Applications Using Current Distribution Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Pravin Tajane and P. L. Zade
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.2 Proposed Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2 Antenna Design and Simulation Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3 Simulation Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Classification of Hepatic Disease Using Machine Learning
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Lokesh Singh, Rekh Ram Janghel, and Satya Prakash Sahu
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3 Classification Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.1 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.2 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3 Classification Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.4 Dataset Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
xii Contents

Anti-hyperlipidemic and Antioxidant Activities of a Combination

of Terminalia Arjuna and Commiphora Mukul on Experimental
Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Jhakeshwar Prasad, Ashish Kumar Netam, Trilochan Satapathy,
S. Prakash Rao, and Parag Jain
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.1 Drug and Chemical Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.2 Biochemical Estimation of Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.1 The Effect of Terminalia Arjuna Along with Commiphora Mukul
on Behavioral Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.2 The Effect of Terminalia Arjuna Along with Commiphora Mukul
on Hematological Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3 Biochemical Parameters Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Epileptic Seizure Detection Using Deep Recurrent Neural Networks
in EEG Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Archana Verma and Rekh Ram Janghel
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.1 Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.3 Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.4 Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.1 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4 Comparison with Other Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Detection of Disease from Leaf of Vegetables and Fruits Using Deep
Learning Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Avisha Jaiswal, Saurabh Pathak, Yogesh Kumar Rathore,
and Rekh Ram Janghel
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
1.1 Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Contents xiii

4 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Evaluation for Toxicity and Improved Therapeutic Effectiveness
of Natural Polymer Co-administered Along with Venocin
in Acetic Acid-Induced Colitis Using Rat Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Ashish Kumar Netam, Jhakeshwar Prasad, Trilochan Satapathy,
and Parag Jain
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.1 Drug and Chemical Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.2 Experimental Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.3 Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.4 Acute Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.5 Induction of Colitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.6 Hematological Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.7 Antioxidant Activity Lipid Peroxidase/Malonaldehyde
(LPO/MDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2.8 Measurement of TNF-a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2.9 Histopathological Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.1 Behavioral Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.2 Body Weight Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.3 Hematological Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.4 MDA Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.5 TNF-a Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.6 Histopathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Finite Element Analysis of Traumatic Brain Injury Due to Blunt
Impact of Different Durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Tanu Khanuja and Harikrishnan Narayanan Unni
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
2.1 MRI Predicated 3-D Human Head Model and Mesh
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
2.2 Material Properties and Model Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
xiv Contents

Data Dissemination Using Social-Based Attributes in Delay-Tolerant

Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Sanjay Kumar, Prasoon Shukla, and Sudhakar Pandey
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3 Betweenness Centrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4 Degree Centrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6 Proposed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.1 Buffer Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2 Delivery Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Hiding Patient Information in Medical Images: A Robust
Watermarking Algorithm for Healthcare System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Ritu Agrawal, Manisha Sharma, and Bikesh Kumar Singh
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
1.1 Contribution and Outline of the Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.1 Brain Image Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2.2 Proposed Watermarking Scheme [Embedding and
Extraction] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.1 Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.2 Visual Quality Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
3.3 Robustness Analysis of DICOM Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Segmented Lung Boundary Correction in Chest Radiograph
Using Context-Aware Adaptive Scan Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Tej Bahadur Chandra, Kesari Verma, Deepak Jain,
and Satyabhuwan Singh Netam
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
2 Proposed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
3 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.1 Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.2 Lung Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.3 Evaluation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Contents xv

6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Effect of Temperature and Titania Doping on Structure
of Hydroxyapatite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Yash Chopra, Rajesh Kumar, and Howa Begam
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2 Material and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Nano Crystal/PVA/
Chitosan Composite Film for Wound Healing Application . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Shubham Sen, Rashmi Agrawal, and Howa Begam
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2 Materials and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
2.2 Preparation of Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.3 Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.4 Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Automated CAD System for Skin Lesion Diagnosis: A Review . . . . . . . 295
Lokesh Singh, Rekh Ram Janghel, and Satya Prakash Sahu
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
2 Skin Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
2.1 Melanoma Skin Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
2.2 Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3 Image Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4 CAD System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.1 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.2 Lesion Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.3 Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
4.4 Feature Analysis and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
4.5 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
5 Performance of Evaluation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6 Conclusion and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
xvi Contents

Medical Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease Using Fuzzy

Rule-Based Classification Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Namrata Singh and Pradeep Singh
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2 Fuzzy Rule-Based Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
2.1 Variables Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
2.2 Fuzzification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
2.3 Knowledge Base (IF–THEN Rules Formulation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
3.1 Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
3.2 Comparison with the Prior Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Segmentation of Lungs in Thoracic CTs Using K-means Clustering
and Morphological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Satya Prakash Sahu, Rahul Kumar, Narendra D. Londhe,
and Shrish Verma
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
3 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
3.1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
3.2 Data Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
3.3 Segmentation of Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
3.3.1 K-means Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
3.3.2 Thresholding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
4 Experimental Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.1 Evaluation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.2 Result Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Univariate Feature Selection Techniques for Classification of Epileptic
EEG Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Moushmi Kar and Laxmikant Dewangan
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
1.1 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
2.1 Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
2.2 Feature Extractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
2.3 Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
2.4 Statistical Measures and Classification of EEG
Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Contents xvii

4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

4.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
4.2 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Feature Selection for Classification of Breast Cancer
in Histopathology Images: A Comparative Investigation
Using Wavelet-Based Color Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Kushangi Atrey, Bikesh Kumar Singh, and Narendra K. Bodhey
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
1.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
1.3 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
1.4 Organization of Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
2.1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
2.2 Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
2.3 Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
2.4 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
3 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
4 Conclusion and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Numerical Study on Particle Deposition in Healthy Human Airways
and Airways with Glomus Tumor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Digamber Singh, Anuj Jain, and Akshoy Ranjan Paul
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
1.1 Human Upper Respiratory Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
2 Numerical Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
2.1 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
2.2 Numerical Grid Generation and Solution Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
2.3 Discrete-Phase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
2.4 Particle Deposition Model Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Virtual Reality Therapy in Prolonging Attention Spans for ADHD . . . . 391
S. Sushmitha, B. Tanushree Devi, V. Mahesh, B. Geethanjali,
K. Arun Kumar, and P. G. Pavithran
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
2.1 Participant Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
2.2 Selection of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
xviii Contents

2.3 Experimental Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

2.4 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.1 Visualization of ADHD Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.2 Theta/Alpha Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Multispectral NIRS System Design to Analyze Hemoglobin
Concentration on Plantar Foot Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Resham Raj Shivwanshi, N. P. Guhan Seshadri, and R. Periyasamy
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
2 Instrumentation and Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3 Experiment Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
4 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Comparative Investigation of Different Classification Techniques
for Epilepsy Detection Using EEG Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Sunandan Mandal, Manvendra Thakur, Kavita Thakur,
and Bikesh Kumar Singh
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
2.1 Data Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
2.2 Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
2.3 Feature Selection and Classification Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
2.4 Proposed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
2.5 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Designing a Low-Cost Spin-Drying Desiccation Technique Using 3D
Printed Whirligig Model for Preservation of Human Umbilical Cord
Blood-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Sharda Gupta, Akalabya Bissoyi, Pradeep Kumar Patra, and Arindam Bit
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Contents xix

Fabrication of Hydroxyapatite-Chitosan-Silk Fibroin Based

Composite Film as Bone Tissue Regeneration Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Sharda Gupta, Rupsha Mukherjee, Rajendra Kumar Jangle,
Deependra Singh, Manju Singh, and Arindam Bit
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
3.1 Mechanical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
3.2 Swelling Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
3.4 Hemocompatibility Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Prediction of Hydroxyurea Effect on Sickle Cell Anemia Patients
Using Machine Learning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Bikesh Kumar Singh, Apoorva Ojha, Kshirodra Kumar Bhoi,
Akalabya Bissoyi, and Pradeep Kumar Patra
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
2.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
2.2 Simulation Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
3.1 Features Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
3.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
3.3 Accuracy, Sensitivity, Specificity, and ROC Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
A Survey on IoT-Based Healthcare System: Potential Applications,
Issues, and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Kavita Jaiswal and Veena Anand
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
2 Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
3 IoT Healthcare Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Real-Time Data Augmentation Based Transfer Learning Model
for Breast Cancer Diagnosis Using Histopathological Images . . . . . . . . . 473
Rishi Rai and Dilip Singh Sisodia
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
3 Transfer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
xx Contents

4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.1 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.2 Data Augmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
5 Models Used for Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
5.1 InceptionV3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
5.2 Xception Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
5.3 3-Layer CNN Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6 Evaluation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6.1 Image Recognition Rate/Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6.2 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
6.3 Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
6.4 Area Under the Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
7 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
7.1 Training Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
7.2 Training by Transfer of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
7.3 Training from Scratch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
7.4 Image Recognition Rate/Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
7.5 ROC Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
7.6 Sensitivity and Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
7.7 Comparison with Previous Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
8 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
About the Editors

Albert A. Rizvanov (Ph.D., Dr. Sci.) graduated from Kazan State University,
Russia (biology, microbiology) in 1996. After completing his Ph.D. (2003) in
cellular and molecular biology at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA, he
undertook his Dr. Sci. (2011) in biochemistry (Habilitation) at Kazan Federal
University (KFU), Russia. Currently, Albert Rizvanov is a Professor and Director
of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Fundamental
Medicine and Biology, KFU. He is the head of the Open Lab Gene and Cell
Technologies Laboratory, Director of the Department of Exploratory Researches of
Pharmaceutical Research and Education Center and head of the Center of
Excellence “Regenerative Medicine”. Additionally, he is the Vice-Director of the
Strategic Academic Unit “Translational 7P Medicine” as part of the government
program of competitive growth (“5–100 Program”) and the corresponding member
of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author on
more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles, 3 book chapters, and 22 patents, he
has successfully supervised 15 Ph.D. and 2 Dr. Sci. dissertations, and is the head
of the biochemistry, microbiology, and genetics dissertation committee at KFU. He
is the principal investigator of more than 50 grants supported by NATO, British
Council, Russian Science Foundation, Russian Foundation for Basic Research and
other Russian government federal programs and industry contracts. His fields of
expertise include regenerative medicine, precision medicine, gene and cell therapy,
molecular neurobiology, molecular virology, cancer diagnostics and therapy. In
2019 Albert Rizvanov became an Honorary Professor of Fundamental Medicine at
the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, UK.

Bikesh Kumar Singh (Ph.D.) is Assistant Professor in Department of Biomedical

Engineering at National Institute of Technology Raipur, Raipur (Chhattisgarh)
India. He obtained his B.E. (Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering) Gold
Medalist and M.Tech. (Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering) Honors
from Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur. He received his Ph.D. in
Biomedical Engineering from National Institute of Technology Raipur, Raipur
(Chhattisgarh) India. He has published more than 70 research papers in various

xxi
xxii About the Editors

international and national journals and conferences. He is active reviewer and has
reviewed several research articles of reputed International Journals. He has teaching
and research experience of 12 years. He has been Head of the Department of
Department of Biomedical Engineering for 5 years. He is member of International
Professional Societies such as IEEE (Senior member) & IACSIT and also of many
National Professional bodies like CSI India, IETE India, ISCA India and IEI India.
He has received several awards like Chhattisgarh Young Scientist Award, IETE
Gowri Memorial Award, IEI Young Engineer Award. He has delivered several
expert talks in the area of Machine Learning Applications. He has organized several
workshops and international conference in area of Biomedical Engineering,
Machine Learning and Softcomputing. His research interest includes applications
of machine learning and artificial intelligence in medical image analysis, biomedical
signal analysis, computer aided diagnosis, computer vision and cognitive science.

Padma Ganasala (Ph.D.) is currently working as Associate Professor in the

Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Gayatri Vidya
Parishad College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, India. She had received her
Ph.D. in Medical Image Fusion from Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
(IIT-ROORKEE). She is a recipient of MHRD fellowship during studies. To her
credit, she possesses several publications in reputed international journals and
conferences. She has reviewed many journal papers published by prestigious
journals and conferences. She is a Life Member of ISTE. Her research interests
include medical image processing and analysis, biomedical signal processing,
machine learning and deep learning.
Extraction and Phytochemical Analysis
of Coccinia indica Fruit Using UV-VIS
and FTIR Spectroscopy

Alok Sharma, Bidyut Mazumdar, and Amit Keshav

Abstract The phytochemical analysis of Coccinia indica fruit extract was

performed employing UV-VIS and FTIR Spectroscopy. Extractions of phytochem-
icals were carried out using different solvents, selected on the basis of polarity viz.
ethanol, methanol, and chloroform. Antioxidant activity of extracts was measured
by the DPPH method where ascorbic acid was used as standard. The UV-VIS spec-
troscopy revealed the characteristic peaks for different phytochemicals present in
the extract. The FTIR analysis helped to identify the presence of different functional
groups which ultimately leads to the confirmation of existence of phytochemicals in
the extract. The phytochemicals thus extracted and identified have major applications
in biotechnology, food processing, and pharmaceutical industries.

Keywords Coccinia indica · Phytochemicals · FTIR spectroscopy · UV-VIS

spectroscopy · DPPH

1 Introduction

Coccinia indica is a perennial and creeping plant belonging to Cucurbitaceae family.

