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 To The Student
With the hope that this work will stimulate
an interest in Structural Analysis
and provide an acceptable guide to its understanding.
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE
This book is intended to provide the student with a clear and thorough
presentation of the theory and application of structural analysis as it
applies to trusses, beams, and frames. Emphasis is placed on developing
the student’s ability to both model and analyze a structure and to
provide realistic applications encountered in professional practice.
For many years now, engineers have been using matrix methods to
analyze structures. Although these methods are most efficient for a
structural analysis, it is the author’s opinion that students taking a first
course in this subject should also be well versed in some of the more
important classicial methods. Practice in applying these methods will
develop a deeper understanding of the basic engineering sciences of
statics and mechanics of materials. Also, problem-solving skills are
further developed when the various techniques are thought out and
applied in a clear and orderly way. By solving problems in this way one
can better grasp the way loads are transmitted through a structure and
obtain a more complete understanding of the way the structure deforms
under load. Finally, the classicial methods provide a means of checking
computer results rather than simply relying on the generated output.

New to This Edition

• Fundamental Problems. These problem sets are selectively
located just after the example problems. They offer students simple
applications of the concepts and, therefore, provide them with the
chance to develop their problem-solving skills before attempting to
solve any of the standard problems that follow. You may consider
these problems as extended examples since they all have solutions and
answers that are given in the back of the book. Additionally, the
fundamental problems offer students an excellent means of studying
for exams, and they can be used at a later time to prepare for the exam
necessary to obtain a professional engineering license.
• Content Revision. Each section of the text was carefully reviewed
to enhance clarity. This has included incorporating the new ASCE/
SEI 07-10 standards on loading in Chapter 1, an improved explanation
of how to draw shear and moment diagrams and the deflection curve
of a structure, consolidating the material on structures having a
variable moment of inertia, providing further discussion for analyzing
structures having internal hinges using matrix analysis, and adding a
new Appendix B that discusses some of the common features used for
running current structural analysis computer software.
VIII P R E FA C E

• Example Changes. In order to further illustrate practical

applications of the theory, throughout the text some of the examples
have been changed, and with the aid of photos, feature modeling and
analysis of loadings applied to actual structures.
• Additional Photos. The relevance of knowing the subject matter is
reflected by the realistic applications depicted in many new and updated
photos along with captions that are placed throughout the book.
• New Problems. There are approximately 70% new problems in
this edition. They retain a balance between easy, medium, and difficult
applications. In addition to the author, the problems have been
reviewed and checked by four other parties: Scott Hendricks, Karim
Nohra, Kurt Norlin, and Kai Beng Yap.
• Problem Arrangement. For convenience in assigning homework,
the problems are now placed throughout the text. This way each
chapter is organized into well-defined sections that contain an
explanation of specific topics, illustrative example problems, and a set
of homework problems that are arranged in approximate order of
increasing difficulty.

Organization and Approach

The contents of each chapter are arranged into sections with specific
topics categorized by title headings. Discussions relevant to a particular
theory are succinct, yet thorough. In most cases, this is followed by a
“procedure for analysis” guide, which provides the student with a summary
of the important concepts and a systematic approach for applying the
theory. The example problems are solved using this outlined method in
order to clarify its numerical application. Problems are given at the end
of each group of sections, and are arranged to cover the material in
sequential order. Moreover, for any topic they are arranged in
approximate order of increasing difficulty.

Hallmark Elements
• Photographs. Many photographs are used throughout the book to
explain how the principles of structural analysis apply to real-world
situations.
• Problems. Most of the problems in the book depict realistic
situations encountered in practice. It is hoped that this realism will
both stimulate the student’s interest in structural analysis and develop
the skill to reduce any such problem from its physical description to a
model or symbolic representation to which the appropriate theory can
be applied. Throughout the book there is an approximate balance of
problems using either SI or FPS units. The intent has been to develop
 P R E FA C E IX