It is also known as Ivy Gourd, Kundru (Chhattisgarhi), Kovakai (Tamil), Tindora. It
is found extensively throughout the Indian Subcontinent. The fruit is berry shaped,
green when unripe, and becomes orange-red when ripens. The fruits of this plant
are the main constituent of the regular meal in Indian culinary. It has been looked
forward for its herbal and medicinal properties as mentioned in Ayurveda. C. indica
is also known for its antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antimicrobial, antifungal, antileish-
manic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antitussive, antiulcer, analgesic, antipyretic,
antianaphylactic, and anticancer properties (Sakharkar and Chauhan 2017; Singha
et al. 2007). The fruits are believed to have numerous phytochemicals which
include antioxidants, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoid, tannins,

A. Sharma (B) · B. Mazumdar · A. Keshav

Department of Chemical Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

A. A. Rizvanov et al. (eds.), Advances in Biomedical Engineering and Technology,
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6329-4_1
2 A. Sharma et al.

saponins, glycosides, etc. (Kumar et al. 2014). This current research was focused on
exploring the phytochemicals present in C. indica using different analysis methods.

2 Material and Methods

Fresh fruits of C. indica were purchased from the local market of Raipur Chhattisgarh
(India). It was properly rinsed with water to remove the physical impurities from the
surface. Afterwards, the fruits were chopped and sliced by a kitchen slicer to get the
uniform slices prior to sun drying. The sliced fruits were subjected to sun drying for
2 days to remove the indigenous water from it. The dried fruit was ground in a mixer-
grinder. Solvent extraction was studied using ethanol, methanol, chloroform which
are of analytical grade and obtained from Merck, India. Ltd. Antioxidant activity
was measured using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) obtained from Merck,
India. Ltd.
Solvent extraction of phytochemicals was done using the 250 ml Soxhlet apparatus
for 12 h using ethanol, methanol, and chloroform as solvents, respectively. About
25 g of dried fruit powder was taken into the thimble to perform the extraction. The
extract thus obtained was filtered (Whatman Filter Paper No. 1) and concentrated to
get the crude extract, which was then stored at refrigerated temperature until further
use.
The extracts were analyzed for the identification and characterization of the phyto-
chemicals by UV-VIS Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800) and FTIR (Bruker).
The extracts were diluted to the extent of 1:10 for the same solvent prior to UV-
VIS Spectrometry. FTIR Spectroscopy was done for identification of the functional
groups present in the extract. The KBr thin disc was formed for this analysis, which
was made by mixing small amount of C. indica extract with dry potassium bromide.
Further, the disc was placed over the sample cup of diffuse reflectance accessory.
The extracts were analyzed using FTIR Spectrophotometer where IR spectrum was
within 4000–400 cm−1 . The results thus obtained from UV-VIS and FTIR were
recorded.
The antioxidant activity was evaluated by DPPH assay as mentioned by Baba
and Malik (Baba and Malik 2015). About 3.8 ml of freshly prepared DPPH solution
was taken and 200μL of extract was added for each solvent viz. ethanol, methanol,
and chloroform. Further the reaction mixture was incubated in dark for 1 h at room
temperature. The measurement of absorbance was done at 517 nm wavelength by
UV-VIS spectrometer. Ascorbic acid was used as positive control. The DPPH activity
was calculated by the formula mentioned below:

Contr ol absor bance − Sample absor bance

DPPH Activity = × 100
Contr ol absor bance
Extraction and Phytochemical Analysis of Coccinia indica Fruit … 3

3 Result and Discussion

The extraction of phytochemicals from C. indica fruits was found to be more effec-
tive for chloroform than ethanol and methanol. The UV-VIS Spectroscopy shows
the different absorbance peaks obtained for the respective phytochemical which is
also mentioned in literatures. The UV-Vis spectroscopy dictates that the phytochem-
icals are present in the extract based on the λmax values for each phytochemical.
Table 1 depicts the absorbance values (λmax ) of phytochemicals with respect to
the wavelength, for ethanol, methanol, and chloroform, respectively. Chlorophyll a,
Chlorophyll b, Taraxerol, β amyrin, Lupeol, and Sitosterol were the phytochemi-
cals detected in the ethanolic and methanolic extracts of C. indica fruit (Wang et al.
2007; Laphookhieo 2004; El-Alfy et al. 2011; Quilitzsch et al. 2005; Jain and Bari
2010; Chung and Hahn 2005). Similar phytochemicals were detected in the chloro-
form extract. β carotene was only detected in the extracts of chloroform. The λmax
identified phytochemicals was mentioned in the literatures (Okoye and Daniel 2014;
Khanra et al. 2014; Miller et al. 1936; Mallick 2014).
The FTIR spectroscopy was used to identify the functional groups of phytochem-
icals present in the extracts of C. indica fruit. The peak values obtained by the FTIR
spectroscopy validate the presence of particular functional groups that a particular
phytochemical contains. The results of FTIR peak values and functional groups have
been illustrated in Table 2 and Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
The FTIR spectrum profile confirms the presence of functional groups in ethanol,
methanol, and chloroform extracts of C. indica. Amides were detected at 3325, 3326,
and 2839 cm−1 wavenumber in ethanol and methanol extracts. Alkanes were detected
in ethanol and chloroform extracts at 2923, 2924, and 2852 cm−1 wavenumber.
Alkene was observed in methanol and chloroform extracts at 1646 and 1658 cm−1 .
1° amine was detected at 1653 and 1631 cm−1 in ethanol and chloroform extracts.
Aromatics were identified in all the solvents at 1043, 868, 1447, 1406, 1462, 772,
and 686 cm−1 . Nitro groups were detected in extracts of ethanol and methanol at
1378 and 1554 cm−1 .

Table 1 Phytochemicals identified in different extracts by UV-Vis spectroscopy

S. No Phytochemical Ethanol extract Methanol extract Chloroform extract
λmax Abs λmax Abs λmax Abs
1 Chlorophyll b 665 0.485 665 0.495 665 0.617
2 Chlorophyll a 606 0.150 606 0.170 607 0.203
3 Taraxerol 535 0.234 535 0.230 536 0.261
4 β amyrin 409 2.188 409 2.158 436 1.317
5 β carotene 412 1.978
6 Lupeol 314 4.0 314 3.96 322 1.364
7 Sitosterol 269 4.0 269 3.984 268 1.495
4 A. Sharma et al.

Table 2 FTIR peak values of identified functional groups in different extracts

Ethanol Methanol Chloroform
Wave number Functional wave number Functional wave number Functional
cm−1 group cm−1 group cm−1 group
3325 Amides 3326 Amides 3425 Phenols
2969 Alkanes 2839 Amides 2924 Alkanes
2923 Alkanes 1646 Alkene 2852 Alkanes
1653 1°amines 1447 Aromatic 1742 Esters
1378 Nitro 1406 Aromatic 1658 Alkene
compound
1085 Aliphatic 1017 Aliphatic 1631 1°amine
Amines Amine
1043 Aliphatic 541 Alkyl halide 1554 Nitro
Amines compound
878 Aromatic 518 Alkyl halide 1536 Unknown
525 Alkyl 510 Alkyl halide 1462 Aromatic
Halides
514 Alkyl 1382 Alkane
Halides
1219 Aliphatic
Amine
1032 Aliphatic
Amine
772 Aromatic
686 Aromatic

The wavenumber 1085, 1017, 1219, and 1032 cm−1 denoted the presence of
aliphatic amine in all the extracts. Alkyl halides were present in ethanol and methanol
extracts at the wavenumber of 525, 514, 518, and 510 cm−1 .
Moreover, phenols and esters were identified only at 3425 and 1742 cm−1 respec-
tively in chloroform extracts only. The functional groups thus detected in the different
extracts leads to the assumption that a variety of phytochemicals are present in the
C. indica fruits.
DPPH test is useful to determine the radical scavenging activity of extraction.
The method relies on the decrease in absorption of DPPH solution after addition of
antioxidant. The standard for this test is done using ascorbic acid.
DPPH has red color and degree of discoloration indicates the scavenging poten-
tial of the antioxidant. DPPH radical scavenging activity was calculated using the
absorbance values obtained by spectrophotometer. The ethanol extracts showed
60.15% of activity, while it was 60.46% and 61.07% for methanol and chloroform,
respectively.
Extraction and Phytochemical Analysis of Coccinia indica Fruit … 5

Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of ethanolic extract of C. indica fruit

Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of methanolic extract of C. indica fruit

6 A. Sharma et al.

Fig. 3 FTIR spectroscopy of chloroform extract of C. indica fruit

4 Conclusion

This research depicts that UV-VIS and FTIR Spectroscopy can be applied for the
phytochemical analysis of C. indica fruit extracts. Methanol extracts proved to be
better than ethanol and chloroform in terms of DPPH radical scavenging activity.
Some more techniques can also be used for better profiling of phytochemicals.

References

Baba SA, Malik SA (2015) Determination of phenolic and flavonoid content, antimicrobial and
antioxidant activity of a root extract of Arisaema jacquemontii. J Taibah Univ Sci 9:449–454
Chung I-m, Hahn S-j, Ahmad A (2005) Confirmation of potential herbicidal agents in hulls of rice
Oryza sativa. J Chem Ecol 31(6):1339–1352
El-Alfy TS, Ezzat SM, Hegazy AK, Amer AMM, Kamel GM (2011) Isolation of biologically active
constituents from Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori. (family: Moringaceae) growing in Egypt.
Pharma Magazine 7(26):109–115
Jain PS, Bari SD (2010) Isolation of Lupeol, Stigmasterol and Campesterol from petroleum ether
extract of woody stem of Wrightia tinctoria. Asian J Plant Sci 9(3):163–167
Khanra R, Dewanjee S, Dua TK, Sahu R, Gangopadhyay M, De Feo V, Zia-Ul-Haq M (2014) Abroma
augusta L. (Malvaceae) leaf extract attenuates diabetes induced nephropathy and cardiomyopathy
via inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammatory response. J Trans Med 13:1–14
Kumar M, Alok S, Jain SK, Dixit VK (2014) Macroscopial, anatomical and physico-chemical
studies on fruits of Coccinia indica wight and Arn. (Cucurbitaceae). Asian Pac J Trop Dis
4(1):S121–S128
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Laphookhieo S, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C (2004) New Sesquiterpenoid and Triterpenoids from

the Fruits of Rhizophora mucronate. Chem Pharm Bull 52(7):883–885
Mallick SS, Dighe VV (2014) Detection and estimation of alpha-Amyrin, beta-Sitosterol, Lupeol,
and n-Triacontane in two medicinal plants by high performance thin layer chromatography. Adv
Chem 1–7
Miller ES, Inney GM, Zscheile FP Jr. (1936) Absorption spectra of alpha and beta carotenes and
lycopene. Plant Physiol. 9(1):375–381
Okoye NN, Ajaghaku DL, Okeke HN, Ilodigwe EE, Nworu CS, Okoye FBC (2014) Beta-Amyrin
and alpha-amyrin acetate isolated from the stem bark of Alstonia boonei display profound anti-
inflammatory activity. Informa Healthcare 52(11):1478–1486
Quilitzsch R, Baranska M, Schulz H, Hoberg E (2005) Fast determination of carrot quality by
spectroscopy methods in the UV-VIS, NIR and IR range. J Appl Bot Food Qual 79:163–167
Sakharkar P, Chauhan BS (2017) Antibacterial, antioxidant and cell proliferative properties of
Coccinia grandis fruits. Avicenna J Phytomed 7(4):295–307
Singha G, Gupta P, Rawat P, Purib A, Bhatiab G, Maurya R (2007) Antidyslipidemic activity of
polyprenol from Coccinia grandis in high-fat diet-fed hamster model. Phytomedicine 14:792–798
Wang L, Zhang C, Wu F, Deng N (2007) Photodegradation of aniline in aqueous suspensions of
microalgae. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 87:49–57
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict
Air Flow and Contaminant Control
in a Multiple Bed Intensive Care Unit
of Hospital

Arvind Kumar Sahu, Shobha Lata Sinha, and Tikendra Nath Verma

Abstract A hospital’s physical pattern is a vital part of its contamination manage-

ment measures to reduce the danger of spread of any communicable disease.
Recent and rising communicable diseases challenges as higher public prospects and
awareness of care connected problems, a lot of thought has got to incline to the layout
of the hospital. In present study, airflow simulation of a multi-patients ICU room has
been carried out using FLUENT version 15 CFD software. For simulation of airflow
standard k-epsilon turbulence model used with high-quality unstructured mesh. Five
different cases of multiple staff orientation have been studied to look at the infection
between every patients and additionally for medical staff. In whole cases, inlet fresh
airflow temperature (273 K) and airflow rate (0.2 m/s) are held constant. An average
of 9.78 min time was taken by mobile contaminants to leave ICU room. The loca-
tion of air inlet and outlet holds good air ventilation as particles coming out from
the mouth of patient moves out of ICU in most of the instances and hospital staff
orientations.

Keywords Room airflow · Buoyancy · Recirculation zone · k-epsilon model ·

Room airflow · Breathing

1 Introduction

Intensive care units of hospital require excellent medical supervision staff i.e., physi-
cian and nurses for well caring of critically ill patients. ICU of hospitals is commonly
proposed for multi patients, these ICUs or wards are economically well-organized
in which critically ill patients can be placed along one hall or in two rows, which
facilitates less time for supervision. Airflow analysis of multiple patient wards or
ICU room’s ventilation plays a vital role on health of patients and medical staffs as
well. In the present investigation, numerical simulation of ICU room for multiple
patients has been carried out. The objective of current study is to envision the effect

A. K. Sahu (B) · S. L. Sinha · T. N. Verma

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 9

A. A. Rizvanov et al. (eds.), Advances in Biomedical Engineering and Technology,
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6329-4_2
10 A. K. Sahu et al.

of contaminant which is getting out from the mouth of patients on different orienta-
tions of hospital staff to recover out the safest orientation to prevent hospital staffs
and patients from infection. A total of 5 different cases of two staff orientations have
been studied to examine the infection between each patient and also for the staff.
For all cases, airflow rate and temperature of inlet air are kept constant. Various case
studies using CFD for fluid flow in ventilations of multiple/single bed hospitals were
performed. Contaminant distribution considered with variable air volume (VAV) and
heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and systems in hospitals. The effect
of the location of the infected patients in transmitting air-borne diseases with hospi-
tals using CFD is also presented (Sinha et al. 2000; Prakash and Ravi Kumar 2015;
Verma and Sinha 2015a,b; Senthilkumar and Raju 2016). It is found that CFD appli-
cations are beneficial to assist and recognize the suitability of the ventilation system
in renewal of hospital design to fulfill the latest engineering standards (Chow and
Yang 2003).
An additional study also revealed that the respiratory events such as breathing,
sneezing, talking, and coughing were the main source of transfer of contaminants.
The study uses a model of equations using various parameters like rate of flow, area of
mouth orifice opening, etc., and proposed that the model be used for describing source
of contaminant transfer due to talking and breathing (Gupta et al. 2010). The airflow
patterns of an operating room (OR) during opening and foot traffic are studied. Even
though OR has slightly higher pressure than other adjacent rooms, a small volume
of air still enters during a cycle of door opening and closing even without any person
entering the room. The study has revealed a higher volume of air enters the OR if the
person enters the OR (Villafruela et al. 2013). The evaporation and condensation of
expiration droplets and their size (coughing and speaking) have been found to have
negligible impact on usual droplet size from human beings (13.5 μm from coughing
and 16.0 μm from speaking) for average expiration velocity of 11.7 m/s and 3.9 m/s
for coughing and speaking, respectively (Chao et al. 2009).
Contaminant distribution in an office environment of 6.6 m (L) × 3.7 m (W)
× 2.6 m (H) dimension with air conditioning and mechanical ventilation was also
studied. Tracer gas (SF6 ) is used for simulation of contaminants on a model room
and CFD was used for validating the results. The study revealed that the pattern
of contaminant dispersion depends greatly on the velocity flow field. The layout of
various objects like furniture also influences the pattern of airflow and contaminant.
Another study suggests that CFD can be used effectively in predicting the spatial
distribution of bio-aerosol in indoor environments like hospitals. The study was
conducted at three different layouts—empty, single bedroom, and two bedrooms.
Deposition of the particles has no correlation with relative surface concentration and
source distance but partition among the patients proved to be effective in reducing
cross contamination among patients. (Cheong et al. 2003; King et al. 2013). Authors
have performed various experiments in different regions using the respective environ-
ment conditions. The authors in this paper have performed real time study by means
of experimental and numerical solution using environment conditions of the hospital
in Raipur (21.2514° N, 81.6296° E, 298 m altitude above sea level), Chhattisgarh
(Sahu 2018; Verma 2018,2014; Verma and Sinha 2013).
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict Air Flow … 11

2 Governing Equations

To study air spread pattern inside ICU model room FLUENT version 15 CFD tool has
been used. GAMBIT preprocessing software is used to create high-quality unstruc-
tured grids. Grid independence test carried out before simulation and after GIT
computation domain has 5.2 × 106 grids. Turbulence in airflow is considered at the
entry of ICU model room and K-epsilon turbulence model is used for processing
airflow in computational domain. Here airflow in an ICU model room is described
by mass, momentum, and energy conversion equations which are basically quantity
of fluid per second, newton’s second law of motion, and thermodynamics first law,
respectively. Mathematically it is expressed as (Patankar 1980).

∂  
(ρφ) + div(ρuφ) = div Tφ gradφ + Sφ (1)
∂t
Motion of mobile contaminant particles are tracked using newton’s second law
of motion (Patankar 1980).

∂up 18μCd Re
= Fi , FD = (2)
∂t 24ρp dp2
dup   g(ρp − ρ)
= FD ui − up + + Fx (3)
dt ρp

where Fi represents external forces exerted on the particle and FD represents drag
force (N), Cd is coefficient of drag, ρ is Mass density in kg/m3 , μ is dynamic viscosity
in Ns/m2 and Fx is additional forces exerted on particles. P denotes for particle and i
is Particle identifier. The above equation is integrated with particle tracking module
of FLUENT software and used for tracking mobile contaminant.
The following assumptions have been used during computation:
• The cross section of beds are considered rectangular;
• Walls, floors, and roof of ICU model room are considered well insulated;
• Lying position of patients is the east–west direction;
• At a time only one patient is considered to be producing mobile contaminant;
• Shape of mobile contaminant particle is considered solid spherical;
• No contaminants recoil on solid walls;
• Motion of one mobile contaminant is considered for clarity of particle tracking
in figures;
• Heat and mass transmission between mobile contaminant and air inside ICU room
is neglected;
• Diameter of mobile contaminant is assumed to be circular and uniform.
12 A. K. Sahu et al.

3 Problem Statement

Figure 1 shows the outline of five patient ICU model room with 5 different orientation
of hospital staff. The outline of ICU room has two rectangular inlet vents and two
outlet vents for entrance of fresh air and elimination of sick air from the model ICU
room. The ICU model room is inspired by actual ICU room of a hospital which is
situated at BALCO region of Korba C.G. position of inlet, outlet vents, and lying
arrangement of ICU model room is considered same as actual. Height, width, and
length of ICU model room are 3.0 m, 5.8 m, and 6.3 m, respectively and sizes of all
inlet and outlet vents are 0.6 m × 0.4 m.
The location of both inlet vents is kept constant i.e., 2.3 m overhead the ground,
inlet 1 is 1.4 m and inlet 2 is 3.8 m ahead the east wall. The positioning of staff is based
on literature surveys and surveys of various hospitals of Chhattisgarh. Inlet airflow
rate in ICU room is considered 0.2 m/s. The temperature of fresh air is considered
293 K for all five cases and air properties are taken as per this temperature i.e., 293 K
(Table 1).
Temperature of different walls has been selected from the ISHRAE handbook-
2007 for Raipur (C.G.) region (Table 2).

4 Result and Discussion

Figure 2a, b shows the variation in velocity vector for two staff orientation case 1,
where the temperature of fresh air stream is considered as 293 K, inlet air velocity
is considered 0.2 m/s. The fresh and unpolluted air stream enters from inlet vents
and throws well into ICU room. After throwing it mixes and spreads well with the
existing air of ICU room. After appropriate distribution in ICU room, the air mixture
drops near to opposite walls and moves out from the outlet vents.
Figure 2a shows airflow pattern on plane 1.7 m ahead of east wall, it is clear
from Fig. 2a that one recirculation zone is formed near south wall. Figure 2b shows
variation in velocity vector on plane 4.1 m ahead of east wall, it is clear from the
Fig. 2b one recirculation zone is found between patient 2 and patient 3 and smaller
air circulation zone found at right corner near to north wall.
Figure 3a, b shows the temperature contour on the plane 1.7 and 4.1 m ahead
of east wall for two hospital staff orientation case 1.Colors in Fig. 4a–e show time
for contaminant to leave ICU in minutes. Here red color stands for maximum and
blue stands for minimum contaminant leaving time. The temperature of the roof
and different walls are considered different due to the difference in incident solar
radiation, which is clear from Fig. 3a, b. Mixing of fresh air with existing air is found
appropriate and uniform at occupied zone. Temperature boundary layers are formed
near to walls of ICU room due to temperature variation in walls (Table 1). Also small
temperature variation due to airflow rate is found at the entry of airflow and right
corner of the ICU room.
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict Air Flow … 13

(a) Hospital staff orientation 1 (b) Hospital staff orientation 2

(c) Hospital staff orientation 3 (d) Hospital staff orientation 4

(e) Hospital staff orientation 5

Fig. 1 Five-bed ICU room with different hospital staff orientations

14 A. K. Sahu et al.

Table 1 Air properties at atmospheric pressure

Flow type Temp Density Specific heat Thermal Dynamic viscosity
conductivity
(K) (kg/m3 ) (J/kg-K) (W/m-K) (kg/m-s)
Cold 293 1.204 1007 0.02514 1.83 × 10–05

Table 2 Temperature of walls

Walls North South East West Celling Floor
Temp (K) 290 301 304 298 321 296

INLETS

OUTLETS

Colored by velocity magnitude in m/s

(a) Velocity vector at plane x=1.7 m (inlet air velocity 0.2 m/s)

INLETS

OUTLETS

Colored by velocity magnitude in m/s

(b) Velocity vector at plane x=4.1 m (inlet air velocity 0.2 m/s)

Fig. 2 a, b Velocity vector for two hospital staff orientation 1 (ACH = 2.05, Re = 12590)
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict Air Flow … 15

INLETS

OUTLETS

Colored by temperature magnitude in °K

(a) Temperature contour at plane x=1.7 m (inlet air velocity 0.2 m/s)

INLETS

OUTLETS

Colored by temperature magnitude in °K

(b) Temperature contour at plane x=4.1 m (inlet air velocity 0.2 m/s)

Fig. 3 a, b Temperature contour for two hospital staff orientation 1 (ACH = 2.05, Re = 12590)

Figure 4a–e shows the movement of mobile contaminant for two staff orientation
case 1, for different particle which emergences from the mouth of ill patients in the
ICU room. Here, the profile of motion of the contaminated particles which is coming
out from patients are not affecting other patients and occupants near the patients.
Table 3 shows the time required for elimination of mobile contaminant from ICU
room. It is clear from Table 3 that elimination time for the mobile contaminant from
patient 1 is comparatively less than other patients.
16 A. K. Sahu et al.

Fig. 4 a–e Movement of

mobile contaminant through
patients for hospital staff
orientation 1 (ACH = 2.05,
Re = 12590)

0.00 8.58
Colored by time in minute
(a) Movement of mobile contaminant through patient 1

0.00 5.08
Colored by time in minute
(b) Movement of mobile contaminant through patient 2

0.00 6.30
Colored by time in minute
(c) Movement of mobile contaminant through patient 3
Numerical Simulation Method to Predict Air Flow … 17

Fig. 4 (continued)

0.00 4.80
Colored by time in minute
(d) Movement of mobile contaminant through patient 4

0.00 6.17
Colored by time in minute
(e) Movement of mobile contaminant through patient 5

5 Conclusion

The numerical simulations of airflow have been carried out for ICU room. Control
volume method is used to solve energy and Navier Stokes equations by utilizing
FLUENT software. It is a realistic flow problem which brings into account the
outcome of multiple patients and multiple staff as obstacles in a room. It is seen
that ventilation execution is fully influenced upon airflow rate and its entry and exit
18 A. K. Sahu et al.

Table 3 Mobile contaminant elimination time (ACH = 2.05, Re = 12590)

Case No Time in minute
Patient 1 Patient 2 Patient 3 Patient 4 Patient 5
1 8.58 7.62 19.50 5.13 5.13
2 5.08 7.78 11.87 6.88 4.75
3 6.30 6.97 11.05 16.67 28.50
4 4.80 20.67 6.42 9.60 7.08
5 6.17 7.77 17.50 5.70 6.90

locations of hospital. The fresh airflow rate in ICU should be a sufficient amount and
spread rate should be capable to eliminate mobile contaminants from all portion of
the hospital/isolation rooms. The air spread rate ought to be inside with worthy limits
of commotion level and human consolation. Standard k-epsilon turbulence model is
rigidly valid for turbulent flows. In this investigation, basic dimensions like length,
height, and width of ICU of hospital are kept constant. To compare effect of various
orientation of hospital staff, the location of inlet vents, outlet vents, and beds along
with ill patients are kept constant for all cases. Average time for elimination of mobile
contaminant is found as 9.78 min. The location of air inlet and outlet holds great air
ventilation as particles coming out from the mouth of patients move out of ICU in
most occasions and hospital staff orientations. By perception, it is prompted to keep
location of the nurture-station and patient caring staff closed to inlet vents to keep
them disease free.