problems that test the student’s ability to apply the theory, keeping in
mind that those problems requiring tedious calculations can be
relegated to computer analysis.
• Answers to Selected Problems. The answers to selected
problems are listed in the back of the book. Extra care has been taken
in the presentation and solution of the problems, and all the problem
sets have been reviewed and the solutions checked and rechecked to
ensure both their clarity and numerical accuracy.
• Example Problems. All the example problems are presented in a
concise manner and in a style that is easy to understand.
• Illustrations. Throughout the book, an increase in two-color art has
been added, including many photorealistic illustrations that provide a
strong connection to the 3-D nature of structural engineering.
• Triple Accuracy Checking. The edition has undergone rigorous
accuracy checking and proofing of pages. Besides the author’s review
of all art pieces and pages, Scott Hendricks of Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Karim Nohra of the University of South Florida, and Kurt
Norlin of Laurel Technical Services rechecked the page proofs and
together reviewed the entire Solutions Manual.

Contents
This book is divided into three parts. The first part consists of seven
chapters that cover the classical methods of analysis for statically
determinate structures. Chapter 1 provides a discussion of the various
types of structural forms and loads. Chapter 2 discusses the determination
of forces at the supports and connections of statically determinate beams
and frames. The analysis of various types of statically determinate trusses
is given in Chapter 3, and shear and bending-moment functions and
diagrams for beams and frames are presented in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5,
the analysis of simple cable and arch systems is presented, and in
Chapter 6 influence lines for beams, girders, and trusses are discussed.
Finally, in Chapter 7 several common techniques for the approximate
analysis of statically indeterminate structures are considered.
In the second part of the book, the analysis of statically indeterminate
structures is covered in six chapters. Geometrical methods for calculating
deflections are discussed in Chapter 8. Energy methods for finding
deflections are covered in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 covers the analysis of
statically indeterminate structures using the force method of analysis, in
addition to a discussion of influence lines for beams. Then the
displacement methods consisting of the slope-deflection method in
Chapter 11 and moment distribution in Chapter 12 are discussed. Finally,
beams and frames having nonprismatic members are considered in
Chapter 13.
X P R E FA C E

The third part of the book treats the matrix analysis of structures using
the stiffness method. Trusses are discussed in Chapter 14, beams in Chap-
ter 15, and frames in Chapter 16. A review of matrix algebra is given in
Appendix A, and Appendix B provides a general guide for using
available software for solving problem in structural analysis.

Resources for Instructors

• Instructor’s Solutions Manual. An instructor’s solutions manual
was prepared by the author. The manual was also checked as part of
the Triple Accuracy Checking program.
• Presentation Resources. All art from the text is available in PowerPoint
slide and JPEG format. These files are available for download from
the Instructor Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com. If you
are in need of a login and password for this site, please contact your
local Pearson Prentice Hall representative.
• Video Solutions. Located on the Companion Website, Video
Solutions offer step-by-step solution walkthroughs of representative
homework problems from each chapter of the text. Make efficient use of
class time and office hours by showing students the complete and
concise problem solving approaches that they can access anytime and
view at their own pace. The videos are designed to be a flexible resource
to be used however each instructor and student prefers. A valuable
tutorial resource, the videos are also helpful for student self-evaluation
as students can pause the videos to check their understanding and work
alongside the video. Access the videos at www.pearsonhighered.com/
hibbeler and follow the links for the Structural Analysis text.
• STRAN. Developed by the author and Barry Nolan, a practicing
engineer, STRAN is a downloadable program for use with Structural
Analysis problems. Access STRAN on the Companion Website, www.
pearsonhighered.com/hibbeler and follow the links for the Structural
Analysis text. Complete instructions for how to use the software are
included on the Companion Website.

Resources for Students

• Companion Website. The Companion Website provides practice
and review materials including:
❍ Video Solutions—Complete, step-by-step solution walkthroughs
of representative homework problems from each chapter. Videos
offer:
■ Fully worked Solutions—Showing every step of representative
homework problems, to help students make vital connections
between concepts.
 P R E FA C E XI

■ Self-paced Instruction—Students can navigate each problem

and select, play, rewind, fast-forward, stop, and jump-to-
sections within each problem’s solution.
■ 24/7 Access—Help whenever students need it with over 20 hours
of helpful review.
❍ STRAN—A program you can use to solve two and three
dimensional trusses and beams, and two dimensional frames.
Instructions for downloading and how to use the program are
available on the Companion Website.
An access code for the Structural Analysis, Eighth Edition Companion
Website is included with this text. To redeem the code and gain access
to the site, go to www.prenhall.com/hibbeler and follow the directions
on the access code card. Access can also be purchased directly from
the site.