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Chao CYH, Wan MP, Morawska L, Johnson GR, Ristovski ZD, Hargreaves M, Mengersen K,
Corbett S, Li Y, Xie X, Katoshevski D (2009) characterization of expiration air jets and droplet
size distributions immediately at the mouth opening. J Aerosol Sci 40:122–133
Cheong KWD, Djunaedy E, Poh TK, Tham KW, Sekhar SC, Wong NH, Ulah MB (2003) Measure-
ments and computations of contaminant’s distribution in an office environment. Build Environ
38:135–145
Chow TT, Yang XY (2003) Performance of ventilation system in a nonstandard operating room.
Build Environ 38(12):1401–1411
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Senthilkumar M, Raju NMS (2016) transient effect of window position on naturally ventilated room
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and without buoyancy. Energy Build 32(1):121–129
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Verma TN, Sinha ST (2014) Contaminant control in intensive care unit of hospital. Appl Mechan
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Verma TN, Sinha SL (2015) Numerical simulation of contaminant control in multi-patient intensive
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Villafruela JM, Olmedo I, Ruiz M, de Adana, Méndez C, Nielsen PV (2013) CFD analysis of
the human exhalation flow using different boundary conditions and ventilation strategies. Build
Environ 62:191–200
A Simple Robust Image Processing
Algorithm for Analysis of Static Foot
Pressure Intensity Image to Detect Foot
Risk Areas in Diabetic Patients

Hari S. Nair, Navya Thomas, and R. Periyasamy

Abstract According to WHO, about 422 million people are affected with diabetics
and among them 15% of diabetic patients are associated with foot problems. Due to
peripheral neuropathy, the patients are unable to sense pressure pain which eventually
creates calluses. Thus the aim of this study is to effectively find the risk areas which
may form ulcers in the foot. The physical components required for this study are a
camera which captures high-quality images of foot and a laptop capable of processing
image by using MATLAB (The Mathworks Inc., USA). The algorithm which we
developed extracts the high-intensity areas in the foot which are actually the areas
where the patient exert high pressure compared to other areas in the foot. This method
was evaluated by assessing the foot for 5 normal patients and 5 diabetic patients.
It is found that this method is capable of giving the riskier areas of the foot and
thereby further prevention of foot ulcer can be done. Our method is time-efficient,
cost-efficient, and space-efficient and thus can be easily installed in any hospital for
diabetic foot analysis. In most of the cases, the metatarsal head region and plantar
medial tubercle region are mainly affected by calluses. By proper diagnosis and daily
care of the foot can reduce the risk of ulcer in diabetic patients.

Keywords Callus · Ulcers · Metatarsal head region · Plantar tubercle region

Abbreviations

WHO World Health Organization

USA United States of America
CPU Central Processing Unit

H. S. Nair (B) · N. Thomas

Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Raipur, Raipur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Periyasamy
Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, National Institute of Technology Trichy,
Trichy, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 21

A. A. Rizvanov et al. (eds.), Advances in Biomedical Engineering and Technology,
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6329-4_3
22 H. S. Nair et al.

1 Introduction

Diabetes being a serious chronic disease needs global attention. The global prevalence
of diabetics among adults over 18 years of age has risen from 4.7% in 1980 to 8.5%
in 2014 that is about 422 million people (Mathers and Loncar 2002). About 15%
of people affected with diabetes are associated with foot problems (Dayananda and
Kiran 2014). Diabetic foot problems such as ulcerations, infections, and gangrene
are the major cause of hospitalization in diabetic patients (Ingrid and Steven 2006).
Diabetic foot ulcer is a common complication which is a major source of morbidity
and it is showing an increasing trend over previous decades (Leila et al. 2015).
Since the sensory neurons are affected in diabetes, patients are unable to sense
pressure pain and microtrauma in the foot resulting in tissue breakdown and formation
of cavity at the level of epithelial layer (Prabhu et al. 2001). Peripheral neuropathy and
arterial occlusion are mainly the causes of diabetic foot ulcers. Diabetic neuropathy
will develop in 50% of type1 and type 2 patients with diabetes (Hajieh et al. 2013).
The foot ulcer once developed leads to an increased risk ulcer progression that may
lead to amputation. Studies show that the rate of lower limb amputation in patients
with diabetes mellitus is 15 times higher than those without diabetes. The multiple
risk factors which are associated with the development of foot ulcer as per recent
studies are gender (male), duration of diabetes longer than 10 years, advanced age of
patients, high body mass index, and other comorbidities such as retinopathy, diabetic
peripheral neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease, glycated hemoglobin level, foot
deformity, high plantar pressure, infections, and inappropriate foot self-care habits
(Leila et al. 2015). Poorly fitting shoes, poor foot care often cause foot deformation
that can lead to the formation of callus. The formation of calluses is clearly been
associated with foot ulceration (Pavicic and Korting 2006). More than 70% of patients
who have developed diabetic foot ulcer experience an exacerbation of the disease in
the next 5 years. The ulcer usually appears in the same extremity or the extremity
of the opposite side; at least a quarter of these ulcers do not heal (Bijan et al. 2013).
In this study, the image of diabetic foot is captured and by proper processing of
the image, the possibility to predict the risk areas on the foot that may eventually
develop to a foot ulcer is studied. By proper caring of the risk areas, infection can
be prevented in diabetic patients. Thus by proposing a method which can effectively
show the risk areas on the foot, foot ulcer formation can be prevented.
Previously, plantar pressure is measured in laboratories or in hospitals which
require heavy equipment such as pressure platforms and mats. Currently in-shoe
pressure measurements are being under research which is less bulky and easy to use
as compared to the previous one. But both these devices lack the ability to measure
the plantar pressure in real-life situations. These methods will be able to pressure
hotspots in case of laboratory situations only. It is also important to note that these
techniques need bulky devices which tend to increase the cost of setting up in hospitals
and also require more efficient and qualified technicians.
Lei Wang et al. (Lei et al. 2015) propose a method for the assessment of diabetic
foot ulcers by capturing the RGB image of diabetic foot using a smartphone and the
A Simple Robust Image Processing Algorithm for Analysis … 23

wound assessment algorithms include: (1) mean-shift-based image segmentation,

which groups all image pixels into a number of homogeneous regions; (2) a fast
method for detecting the largest connected component, to recognize the foot outline;
and (3) final wound boundary determination achieved by analyzing the internal and
external boundaries of the foot outline. After image processing, a wound healing
score ranging from 1 to 10 is given to each subject. This technique can be applied
only after the wound has occurred and early wound analysis is not proposed in this
method.
Dayananda and Kiran (2014) developed an image processing algorithm for moni-
toring the insole wear patterns. In this study, advanced Gabor filters were evaluated
to detect the skin irregularities by using a photograph of the insole captured by a
smartphone. This method used fuzzy set clustering for clustering the image. As this
method used an ordinary smartphone for image capture which effectively reduces
the cost but eventually reduces the image quality and thereby loss of image data may
occur.
Dmitry et al. (2011) proposed a method to predict the tissues which are at the risk of
ulceration by using hyperspectral tissue oximetry. Type1 and type2 diabetes mellitus
subjects that are under risk of ulceration undergoes hyperspectral image along tissue
oximetry. The data are retroactively analyzed and an ulceration prediction index
is developed. They then developed an image processing algorithm based on the
ulceration index. This algorithm is then capable to predict the tissue under the risk of
ulceration. This method requires complex hardware and also the patients are asked
for several visits for the process.

2 Methods

2.1 Foot Image Data Acquisition

Foot images are acquired by using a suitable camera that can capture high-quality
images. Two images are captured, one by placing the foot and the other without
the foot which can be used as a reference image. It is done so that the noises that
may creep in can be erased using the reference image. These images can be easily
transferred to a computer in which the next step processing takes place.
The captured image is then saved using the name of the patient along with the
date in which the image is captured for future reference. Clinicians can afterwards
use these images to compare the current situation of the patient and can determine
the stage of healing of the ulcer. This research protocol is a small part of large study
which was carried out in accordance with the guidance of the Institutional Ethical
Committee NIT Raipur and all the participants have signed the inform consent.
24 H. S. Nair et al.

Histogram Extracting the

Image Preprocessing equalization and high intensity
capture sharpening areas

Fig. 1 Flow diagram for the process

2.2 Image Processing Algorithms

For processing the images, we are using MATLAB (The Mathworks Inc., USA).
During wound image processing, the risk areas are found out by 4 modules: (1)
background correction; (2) histogram equalization; (3) sharpening the images; (4)
finding the risk areas by extracting the high-intensity areas from the processed image
Fig. 1.
The captured images first need to be converted to grayscale for further processing.
The image is first made to be free from background noises. It can be removed by
subtracting the foot images from their respective reference images and filling the
holes using “imfill” function available in MATLAB. These pre-processed images
need histogram equalization which can be done by using “adapthisteq” function
followed by sharpening of the edges by using “imsharpen” function. It is found that
the risk areas are of higher intensities than the other parts of foot due to the formation
of calluses. Thus the higher intensity regions are extracted from the images. The
processed image can be used to conclude the extent of risk for getting ulcer. From
the subjects whom we used for data acquisition, it is found out that in case of diabetic
foot (having risk of ulcer), the processed image stresses on some part of the image
while this phenomenon is absent in the case of normal foot. The processed images
of both normal foot and diabetic foot along with the captured images are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3.

3 Results

The results after processing are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 both in the cases of normal
patients and diabetic patients. From Figs. 1 and 2, diabetic patients are under greater
risk of foot ulcer. In the case of diabetic patients the processed image highlights some
regions in the foot which are confirmed as risk areas. Thus for those patients who
are under risk, proper diagnosis and daily care of the foot can prevent ulcer. It is also
found that the risk areas are mainly in the first, second, and third metatarsal head
and in the plantar medial tubercle region of the foot. In the algorithm, the “limit” can
take any value between 0 and 255. But the preferred value must lie between 225 and
245. The output images for different values are shown in Figs. 1 and 4.
A Simple Robust Image Processing Algorithm for Analysis … 25

Fig. 2 Input image, reference image and processed images of normal patients

From Fig. 3, it shows that as the limit value increases, the highlighted area
decreases. For limit = 225, the image shows even the low-risk areas while for limit
= 235, image shows the areas which needs attention and for limit = 245, the areas
present (if any) is of greater risk that is at the verge of ulcer.

4 Conclusion

The image processing algorithm which we developed can efficiently give the risk
areas in the foot of a diabetic patient. The patient should be educated regarding the
foot ulcer and the chance he/she may get affected by it. With proper technologies
it is possible to trace the walking pattern of the patient, then he/she can be trained
to change his walking pattern so that the pressure is evenly distributed throughout
his/her foot. This can prevent foot ulcer to an extent. For those patients who are under
risk can be asked for frequent visits so that condition of the foot can be observed
regularly by comparing the images with the images of the previous visit.
26 H. S. Nair et al.

Fig. 3 Input images, reference images and processed images of diabetic patients

Fig. 4 Output images for different values of limit

The total computing time for the algorithm implemented on a laptop with CPU
(Intel i7 3.5 GHz) is nearly 1.1 to 1.2 s for images in dimension 640 * 480 pixels.
Thus this method is very time-efficient for calculating the risk areas. As the required
equipment comprises of an infrared camera and a laptop, it is cost-efficient as well
as space-efficient compared to other clinical instruments. Thus it is easy to install it
in any hospital for treating foot ulcers.
A Simple Robust Image Processing Algorithm for Analysis … 27

Appendix

The image processing algorithm works as follows:

clc,clear;
%reading the original image and reference image
he=imread('input foot image.bmp');
he1=imread('reference image.bmp');
%converƟng to grayscale
he=rgb2gray(he);
he1=rgb2gray(he1);
%background correcƟon
he3=he-he1;
he4=abs(he3);
he5=he4>mean2(he4);
b=imfill(he5,'holes');
b=double(b);
he=double(he);
c=b.*he;
c=uint8(c);
%histogram equalisaƟon
d=adapthisteq(c,'cliplimit',0.05);
e=imsharpen(d,'amount',5);
%extracƟng hish intensity regions
limit=235;
f=e>limit;
f=f*255;
%edge capturing technique
BW1 = edge(he3,'prewiƩ');
BW1=BW1*255;
g=BW1+double(f);
figure,imshow(uint8(g));
28 H. S. Nair et al.