Acknowledgments
Over one hundred of my colleagues in the teaching profession and many
of my students have made valuable suggestions that have helped in the
development of this book, and I would like to hereby acknowledge all of
their comments. I personally would like to thank the reviewers contracted
by my editor for this new edition, namely:
Thomas H. Miller, Oregon State University
Hayder A. Rasheed, Kansas State University
Jeffrey A. Laman, Penn State University
Jerry R. Bayless, University of Missouri—Rolla
Paolo Gardoni, Texas A&M University
Timothy Ross, University of New Mexico
F. Wayne Klaiber, Iowa State University
Husam S. Najm, Rutgers University
Also, the constructive comments from Kai Beng Yap, and Barry Nolan,
both practicing engineers are greatly appreciated. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge the support I received from my wife Conny, who has
always been very helpful in preparing the manuscript for publication.
I would greatly appreciate hearing from you if at any time you have
any comments or suggestions regarding the contents of this edition.

Russell Charles Hibbeler

[email protected]
This page intentionally left blank
 CREDITS
Chapter 1 opener: © CJ Gunther/epa/Corbis
Figure 1.6 (a), Page 7: Mark Harris/Photodisc/Getty Images
Chapter 2 opener: Joe Gough/Shutterstock
Chapter 3 opener: © Robert Shantz/Alamy
Chapter 4 opener: Ralf Broskvar/123rf
Chapter 5 opener: © Greg Balfour Evans/Alamy
Chapter 6 opener: © Accent Alaska.com/Alamy
Chapter 7 opener: © David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy
Chapter 8 opener: [Photographer]/Stone/Getty Images
Chapter 9 opener: Alamy Images
Chapter 10 opener: Shutterstock
Chapter 11 opener: © 2011 Photos.com, a division of Getty
Images. All rights reserved.
Chapter 12 opener: Fotosearch/SuperStock
Chapter 13 opener: iStockphoto.com
Chapter 14 opener: © Corbis RF/Alamy
Chapter 15 opener: © Paul A. Souders/CORBIS
Chapter 16 opener: © Alan Schein/Corbis
Cover 1: zimmytws\Shutterstock
Cover 2: Vladitto\Shutterstock

Other photos provided by the author, R. C. Hibbeler.

This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS
3.5 The Method of Sections 104
3.6 Compound Trusses 110
1 3.7 Complex Trusses 116
3.8 Space Trusses 120
Types of Structures and Problems 127
Loads 3
Chapter Review 130
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Structures 4
1.3
1.4
Loads 9
Structural Design 26
4
Problems 27 Internal Loadings
Chapter Review 31
Developed in Structural
Members 133
4.1 Internal Loadings at a Specified
2 Point 133
Analysis of Statically 4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 139
4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams
Determinate for a Beam 150
Structures 33 4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams
for a Frame 163
2.1 Idealized Structure 33 4.5 Moment Diagrams Constructed by
2.2 Principle of Superposition 46 the Method of Superposition 168
2.3 Equations of Equilibrium 47 Problems 173
2.4 Determinacy and Stability 48
2.5 Application of the Equations Chapter Review 178
of Equilibrium 59
Chapter Review 68
Fundamental Problems 70
Problems 72 5
Project Problem 77 Cables and
Arches 181
3 5.1 Cables 181
Analysis of Statically 5.2 Cable Subjected to Concentrated
Loads 182
Determinate 5.3 Cable Subjected to a Uniform
Trusses 79 Distributed Load 184
5.4 Arches 194
3.1 Common Types of Trusses 79 5.5 Three-Hinged Arch 195
3.2 Classification of Coplanar Trusses 85 Problems 201
3.3 The Method of Joints 94
3.4 Zero-Force Members 98 Chapter Review 203
XVI CONTENTS