References

Bijan I, Fariborz K, Alireza E, Gholamreza A (2013) Prevention of diabetic foot ulcer. Int J Prev
Med 4(3):373–376
Dayananda KJ, Kiran KP (2014) Analysis of foot sole image using image processing algorithms.
In: 2014 IEEE global humanitarian technology conference—South Asia satellite (GHTC-SAS),
Trivandrum, pp 57–63
Dmitry Y, Aksone N, Kevin S, Laurent P (2011) Assessing diabetic foot ulcer development risk
with hyperspectral tissue oximetry. J Biomed Opt 16(2):026009
Hajieh S, Leila Y, Seyed ML (2013) Risk assessment of patients with diabetes for foot ulcers
according to risk classification consensus of international working group on diabetic foot
(IWGDF). Pak J Med Sci 29(3):730–734
Ingrid K, Steven E (2006) Evaluation and treatment of diabetic foot ulcer. Clin Diabetes 24(2):91–93
Leila Y, Morteza N, Sara A (2015) Literature review on the management of diabetic foot ulcer.
World J Diabetes 6(1):37–53
Lei W, Peder CP, Diane MS, Bengisu T, Emmanuel A, Ron I, Qian H (2015) An automated assess-
ment system of diabetic foot ulcers based on wound area determination, colour segmentation,
and healing score evaluation. J Diabetes Sci Technol 10(2):421–428
Mathers CD, Loncar D (2006) Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to
2030. PLoS Med 3(11):e442
Pavicic T, Korting HC (2006) Xerosis and callus formation as a key to the diabetic foot syndrome:
dermatologic view of the problem and its management. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 4(11):935–941
Prabhu KG, Patil KM, Srinivasan S (2001) Diabetic feet at risk: a new method of analysis of walking
foot pressure images at different levels of neuropathy for early detection of plantar ulcers. Med
Biol Eng Comput 39(3):288–93
Heavy Metal Ions Detection by Carbon
Paste Electrode as an Electrochemical
Sensor

Arti Mourya, Bidyut Mazumdar, and Sudip K. Sinha

Abstract Voltammetry techniques such as cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical

impedance spectroscopy are used to quantify metal ions in aqueous solutions. In this
paper, we have reported electrochemical detection of lead (II), cadmium (II), and
Copper (II) ions based on carbon paste electrode using graphite powder. Potassium
ferricyanideK3 [Fe(CN)6] solutions as benchmark media to check redox reactions.
The Detection limit was 6.56 × 10–9 M investigated by cyclic voltammetry. Effects
of pH and supporting electrolytes were also measured.

Keywords Carbon paste electrode · Cyclic voltammetry · Electrochemical

impedance spectroscopy · Heavy metal

1 Introduction

Water contamination is one of the major environmental issues and between the wide
diversity of contaminants heavy metal ions are one of them Momodu (2010) Heavy
metal contamination damages the ecosystem due to higher toxicity even at minute
quantity. Cadmium (II), Lead (II), and Copper (II) are classified as heavy metal
ions which enter in water bodies through various industrial operations. Elevated
levels of heavy metal ions can cause behavioral changes, liver damage, and impair
intelligence (Migliorini 2017; Rajawat 2014). Hence, the recognition and monitoring
of toxic metals from polluted sites and aquatic ecosystems is an important analytical
task that is needed by society.
Various analytical methods and techniques are used to determine the heavy
metal ions at low concentrations like atomic absorption/emission spectrometry

A. Mourya · B. Mazumdar (B)

Department of Chemical Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. K. Sinha
Department of Metallurgy Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 29

A. A. Rizvanov et al. (eds.), Advances in Biomedical Engineering and Technology,
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6329-4_4
Other documents randomly have
different content
consumption of nail-parings and the like” (p. 27). The nicety to
which these casuistic pietists carried their human observances is
shown from the example of one of them, Abuyah, who extolled the
Law of the Tassels as most perfect; and so, he says, “once, because
I had chanced to tread upon a portion of the fringe of my garment,
going up a ladder, I steadfastly refused to move from the spot where
I stood till such time as the rent had been repaired.” It was this
same pious man that chid his mother “because she wore on her
dress a ribbon that was not sewn but only fastened to her vesture,
for thus she transgressed the law by bearing burdens on the
Sabbath.”
Bringing in Philo and some Alexandrine Jews, with an exposition of
their philosophical opinions, adds much interest to the narrative. The
patriotic spirit of the enthusiastic Galileans who hastened to gather
around Jesus, whom they thought to have come for the restoration
of the ancient glory of Israel, is well depicted, and shown to have
been the chief motive leading so many from that province to follow
him. How slowly even the disciples learned the true mission of our
Redeemer appears from the fact that Philochristus himself had no
definite conception of it in the beginning. Conversing with Gorgias, a
travelled Jew, he sees advancing the tetrarch’s Thracian guard,
whose description, as well as that of the Roman soldiers, is
admirable: “I looked and saw a band of about three hundred men,
of a wild and savage aspect, bearing targets and girt with scimitars.
But Gorgias, noting, as I suppose, the anger in my countenance,
answered: ‘These dogs (may the Lord destroy them root and
branch!) are swift indeed to shed the blood of women and children,
but they are as naught compared with the Romans. Couldst thou see
a Roman legion how they march, these would seem unto thee but as
jackals at the lion’s tail. Mark but how the dogs straggle. But when
the Romans march the spears in their hands all point one way, and
the swords by their sides hang all after one fashion, and even their
stakes and tools (which they carry behind their backs) do all swing
to one time, and their feet, arms, and heads, yea, even to the
winking of their eyes, go all together after the manner of a five-
banked corn-ship of Alexandria, with her five hundred oars all
keeping time; and when they charge, they charge like ten thousand
elephants clad in iron.... Verily these Roman swine are all as children
of Satan; but a Roman legion is as Satan himself’” (p. 126). As he
had been listening to Christ teaching that whosoever would enter
the kingdom should become as little children, it seemed not easy to
him to reconcile this with the temporal restoration of Israel, and
“methought,” he says, “it would be very hard to overthrow these
Thracians, and much more the Romans, by becoming as little
children” (ibid.)
Although the work does not come out as a Catholic production, it is
very encouraging to those who desire the spirit of Christ to be more
universally diffused to find such books receiving extensive
circulation. Dogmatic or formally doctrinal propositions are not to be
found in it, yet the substantial doctrine of the Gospel is clearly
discernible in the body of the work. Excepting the brief exposition of
the doctrine of divorce at p. 213, there appears nothing in the whole
book inconsistent with a candid, Catholic exegesis of Scripture. The
beautiful exposition of Peter’s faith and the founding of the church
thereupon, at p. 249, could not be easily surpassed. It is a good sign
when Protestants have such works placed in their hands, and the
publishers deserve well of the public for the creditable manner in
which they have brought out this admirable volume. No professing
Christian can read it without very much profit, and, indeed, he will
be filled with the author’s declaration concerning Christ: “For in his
presence I find life; but to be absent from him is death” (p. 242).

Holy Church the Centre of Unity; or, Ritualism compared with

Catholicism. Reasons for returning to the True Fold. By T. H.
Shaw. London: R. Washbourne. 1877.

This pamphlet is not a little remarkable among those which issue

from the pens of converts. It is very different from what its title
leads us to expect. But perhaps it will take the Protestant mind all
the better for its peculiarities. We confess, for our own part, to being
disappointed at the same time that we are pleased. There is
occasionally an exhibition of something like bad taste. There is
extravagant use of italics—the effect of which is always weakening.
There are outbursts of pious sentiment—a thing never suitable to
polemical pages. Then, too, there is no continuity of argument. Each
chapter stands by itself and needlessly repeats what other chapters
have dealt with. Still, in spite of these defects, there is an
earnestness from beginning to end which cannot fail to impress the
mind of a real inquirer. And together with this earnestness there is a
force in the way some of the arguments are put which is greater, by
contrast, than it would appear in pages of the usual style of
controversy.
The writer begins by telling us that he has been “for nearly fifty
years a member of the Church of England.” He is therefore no hot-
brained undergraduate. He adds that his “misgivings were first
aroused as early as the year 1851”; and that his “convictions have
become matured by means of earnest prayer for Divine guidance.”
Here is a mental process that ought to strike a Protestant, and make
him ask his conscience: “Am I seeking that I may find? Am I praying
for light as this man did? Can I believe that such persistent prayer
has ended in delusion?”
The author’s next paragraph is a specimen of his way of putting
things:
“Regarding the Church of England—to say nothing of the
overwhelming testimony against her through lack of ‘apostolic
commission’ and her want of unity in doctrine—the endowments, the
system of patronage, the untrained priesthood, are in themselves
facts glaringly inconsistent with the idea of the guidance of the Spirit
of that God who is the author and source of all unity. There is no
trade or profession for which it is required that a youth should go
through less training than that which suffices for the English clergy.
Almost any scholar would pass for holy orders whose father had a
lucrative benefice at his disposal. Is it so in Rome? I rather think that
learning, self-sacrifice, and poverty are the main worldly
requirements. Which most corresponds to our Blessed Lord’s life
upon earth, whose ‘kingdom is not of this world’?”
On pages 22-25 he quotes from Father Harper’s reply to Dr. Fraser,
Bishop of Manchester, on infallibility. The learned Jesuit is appealing
to the testimony of the Third, Fourth, and Sixth Œcumenical
Councils. All Anglicans profess to receive the Third and Fourth, some
even the Sixth. If their divines should honestly state, as arguments
on the Catholic side, the passages cited by Father Harper, their
cause would be a lost one indeed, as many of them know but too
well. It is therefore a great service to lay these passages before the
candid inquirer, who, in all probability, has never heard of Father
Harper’s “reply,” or would fear to read it if he had. Further quotations
follow, from page 25 to page 27, showing how the dogma of Papal
Infallibility, like all other definitions, is “at once old and new,” and
thus refuting the stale charge of innovation.
We conclude our notice with another piece of excellent advice to
professed inquirers:
“We should call a man insane who endeavored to roof in his house
before he had laid the foundation or measured its dimensions; just
so it is in fact when people seeking the true church begin by
attacking and trying to understand every dogma. These can never
be fully understood. It is only as the house becomes built up that
the roofing begins; so it is in the spiritual house of the soul. Faith
leads us to the church. Faith is, then, the foundation. As the soul
grows in grace and humility, so the mysteries of godliness expand
before the eye of the soul, revealing that which at one time
appeared most obscure.... The great thing needed is divine faith;
and this is never found by mere arguing and reading. It is the free
gift of God, to be obtained only by earnest prayer.... Get this, and
then search whether Jesus Christ did establish a visible church.”
The “faith” here spoken of is not fides formata, for that “comes by
hearing”; but the grace of a right disposition for accepting the “word
of Christ.” And this disposition is not merely an attitude of earnest
attention, but, essentially, a spirit of humility—the “becoming as a
little child.” It is precisely the lack of this child-like spirit that makes
our arguments barren of result even where they are listened to with
respect.

Life of St. Winfrid, or Bonifacius, Martyr, Archbishop of Mentz and

Apostle of Germany. By the author of St. Willibrord. London: Burns
& Oates. 1878. (For sale by The Catholic Publication Society Co.)

This latest life of the great apostle of Germany is a truly interesting

contribution to the early missionary history of the church, and as
such seems to commend itself in an especial manner to those of his
wandering Anglo-Saxon children who would fain be of the church
without being within it; since in this short narrative these may learn
how, in the eighth century, their great English saint laid his spiritual
allegiance at the feet of Peter before he went forth successfully to
undertake the conversion of the heathen and the reform of abuses
among half-hearted and unruly Christians. And might not these also
ponder on the counsel of Pope St. Zacharias, addressed to the Saxon
monk, when commenting on certain of the Gallic clergy who held
nationality above unity, the fringes of the episcopal robe of greater
value than the seamless raiment of the Bride of Christ? “Preach,
dearest brother,” writes the holy pope, “the rule of Catholic tradition
we have received from the Holy Roman Church which we serve, and
of which God is the founder.”
The present English biographer of St. Boniface has enriched the
historical account of the saint’s labors with letters that give a vivid
picture of the faith and simplicity of those troubled times that seem
so confusing a maze as we look back on them with the clouded
memories of early school-days, when English history was a tangled
web of Ethelwulfs and Ethelberts.
To American ears the name of St. Boniface grows familiar through
the churches that rise in his honor among his German children in the
United States, yet, while we seem to know him better under the title
given him at Rome, we heartily enter into the feeling of loving pride
that makes his English biographer dwell on the sweetness of the
Saxon name, and with its peaceful syllables waken patriotic echoes
among the forests of Thuringia and the waves of the Zuyder Zee—
Boniface or Winfrid, he is alike peacemaker and worker of good for
all the nations.

Voyage of the Paper Canoe: A Geographical Journey of two

thousand five hundred miles, from Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico,
during the years 1874-5. By Nathaniel H. Bishop, Author of “One
Thousand Miles’ Walk across South America,” and corresponding
Member of the Boston Society of Natural History, and of the New
York Academy of Sciences. Boston: Lee & Shepard; New York:
Charles T. Dillingham. 1878.

Mr. Bishop has given us a most interesting and instructive book. It

cannot fail to be interesting to every one who has any love for
nature, or any appreciation of out-of-door life and adventure; and it
is instructive in two ways: first, by showing what can be done by a
paper boat (a thing which most people know little or nothing about)
under skilful management, and, secondly, by the information it gives
regarding that remarkable inland line of navigation which runs along
almost our whole Atlantic coast, the very existence of which is
perhaps known to comparatively few persons.
Mr. Bishop started from Quebec on July 4, 1874, in a large wooden
canoe, with which he had at first proposed to make his journey,
under the impression, in which well-informed seamen shared, that
two hundred miles of his route would be on the open ocean. With
this boat he ascended the St. Lawrence and Richelieu rivers to Lake
Champlain, thence proceeding by the Champlain and Erie canals to
Albany. At this point he concluded to adopt a lighter craft, which was
made for him at Troy by Mr. Waters. This was the paper canoe with
which the rest of the voyage was made; it was only one-eighth of an
inch in thickness, and weighed only fifty-eight pounds. In this
seemingly frail but really very strong boat he rowed along down the
Hudson, through the Kill von Kull, up the Raritan, through the canal
to the Delaware, down the Delaware to the bay and Cape Henlopen,
thence along the coast nearly to Cape Charles. Here he had to take
the steamer across Chesapeake Bay; but thence, with the exception
of short land-portages, the voyage was pursued through the sounds
and inlets skirting the coast, and the Waccamaw River, to the Florida
line at St. Mary’s, and across Florida by the St. Mary’s and Suwanee
Rivers to the Gulf of Mexico.
We have given a short sketch of what Mr. Bishop did; but how he did
it, and the various incidents and adventures of his trip, must be
learned from the book itself, which we commend heartily to the
perusal of all who like to read a most interesting story, which has the
advantage of being true from beginning to end.