6
Influence Lines for
Statically Determinate 8
Structures 205 Deflections 299

6.1 Influence Lines 205 8.1 Deflection Diagrams and the Elastic
6.2 Influence Lines for Beams 213 Curve 299
6.3 Qualitative Influence Lines 216 8.2 Elastic-Beam Theory 305
6.4 Influence Lines for Floor Girders 228 8.3 The Double Integration Method 307
6.5 Influence Lines for Trusses 232 8.4 Moment-Area Theorems 316
6.6 Maximum Influence at a Point due to a 8.5 Conjugate-Beam Method 326
Series of Concentrated Loads 240 Problems 335
6.7 Absolute Maximum Shear and
Chapter Review 338
Moment 250
Problems 255
Chapter Review 260

9
7 Deflections Using Energy
Approximate Analysis of Methods 341
Statically Indeterminate 9.1 External Work and Strain Energy 341
Structures 263 9.2 Principle of Work and Energy 345
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work 346
7.1 Use of Approximate Methods 263 9.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses 348
7.2 Trusses 264 9.5 Castigliano’s Theorem 355
7.3 Vertical Loads on Building 9.6 Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses 356
Frames 270 9.7 Method of Virtual Work: Beams
7.4 Portal Frames and Trusses 273 and Frames 364
7.5 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: 9.8 Virtual Strain Energy Caused by Axial Load,
Portal Method 282 Shear, Torsion, and Temperature 375
7.6 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: 9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams
Cantilever Method 288 and Frames 381
Problems 294 Problems 388
Chapter Review 296 Chapter Review 392
 CONTENTS XVII

10 12
Analysis of Statically Displacement Method
Indeterminate Structures of Analysis: Moment
by the Force Method 395 Distribution 487
10.1 Statically Indeterminate Structures 395 12.1 General Principles and
10.2 Force Method of Analysis: General Definitions 487
Procedure 398 12.2 Moment Distribution for
10.3 Maxwell’s Theorem of Reciprocal Beams 491
Displacements; Betti’s Law 402 12.3 Stiffness-Factor Modifications 500
10.4 Force Method of Analysis: Beams 403 12.4 Moment Distribution for Frames:
10.5 Force Method of Analysis: Frames 411 No Sidesway 508
10.6 Force Method of Analysis: Trusses 422 12.5 Moment Distribution for Frames:
10.7 Composite Structures 425 Sidesway 510
10.8 Additional Remarks on the Force Method Problems 518
of Analysis 428
Chapter Review 521
10.9 Symmetric Structures 429
10.10 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate
Beams 435
10.11 Qualitative Influence Lines for Frames 439 13
Problems 446 Beams and Frames
Chapter Review 448 Having Nonprismatic
Members 523
11 13.1 Loading Properties of Nonprismatic
Displacement Method of Members 523
13.2 Moment Distribution for Structures Having
Analysis: Slope-Deflection Nonprismatic Members 528
Equations 451 13.3 Slope-Deflection Equations for
Nonprismatic Members 534
11.1 Displacement Method of Analysis: Problems 536
General Procedures 451
Chapter Review 537
11.2 Slope-Deflection Equations 453
11.3 Analysis of Beams 459
11.4 Analysis of Frames: No Sidesway 469
11.5 Analysis of Frames: Sidesway 474
Problems 482
Chapter Review 485
XVIII CONTENTS

15.4 Application of the Stiffness Method

for Beam Analysis 579
14 Problems 592
Truss Analysis Using the
Stiffness Method 539
14.1 Fundamentals of the Stiffness 16
Method 539
14.2 Member Stiffness Matrix 542
Plane Frame Analysis
14.3 Displacement and Force Transformation Using the Stiffness
Matrices 543 Method 595
14.4 Member Global Stiffness Matrix 546
14.5 Truss Stiffness Matrix 547 16.1 Frame-Member Stiffness Matrix 595
14.6 Application of the Stiffness Method 16.2 Displacement and Force Transformation
for Truss Analysis 552 Matrices 597
14.7 Nodal Coordinates 560 16.3 Frame-Member Global Stiffness
14.8 Trusses Having Thermal Changes Matrix 599
and Fabrication Errors 564 16.4 Application of the Stiffness Method
14.9 Space-Truss Analysis 570 for Frame Analysis 600
Chapter Review 571 Problems 609
Problems 572