Seven Years and Mair. By Anna T. Sadlier. New York: Harper &
Brothers. 1878.

This is a pleasing and graceful little tale quite out of the common
track. It opens amid the wild scenery and the wild people of the
Shetlands, passes thence to France, and goes back to a happy
ending in its Shetland home. The out-of-the-way scenery and
characters afford unusual scope for a picturesque imagination, which
Miss Sadlier seems to possess in a very high degree, but which she
holds under, a wise restraint and never allows to run away with her.
She delights in the long, low sunsets, the gloom of night, the roar of
the tempest, the swell of the sea, the grey and the rosy dawn of
morning, the solemn beauty of the starry night. All these have a
meaning, a poetry, almost a life for her; and she is very happy in her
descriptions of them. These are enhanced by a sweet, clear English,
which she has doubtless caught from a mother whose name is and
will long remain a household word among Catholic readers. The
narrative is fresh and pure and simply quaint. Miss Sadlier does not
affect to depict the psychological monstrosities which are the
ambition of most of the story-writers of the day. She avoids
microscopic inspections of the interiors, so to say, of impossible
personages, and gives us instead a pleasing story of the romantic
style, with a few characters strongly marked and well contrasted, the
whole forming a refreshing change from the average fiction of the
day.

The Christian Reformed in Mind and Manners. By Benedict Rogacci,

S.J. The translation edited by Henry James Coleridge, S.J.
London: Burns & Oates. 1877. (For sale by The Catholic
Publication Society Co.)

This volume is the twenty-third of the quarterly series brought out

by the Jesuits in London. The original is a work of the seventeenth
century. “It may be considered,” says the editor, “as the fruit of the
great experience of Father Rogacci in giving retreats,” and “is one of
those series of meditations in which the whole substance and system
of the Exercises of St. Ignatius are worked up, although not precisely
in the form in which they lie in the Exercises themselves.” Moreover,
“the meditations are meant for persons of all classes, not only for
religious persons; and those who are familiar from practice with the
text of the book itself of St. Ignatius will not fail to see how perfect
an acquaintance with and mastery of it must have been possessed
by Father Rogacci.”
The meditations are arranged for an eight days’ retreat, at the rate
of four a day. But since this may be considered excessive, a
“selection” is given on page xii. “for persons who desire to make
only three a day.” Indeed, Father Rogacci’s own practice was “not to
give more than three meditations a day, with a repetition, or some
practical considerations helping to the reformation of life, in the
afternoon.” “The place of these considerations,” continues the editor,
“is supplied in the present work by a number of practical reflections
which he calls réforme, one of which he would have the exercitant
read each day at the time of the consideration. There are sixteen of
these considerations, in order that the exercitant may choose for
himself, or as directed by his spiritual guide, whose assistance is
supposed in works like this, according to his special needs.”
Our own judgment of the work is that it is most excellent as a
whole, and we recommend it specially to those who are called upon
from time to time to give retreats, whether to religious or to
sodalities. We regret, however, that the meditations on hell, which
are assigned to the fifth day, have been left without annotations for
those who may use the book in private. “Pious” exaggerations and
figures of speech which may be necessary, by way of economy, to
impress gross and sensual natures are very much out of place, we
think, in a work of the kind before us.

Our Sunday Fireside: or, Meditations for Children. By Rory of the

Hill. London: Burns & Oates. 1878. (For sale by The Catholic
Publication Society Co.)

The author of this series of stories, as we find stated in the preface,

aims “to supply, for the use of children, some meditations on the
choice of life,” while he endeavors so to clothe, in a garb attractive
to childish minds, great truths of salvation and of every-day morality
—as well as the more complex relations of “church and state”—that,
the picturesque raiment winning the eyes, the soul may be led to
weigh the half-hidden substance. How far he has attained his aim
remains for the children to prove to whom his words shall be read.
To us the garb seems, in many cases, too deep-freighted with
cabalistic embroidery for little hands to lift, and the substance too
heavy with the world’s fate for little minds to weigh. “Many carps are
to be expected when curious eyes come a-fishing,” says gentle
Robert Southwell, and so our curious eyes open wide with wonder at
the wise little maiden of thirteen years who discourses of
“amphibologics” and “the hypodichotomy of petty schisms”; who
quotes from Renan and Voltaire, Walpole and De Tocqueville, citing
almost volume and chapter, and who sets before her younger
brothers and sisters the question of the great social conflict of the
age, the ceaseless war between Christ and the world in its modern
phase of “Liberalism” versus the divine voice of the church of God.
In his ardent interest in the subjects whereof he treats we fear the
scholar has often forgotten himself, and so has failed to stoop low
enough, or rise high enough, to reach the hearts of the little people
for whom he writes, picturesque as are his descriptions and full of
meaning as are his tales, among which we like best “The Way of
Life,” for the greater simplicity of its action; “Forgiveness,” for the
Christian pathos of its close; and “The Last Mass,” for the solemn
beauty and true poetry of its cathedral vision.

A Manual of Nursing. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1878.

In reading this little volume it will be seen that nursing is an art only
to be acquired by a large experience and under competent
instruction. Although this Manual has been published expressly for
the Training School for Nurses at Bellevue Hospital, nevertheless it
would repay perusal by any person who is liable to be called upon to
act as nurse. As is truly remarked in the preface, the infirm and
superannuated are not suitable as nurses. The young and vigorous
are the proper subjects to act in such capacity. Judging from its past
record, the Training School is a success, and its pupils are far in
advance of the old-time nurses who vegetated about Bellevue and
charity hospitals. Many physicians state that numbers of patients are
lost through injudicious acts on the part of the nurse. A careful
perusal of this Manual, and a careful attention given to the
physician’s advice, will certainly be important, and would repay the
trouble a hundred-fold.

Frederic Ozanam, Professor at the Sorbonne: His Life and Works. By

Kathleen O’Meara. (First American Edition.) New York: The
Catholic Publication Society Co., 9 Barclay Street. 1878.
We greet with pleasure the appearance of an American edition of
this delightful biography, an article on which appeared in The Catholic
World, February, 1877, on the event of its publication in England.
This edition has, we understand, been published at the request of
the Supreme Council of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul of this city,
and we trust there is not a member of the society in the country
who will not read this life of one of the founders, in fact we may say
the founder, of the great and useful Society of St. Vincent de Paul.

Vacation Days: A Book of Instruction for Girls. By the author of

Golden Sands. Translated from the French. New York: D. & J.
Sadlier & Co. 1878.

This is another of the admirable little series of devotional and

instructive works which Miss McMahon has been the happy means of
setting before the English-reading public. Vacation Days follows
Golden Sands in its method of appealing simply and tenderly and
with apt illustration to the young heart. We recommend it strongly to
young people who have the opportunity of idling during these idle
days. A passing glance once a day at a page or two of it will form an
excellent antidote to the literary trash which nowadays constitutes
the staple commodity of summer reading.

Select Works of the Venerable Father Nicholas Lancicius, S.J. Vol. I.

London: Burns & Oates. (For sale by The Catholic Publication
Society Co.)

This is the first volume of a selected edition of the works of one who
was a very holy Jesuit and great master of spiritual life during the
first half of the seventeenth century. It is a spiritual treatise
developing the eight days’ retreat which is founded on the Exercises
of St. Ignatius, and contains many pious considerations supported
and illustrated by opinions of the saints. We do not question the
doctrine of the book; it is solid, orthodox, and inviting; but we
believe the book is one which, on the whole, is not adapted to
people living in the world, and had better be confined to that class
of persons, religious and people retired from the world, for whom it
was originally written. Some of the examples taken from the lives of
saints are “hard to be understood,” and several of the illustrations
given in the chapter on “Helps to escape Purgatory” are not specially
edifying to us. We do not care to believe in the vision of a certain
monk, or even to think about numerous souls impaled upon spits
and roasted like geese before a large fire, with a lot of devils around
them acting the part of cooks. The work is well translated from the
Latin, and contains a short preface by Father Gallwey, S.J., whose
name stands deservedly high in England.

The Mysterious Castle: A Tale of the Middle Ages. Translated from

the French by Mrs. Kate E. Hughes. Baltimore: Kelly, Piet & Co.

This quaint autobiography of the Baron de Rabasteins is charmingly

written. It is full of pleasant, lively incidents of travel, with
descriptions of the life and manners of the French people during the
middle and latter half of the last century, a period which can hardly
be classed as mediæval, as the title given to the translation imports.
The adventures of the young baron in the so-called “mysterious”
castle of Monségur surpass any story of the kind we have ever read
in fiction. If they knew what a treat was in store for them by its
perusal, there is not one of our young folks who would not like to
get it as a school premium or as a Christmas present. However, we
feel it our duty to say that there are numerous faults in translation
which in future editions should be corrected. As, for example, on the
first page we are confronted with the expression “decision of the
holy siege,” by which we presume is meant “the judgment of the
Holy See.”
 The Art of Knowing Ourselves, etc. By Father John Peter
Pinamonti, S.J. With Twelve Considerations on Death, by Father
Luigi La Nuza, S.J., and Four on Eternity, by Father John Baptist
Manni, S.J. Translated by the author of St. Willibrord. London:
Burns & Oates. 1877.
Daily Meditations on the Mysteries of Our Holy Faith, and on the
lives of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the Saints. First Part,
containing Meditations for the five weeks of Advent, for the six
weeks after Christmas, as also on the Mysteries of the Life of
Christ. Translated from the Spanish of Rev. Father Alonso de
Andrade, S.J. London: Burns & Oates. 1878. (For sale by The
Catholic Publication Society Co.)

Here are two more volumes of meditations written for other times
and rescued from oblivion. Of the three brief treatises contained in
the first volume, the “Art of Knowing Ourselves” is a veritable gem. It
may well be called “the looking-glass which does not deceive.”
Regarding the other two treatises—the “Twelve Considerations on
Death” and the “Four on Eternity”—we have to remark again that
there is much in them unsuited to the present age. We greatly prefer
the second volume from the Spanish of Father Andrade; for though
here, too, in the meditations for the first week of Advent, will be
found things rather calculated to irritate than to edify, yet the rest of
the book is the more delicious for its quaintness, and has a way we
have never seen surpassed of making us familiar with Jesus and
Mary as our models, and of showing us what wealth is treasured up
in the gospels which the church has chosen for her Mass.

St. Teresa’s Own Words; or, Instructions on the Prayer of

Recollection, etc. London: Burns & Oates. (For sale by The
Catholic Publication Society Co.)
This is a good English translation, by Bishop Chadwick, of St.
Teresa’s admirable method of interior prayer. It contains the sense
and substance of the whole third book of the Imitation of Christ,
showing us in brief how Truth speaks within, without the noise of
words; and that interior conversation of Christ with the faithful soul
is the surest means of possessing our Sovereign Good in this world
and the next. It is, as Edmund Waller says, “infinite riches in a little
space.”

The Notary’s Daughter. From the French of Mme. Donnet, by Lady

Georgiana Fullerton. New York: D. & J. Sadlier & Co.

As the translator, Lady Fullerton, announces that this very pretty tale
is an adaptation, and not in a strict sense a translation, we are
assured that the gifted authoress of Lady Bird has not only avoided
servility in translating the parts of Un Mariage en Province which she
has decided to employ, but has added to a very charming French
story some of her own excellent ideas, both in relation to plot and
dialogue. The story brings us to the south of France, about Toulon,
and is strikingly illustrative of the French theories in regard to
matrimony. A notary, M. Lescalle, who possesses great political
influence, has a very pretty daughter, Rose, whom he successively
offers to all the great men in the neighborhood, desirous of his
support, as a suitable wife for their sons. His offer is accepted by a
rich roturier, but is abruptly broken off by M. Lescalle himself, in
consequence of another offer of marriage by M. le Comte de
Védelles, in behalf of his younger son, George. Now George, being
considered a fada—namely, a half-witted person—is an object of
aversion to Mlle. Rose; but, in spite of her repugnance, the
ceremony takes place. It is needless to say that George is not a
fada, but is a poet, unappreciated by his relations, and so everything
is brought to a happy conclusion. The dialogue is above the average
of novels, but even so, it is not very sprightly. The moral tone is
exceptionally good. The plot affords an opportunity of condemning
the system by which marriages are arranged in France, and invites
reflections which cannot be discussed in a brief criticism.

The Precious Pearl of Hope in the Mercy of God. London: Burns &
Oates (For sale by The Catholic Publication Society Co.)

We welcome this beautiful little book as a great addition to our

ascetical literature. It is translated into English from the Italian, and,
to judge by its grace and elegance, by a master of both languages.
The aim of the pious author was to awaken and increase in us a
sense of confidence in God, which is so necessary to our spiritual
life; and he admirably answers objections drawn from certain
passages of the Sacred Scriptures which heretics and others have
abused, and from some opinions of the Fathers insisting on the
severity of the divine judgments. We are reminded by this little work
of the great and constant account which the early Christians made
of the virtue of hope, whose symbol was an anchor—suggested by
St. Paul to the Hebrews vi. 18-19—and which, either alone or in
connection with the fish (symbol of our Lord and Saviour), or
combined with a cross, substituted for the ring by which the anchor
is attached, was a very common device cut or impressed on lamps,
rings, and other objects of daily use. Among early Christian
inscriptions, also, few are more frequent than those which express
hope in the mercy of God, such as Spes in Deo, Spes in Christo,
Spes in Deo Christo.

Thalia. From the French of Abbé A. Bayle, by a Sister of St.

Joseph. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham & Son.

The vast majority of the lovers of light literature look upon classical
stories with a certain mistrust. They fear them either to be too
pedantic or wanting in “esprit.” Thalia opens in Arles, thence we
voyage to Alexandria, then to Rome, from Rome to Nicomedia, and
so on. There are a few good scenes and descriptive passages; but,
although a somewhat agreeable way of learning the history of the
time, it does not necessarily make a pleasing romance. A Sister of
St. Joseph has translated Thalia into very correct English. The book
is likely to be discarded as a light production by one who can
appreciate its learned allusions, and to one who cannot, to read it
will seem a task rather than a pleasure.

Ireland, as She Is, as She Has Been, and as She Ought to Be. By
James J. Clancy. New York: Thomas Kelly. 1877.

The comprehensive title of this work indicates the author’s intentions

in giving it to the public, and, if he has not succeeded in doing
justice to a theme so important, he has at least produced a very
readable book, in which will be found many historical facts clearly
and succinctly stated, and several suggestions that will command
the attention of the thoughtful reader. With some of Mr. Clancy’s
views on the past and present of his native country we cannot
agree. They are those entertained by a certain class of radical and
impracticable politicians whose sole claim to attention consists in the
fact that they are continually inveighing against the inevitable, and
criticising the acts of the able men who, like Edmund Burke and
Daniel O’Connell, have conferred dignity on their native land and
earned for themselves the world’s applause. Still, the author of the
book before us advances his opinions with so much comparative
moderation that, while they do not compel conviction, they certainly
command our respectful consideration. Those who have read Mr.
Sullivan’s New Ireland will probably like to read this Irish-American
version of the oft-told tale of Ireland’s wrongs and rights.

Wrecked and Saved. By Mrs. Parsons. London: Burns & Oates.

1878. (For sale by The Catholic Publication Society Co.)
The author of this very pretty and instructive tale is already well
known to the public as the writer of several moral stories which,
while thoroughly Catholic in tone and interesting in plot, are
sufficiently attractive in an artistic point of view to command the
attention of all intelligent readers. Wrecked and Saved is a story of
everyday life very simply and gently told. The hero, who has been a
shipwrecked babe, passed through all the phases of the life of a
foundling, winning to himself friends by his good conduct, cheerful
disposition, and intrinsic merits. Wrongfully accused of a heinous
crime, he suffers imprisonment and mental torture, but, having
finally been proven innocent, all ends happily. The plan of the book
can scarcely be called original, but the lessons of patience, industry,
and dependence on the will of Providence inculcated are excellent.

Forbidden Fruit. From the German of F. W. Hackländer. By Rosalie

Kaufman. Boston: Estes & Lauriat. 1878.

This is a novel with the threadbare plot of a young heir being obliged
to marry before a certain age or lose a considerable fortune. There is
no grace or lightness about the dialogue, and scarcely a particle of
humor in the entire book. There are one or two characters well
drawn, of whom an old gentleman named Renner, and a young and
vivacious beauty, Fräulein Clothilde, are possibly the best. As a rule,
this kind of novel does not prove a success when translated for an
American public. How it may succeed in Germany it is impossible to
say, but certainly the book is even uncommonly stupid. When it is
remarked that all the young ladies and gentlemen are distinguished
for their elegance and beauty, the character of the story will be
appreciated.

Total Abstinence in its Social and Theological Aspects. An address by

the Rev. James J. Moriarty, Catholic pastor of Chatham Village,
N. Y. Published by special request. Chatham Village, N. Y.:
Courier Printing-House. 1878.
This is a very earnest and eloquent address, which was delivered to
a mixed audience of Catholics and Protestants. Studiously popular in
its style, it is for that reason especially adapted to go home to the
hearts of the people. Father Moriarty has happily hit on the peculiar
danger and fascination of the vice of intemperance in the following
passage: “It is a vice that lies in wait for the most prominent
members of society, the highest in station, the most influential over
their fellow-men. It is not the vice of the naturally mean, the selfish,
or the miserly. It is more apt, of its nature, to attack those of the
finest mind, the most brilliant talent, the brave, the frank, the
generous-hearted, those open to the influence of the highest, the
purest, the noblest sentiments.”

Erleston Glen: A Lancashire Story of the Sixteenth Century. By

Alice O’Hanlon. London: Burns & Oates. 1878. (For sale by The
Catholic Publication Society Co.)

The scene of this tale, as the title indicates, is laid in England, and
the time is that of Queen Elizabeth, before the Catholic gentry of the
country became almost extinct, and the persecuting spirit of the
“Reformers” had died out for want of material upon which to
exercise its fanaticism. The plot of the book is simple, and the story
is, taken all together, sad. Two happy, unobtrusive families, allied by
long acquaintance and sincere friendship, but still more by the bond
of a common faith, are suddenly and cruelly interrupted in their
retired happiness by the agents of that government which it is the
boast of some modern historians to characterize as one of the most
glorious England has ever had. Then follow espionage, arrests,
mental suffering and physical torture, that, though less than
historical facts and by no means distorted from the truth, sicken the
heart and move us to thank God we live in the nineteenth and not in
the sixteenth century. As a work of art Erleston Glen is by no means
perfect. Its stiffness of style argues an unpractised hand, and the
incomprehensible Lancashire dialect is too often introduced to suit
the general reader; but as a picture of English life as it was during
the sudden paroxysm of Protestant reformatory zeal which
characterized the reign of Elizabeth, it is both truthful and vivid.
Many who do not care to read the more serious works lately printed
in England on the same topic—the sufferings of Catholics in that
country—will be both edified and instructed by a perusal of Miss
O’Hanlon’s clever book.

The Catholic Publication Society Company has in press, and will

shortly issue, one of the most important of its excellent series of
educational works. This is the History of the United States (for the
use of schools), advance sheets of which lie before us. It is written
by one of the most experienced and cultured of our writers, Mr. J. R.
G. Hassard, author of the Life of Archbishop Hughes, Life of Pius IX.,
etc. Its letter-press, illustrations, and maps are beyond criticism. Its
method is singularly well adapted to assist both scholar and teacher.
At the foot of every page are questions on what has gone above.
The History begins with the discovery of America and brings us
down to our own times. It has this special distinction to recommend
it: it gives Catholics their due prominence in a history of which they
occupy so large a place, but a place that has hitherto been resolutely
denied them. It is well, it is necessary, that Catholic children should
feel and know that they have as grand a share in the history, the
development, the life, the struggles, the triumphs of their country as
has any other class. Placing this History in their hands at school is
the very best means of instilling into their minds facts which it has
been the custom to ignore in the histories thus far published.
The work is intended for the more advanced students in our schools
and colleges. For younger scholars an Introductory History, arranged
on the catechetical plan, has been prepared as an abridgment of the
larger work, and will be issued simultaneously with the latter.

We would again call the attention of our readers to the new and
excellent works published by the Catholic Publication Society Co.,
and especially intended for light summer reading. Such are Six
Sunny Months, Sir Thomas More, Letters of a Young Irishwoman,
Alba’s Dream, and the various volumes of stories collected from The
Catholic World. We only call attention to these because they are the
most recent of their kind. The field of Catholic fiction is now happily
a large and rich one, and Catholics who are given to this kind of
reading might well turn aside from the foolish romances that are
made to suit a vicious popular taste to works which are fully as
interesting as the others without their nauseous flavor and immoral
tone and tendency.
 THE CATHOLIC WORLD.
VOL. XXVII., No. 162.—SEPTEMBER, 1878.
 THE MATHEMATICAL HARMONIES OF THE
UNIVERSE.[150]

ARGUMENT.

The primary light of reflection which awakens the human mind to a

distinct consciousness of itself at the same time reveals a world of
unknown forms, the universe of space and succession, teeming with
evolutions of order, beauty, and power. With the dawn of reason
comes also the principle of causality, and man asks himself, What
mean these mighty changes on earth and in the sky? What urges
the wonderful motions of wind and wave, of sunshine and of
shadow, and yonder golden fires that sparkle and burn in the high
vault of heaven? Whence are they all, and whence am I? And the
very first attempt to answer these spontaneous questions produces
the first theory of natural theology, inaugurating the reign of the
earliest natural religion.
But the curiosity of the intellect never slumbers, and the problem
repeats itself from age to age: What is the magnificent and
mysterious power above man and before nature, the primordial
Cause of all phenomena? And in response to this constant and ever-
recurring interrogatory the annals of speculation have presented
several contradictory solutions, as the atheistic, the sceptical, and
the pantheistic, none of which I shall now pause to criticise. I shall
simply undertake to prove, in accordance with the rigorous rules of
inductive logic, that the great cause, the fundamental efficient of all
facts whatsoever, must possess the attributes of intelligence, and
especially mathematical reason.
It will be remembered, however, that on the subject of causation, as
to the reality of the abstract idea itself, the schools of both ancient
and modern philosophy stand divided. The disciples of one sect
assume the existence of secret forces in the bosom of nature, whose
development results in those varied manifestations of mingled
matter and motion which become perceptible to our senses; while
their opponents, now including the élite of the most enlightened
thinkers, as strenuously contend that the knowledge of efficient
causes lies altogether beyond the reach of the human faculties; that
our science must therefore be limited to the strict generalization of
phenomena according to their invariable conjunctions of simultaneity
and succession, without the possibility of discovering any hidden
nexus or closer tie between them. This is the doctrine taught alike
by the great names of Reid, Locke, Hume, Brown, Kant, and Comte.
But it is fortunate that the path of the present argument will not
carry us into the mist of that interminable controversy. I shall not
pretend to determine the specific qualities of causation in general.
On the contrary, the whole extent of my purpose is to show that the
fundamental efficient of all material facts, whatever else it may or
may not be, must be endowed with the attribute of rationality.
I will begin by laying down the universal proposition: Every natural
phenomenon having the characteristics of mathematical order and
harmony, to the exclusion of chance, must be the effect of a rational
cause.[151]
Now, it is evident that the foregoing assertion, the major premise of
my intended syllogism, predicates a uniformity of relation between a
certain class of facts and the power which produces them. In other
words, it affirms an invariable correspondence betwixt a given
quality in the consequent, or effect, and a like definite attribute in
the antecedent, or cause, whichever terminology different schools
may prefer. The existence of this relation would by some be deduced
from à priori principles founded on a mental analysis of the abstract
notion of causation, while a large majority of mankind actually take
it for granted as an intuitive axiom of self-evident truth; and thus,
wherever they behold the appearances of design or the beautiful
evidence of mathematical order, their inference of previous or
contemporaneous causal intelligence is immediate and irresistible.
But neither of those procedures can be regarded as either certain or
scientific. No sequence of events can attain to the dignity of a
general and philosophic law until the antecedent and consequent are
brought face to face and tested by the rigid rules of an infallible
induction. The complicated web of circumstances must be unravelled
to eliminate the extraneous facts, and discover what precise quality
alone in the cause produces mathematical harmony in the effect.
For example, it is known that the air supports animal life as well as
combustion. But that same atmosphere consists of two elements,
oxygen and azote; how, then, shall it be ascertained which
ingredient is the supporter of life and flame? To determine this
question the natural philosopher performs an experimentum crucis
by plunging a bird or a lighted candle in a jar of pure azote from
which the oxygen has been removed, when the bird instantly dies
and the candle is extinguished. The problem is solved according to
the inductive canon of difference. Nevertheless, to make sure he
reverses the experiment, and treats the animal or the flame with
oxygen instead of azote, when the functions of vitality and
combustion proceed without disturbance—indeed, with additional
vigor. Here there can be no longer any room for doubt. It is manifest
as any demonstrated theorem in geometry that of the two elements
in atmospheric air, the oxygen, and not the azote, sustains both life
and combustion. And as I said before, this is the procedure of
induction by what Mill so happily terms the method of difference—
the most potent and unerring of all the five canons for the
investigation of causes.
Now, what we need for our induction as to the real and absolute
efficient of mathematical order and harmony in the motions of the
universe is a similar analyzed instance, where the naked antecedent
and consequent shall be detected in the very act of conjugation.
And, by a propitious arrangement of nature in the great fact of our
complex organization, we have it in our power to perform this
decisive experiment in the same manner and with as much certainty
as in the previous example. We can act as individual causes, either
with or without the presence of a rational purpose. Then, let the
student seat himself, pen or pencil in hand, to make marks on the
paper, without any intelligent design, as we sometimes do in a state
of reverie when the reason is exclusively occupied with some other
subject. The result is a medley of irregular and disconnected figures,
of letters and words written mechanically, without beauty, order, or
consecutive meaning.
Again, let the experimentalist apply the test of his intelligence. The
effect is a series of united diagrams solving some profound problem
in geometry, or a divine page of impassioned and classical
eloquence, or the elegant delineation of any particular object of
nature or art, according to the specific intention of the person. Here
the analysis is perfect, and realizes the exact conditions imposed by
the inductive canon of difference. The circumstances are all precisely
identical in both cases, save the presence of rationality and its
consequent mathematical harmony in the one instance, and their
absence in the other. Hence there can be no question that in human
causation the attribute of reason is the actual efficient of every
species of order.
Besides, even nature herself presents the same experiment in every
case of total insanity. The madman is deprived of reason, but not of
simple volition or bare causal power; and the consequence is utter
disorder and want of method in his actions. He cannot produce
mathematical effects, because he is deficient in mathematical
intelligence.
The same general law is demonstrated also by the canon of
agreement. Universal experience shows in every department of
science, industry, literature, and art that intelligence is the invariable
antecedent of order, and that the absence of that mental quality
involves the corresponding absence of all regular and harmonious
sequence.
It remains, however, to prove our major premise by the method of
concomitant variations, the canon of which has been expressed with
such clear and scientific accuracy in Mill’s Logic: “Whatever
phenomenon varies in any manner whenever another phenomenon
varies in some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of
that phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of
causation.”
For instance, in the case of heat, by increasing the temperature of a
body we enlarge its bulk, but by enlarging its bulk we do not
increase its temperature; therefore heat must be the cause, and not
the effect, of expansion. In a similar manner philosophers
demonstrate the first law of motion, or uniform velocity in a straight
line, by showing that retardation, or divergence, is always in the
definite ratio of the obstacles encountered by the moving body.
The application of this rule to our argument, although its force
cannot be augmented, gives the evidence the greatest variety and
splendor. For the annals of all ages and nations, without one single
exception, bear witness that, in exact proportion to the increase of
rationality, the human mind has always displayed corresponding
effects of beauty and order in every sphere of art and civilization.
What investigators have extended the limits of natural knowledge by
perfecting the science of geometry, or discovering the differential
calculus, or fixing the true principia of the material universe? Not a
low class of intellects with feeble faculties of reason and no broad
sweep of mathematical perception, but men of the loftiest genius,
such as the immortal names of Euclid, Archimedes, Leibnitz, or
Newton.
But I have already spent sufficient, and perhaps the reader will think
too much, time on this primary induction, which indeed, from the
universality of the law, has every appearance of being self-evident.
Nevertheless, this fulness of discussion was indispensable to my
purpose, that being to place all the premises of the argument on a
scientific rather than a popular basis. And, if I am not mistaken, we
are now entitled to consider the first proposition as completely
proven: “That all natural phenomena having the attributes of
mathematical order and harmony to the exclusion of chance must be
the effects of a cause, or of causes, possessing rationality.”
I am aware, however, of the specious objection that the general
induction is too wide for the warrant of its particular instances. It
may be urged that although the demonstration is perfect as to the
logical relation of intelligence as a cause and harmony as the
consequent, yet still we are not justified in affirming that no other
cause is capable of producing the same result. For example, a
hundred separate antecedents may lead to death; and many
ordinary facts follow very different material or mental efficients.
Upon what principles, then, it will be asked, are we enabled to
pronounce the universal negative that there cannot exist any
unintelligent forces in the bosom of nature entirely adequate to the
production of the mathematical order which we behold in the world
of time and space? I state the adverse criticism in all its strength,
because it is the only answer that can be interposed by the sceptical
philosopher; and, besides, it constitutes the main difficulty in the
minds of the multitude. Nevertheless, it cannot claim the slightest
pretension to the dignity of a scientific argument.
In the first place, I remark that the objection, if it has any
semblance of validity, proves too much, as it goes to overthrow
every general proposition which can possibly be framed on the
subject of causation, so far as assertion can proceed from the
antecedent to the consequent. It cuts off from the realms of logic, at
one reckless blow, the whole category of universal as to the
predication of any causal sequence even among perceptible
phenomena. Nay, it also denies the legitimacy of particular
affirmations in all cases of causation; for if the sceptic has the logical
liberty to assume the hypothesis of unknown and invisible efficients
in one instance, he may with equal plausibility do so in all; and
therefore these secret and unseen causes may be the real producing
antecedents of every phenomenon whatever, and thus all knowledge
must be reduced to naked conjecture.
By what rule, let me inquire, are we justified in extending the
sublime law of gravitation to the various planets of the solar system,
and even as high as the fixed stars? Obviously for the only reason
that we perceive in the magnificent evolutions of the celestial bodies
the same class of effects which appertain to terrestrial attraction.
And upon that identical principle we are entitled to infer the
existence of a rational cause wherever we behold mathematical
harmonies or the manifest evidences of intelligence and design. The
most stringent canons of induction give us this right, and I can see
no motive for refraining from its exercise, if the process should
perchance conduct us to the recognition of a Supreme Being. But as
to this last point, we have not yet advanced far enough in the
discussion to venture a positive declaration.
It must be admitted, however, that the axiom by which we are
enabled to deduce a cause with specific attributes from any definite
facts, such as we know by previous experience to be the natural
consequents of that particular efficient, must be restricted to the
special case where we have no acquaintance with any other cause
competent for the production of the given phenomena. And this is
precisely the condition of the case in our present argument. We have
the most abundant and perfect experience that intelligence is
adequate to produce the harmonious regularity and beautiful order
of nature; but we are altogether destitute of scientific, or even
superficial, knowledge as to the reality of any different cause which
might yield those results.
As I have already observed, the most advanced schools of modern
sensist philosophy entirely ignore the investigation of efficient or
producing causes, as removed beyond the sphere of the human
senses. On this point the Scotch metaphysicians speak as decidedly
as the disciples of Locke and Hume, or the more profound and
intensely critical Kant. Indeed, Dr. Thomas Brown has clearly
demonstrated that in the physical world we can never hope to
discover by sensation anything save phenomena, either antecedents
or consequents, with their invariable laws of simultaneity and
succession; while the deepest as the most laborious thinker of all, M.
Auguste Comte, refuses even so much as to use the term cause in
his Course of Positive Philosophy.
On the other hand, those who aver the existence of imperceptible
powers and occult qualities as the actual efficients of phenomena do
not attempt to define their character, nor pretend that they fall
within the limits of sensible or intellectual cognition. A member of
that sect, like the pedant in the old play, may explain “that opium
produces sleep because it has a soporific property”; but if you ask
him how he knows it to possess such a property, he can only answer,
from the fog of his vicious circle, “because it produces sleep.” And
such must ever be the virtual avowal of utter ignorance as to the
nature of causation by the adherents of this obsolete school. And
could they thus solve, even to their own satisfaction, the question of
secondary causes, they leave the question of the First Cause
untouched.
It therefore follows, in accordance with all the rules of the most rigid
and thorough induction, that the mathematical harmonies of the
universe furnish conclusive proofs of an intelligent cause; and if we
reject this inference there is not, and cannot be, the faintest shadow
of a possible hypothesis for the explanation of natural phenomena.
I will next proceed to state my second proposition: All natural
phenomena have the characteristics of mathematical order and
harmony to the exclusion of chance.
Now, it is evident that a generalization so sweeping and universal as
the above could only be made good by an immense, an almost
infinite series of inductions. Nevertheless, we are not bound to
assume an onus of such overpowering magnitude. For as the
syllogism of our argument belongs to the first figure, and we have to
deal at present with the minor premise, that may well be particular;
and the conclusion will be valid as to everything embraced within its
terms, and that will be found sufficient to warrant our conclusion.
As a preliminary, however, it becomes necessary to explain the
logical process for the exclusion or mathematical elimination of
chance. Suppose there be two dice in a box, what are the chances
of our turning an ace at a single throw? Obviously one-sixth, leaving
six chances minus one against the probability; while the chances
against our throwing two aces, or any other equation, may be set
down, with sufficient accuracy for the purpose of this argument, as
the square of the last number, or thirty-six. The chances against an
equation of four dice are 1,296; while against eight they amount to
the enormous sum of 1,679,616—an impossible throw, unless the
cubes have been loaded. And it is manifest from this example how
very soon the multiplication of coincidences indicative of order must
demonstrate causation to the utter elimination of chance. I will now
commence with the particular cases of the general law announced in
my second premise.

INSTANCE I.—MYSELF.

I survey my right hand: it has five fingers; I look at my left: it has

five also—the other member of an algebraic equation. I then turn to
my feet, and behold a similar equation of five toes on each. I next
turn to my bodily senses, and again find the mystic five. The wonder
is increasing. And now all the incalculable millions of my fellow-men
rise up and sweep before the eye of the mind, in all the rich and
radiant, or coarse and unseemly, varieties of humanity; and all
these, too, present the identical God-announcing miracle, the
quintuple equation of fives.
Let us, however, apply the rigorous rules for the calculation of
chances, not forgetting the judicious remark of Whately: “That the
probability of any given supposition must be estimated by means of
a comparison with each of its alternatives.”
Now, there can be but two suppositions possible as to this uniform
combination by which the number five is five times repeated in the
human organism. The cause, whatever that may be, which produces
these invariable equations must be endowed with intelligence or not.
There is no other conceivable alternative; for the abscissio infiniti
effected by the word not, in logical division, always exhausts the
whole category of things, both real and imaginary. Every object must
be rational or not—rational in thought and in fact.
Therefore all these millionary equations of fives must have been
produced by a cause, or causes, possessed of reason, or by a power
destitute of that attribute. If we assume the first alternative there
will be no chances for calculation, the efficient itself being amply
adequate to develop the mathematical harmony.
But take up the other and only remaining supposition, that the
causal agent producing the human organism is mere blind force of
some unknown and unimaginable nature; what are the chances
against such a hypothesis? We might say, in all logical strictness,
that as we have no scientific knowledge of any such unintelligent
cause capable of effecting the given phenomena of order, while we
are acquainted with an efficient fully competent for the purpose, the
chances against the naked assumption of blind force must be stated
as infinity to zero. The chances against the equation of five fingers
on each hand would be twenty-five. Add the five toes on each foot,
and the chances will be six hundred and twenty-five. Then
incorporate into the calculation the five senses, and the chances are
three thousand one hundred and twenty-five. Let me procure a
larger sheet, as the measureless sea of infinite and nameless
numbers is flowing fast upon me. Next reckon the chances in the
case of two persons, and they swell to the vast sum of nine millions,
seven hundred and sixty-five thousand, six hundred and twenty-five;
while the chances for four men will be the square of that number,
and so on for ever. But the enormous sums soon overpower all the
magnificent processes of our algebra, and no logarithmic
abbreviations can aid us to grasp what stretches away into the
unexplored fields of immensity. The attempt to apply the calculation
even to the inhabitants now living on the globe would be as idle as
the endeavor to enumerate the sunbeams shed during a solar year.
The arithmetic of the archangel would perhaps be insufficient for the
mighty computation.
In reference also to a single individual the subject might be pushed
indefinitely farther—to the bones of the arms, head, feet, and the
convolutions of the brain; for everywhere, and all through the
physical framework, there runs a wonderful duality, where the series
of constant equations counterbalance each other.
It must be borne in mind that I have shown in my major premise the
necessity of rationality in the cause which effects mathematical order
in the sequences of any natural phenomena. Hence such a cause is
demonstrated for the whole of humanity. But, apart from the rigid
logic of the argument, the question presents itself to popular
apprehension: Could a cause without the intellect to perceive, the
faculty to calculate and arrange, numerical relations, produce this
infinity of mathematical harmonies?
If it be answered that the efficient is some unknown power or secret
quality involved in the facts themselves or concealed beneath them,
the problem still remains unsolved and rebounds upon us with
accumulated force: Is that supposed secret power or occult quality
self-conscious? Hath it the attribute of mathematical reason
competent to the calculation and production of all these beautiful
and boundless equations?

INSTANCE II.—CHEMISTRY.

Let us take our next comparisons from chemistry, that youngest

sister of all the sciences, the splendid child of the galvanic battery,
whose birth was brilliant as that of lightning.
Go analyze a cup of water. You find it composed of two parts of
hydrogen to one of oxygen by volume, and eight parts of oxygen to
one of hydrogen by weight. Nor do these numerical ratios ever vary.
Freeze it into ice hard as the crystal of the jewelled mountains;
dissipate it into vapor of such exquisite tenuity that a million acres of
floating mist would scarcely form a single dewdrop; bring it from the
salt solitudes of the ocean, or from the central curve of a rainbow,
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