Appendices
A. Matrix Algebra for Structural
15 Analysis 612
Beam Analysis Using the B. General Procedure for Using
Structural Analysis Software 625
Stiffness Method 575
Fundamental Problems Partial Solutions
15.1 Preliminary Remarks 575 and Answers 628
15.2 Beam-Member Stiffness Matrix 577 Answers to Selected Problems 665
15.3 Beam-Structure Stiffness Matrix 579 Index 685
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
The diamond pattern framework (cross bracing) of these high-rise buildings is
used to resist loadings due to wind.
Types of Structures
and Loads 1
This chapter provides a discussion of some of the preliminary aspects
of structural analysis. The phases of activity necessary to produce a
structure are presented first, followed by an introduction to the basic
types of structures, their components, and supports. Finally, a brief
explanation is given of the various types of loads that must be
considered for an appropriate analysis and design.

1.1 Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.
Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges,
and towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames,
tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical supporting
structures are important.
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use,
the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability,
while taking into consideration economic and environmental constraints.
Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions
before final judgment can be made as to which structural form is most
appropriate. This design process is both creative and technical and requires
a fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of
mechanics which govern material response. Once a preliminary design of a
structure is proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to ensure that
it has its required stiffness and strength. To analyze a structure properly,
certain idealizations must be made as to how the members are supported
and connected together. The loadings are determined from codes and
local specifications, and the forces in the members and their displacements
are found using the theory of structural analysis, which is the subject
matter of this text. The results of this analysis then can be used to

3
 4 CHAPTER 1 TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

redesign the structure, accounting for a more accurate determination of

1 the weight of the members and their size. Structural design, therefore,
follows a series of successive approximations in which every cycle
requires a structural analysis. In this book, the structural analysis is
applied to civil engineering structures; however, the method of analysis
described can also be used for structures related to other fields of
engineering.

1.2 Classification of Structures

It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types
of elements composing a structure and to be able to classify structures
as to their form and function. We will introduce some of these aspects
now and expand on them at appropriate points throughout the text.

rod bar Structural Elements. Some of the more common elements from
which structures are composed are as follows.

Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often

referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this load,
these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from rods, bars,
angle channel
angles, or channels, Fig. 1–1.
typical cross sections
Beams. Beams are usually straight horizontal members used
primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are classified according
to the way they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 1–2. In particular,
tie rod when the cross section varies the beam is referred to as tapered or
haunched. Beam cross sections may also be “built up” by adding plates to
Fig. 1–1
their top and bottom.
Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if
they are short and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become
quite large and this force may govern their design. When the material
simply supported beam
used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as shown in Fig. 1–3. Here the forces
developed in the top and bottom flanges of the beam form the necessary
cantilevered beam couple used to resist the applied moment M, whereas the web is effective
in resisting the applied shear V. This cross section is commonly referred
to as a “wide flange,” and it is normally formed as a single unit in a rolling
fixed–supported beam
mill in lengths up to 75 ft (23 m). If shorter lengths are needed, a cross
section having tapered flanges is sometimes selected. When the beam is
required to have a very large span and the loads applied are rather large,
the cross section may take the form of a plate girder. This member is
fabricated by using a large plate for the web and welding or bolting
continuous beam
plates to its ends for flanges. The girder is often transported to the field in
Fig. 1–2 segments, and the segments are designed to be spliced or joined together
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
say, “Pooh, pooh, child! If these flowers were as golden as they look,
they would be worth the plucking!”
At length (as people always grow more and more foolish, unless
they take care to grow wiser and wiser) Midas had got to be so
exceedingly unreasonable, that he could scarcely bear to see or
touch any object that was not gold. He made it his custom,
therefore, to pass a large portion of every day in a dark and dreary
apartment, under ground, at the basement of his palace. It was here
that he kept his wealth. To this dismal hole—for it was little better
than a dungeon—Midas betook himself, whenever he wanted to be
particularly happy.
Here, after carefully locking the door, he would take a bag of gold
coin, or a gold cup as big as a washbowl, or a heavy golden bar, or a
peck-measure of gold-dust, and bring them from the obscure
corners of the room into the one bright and narrow sunbeam that
fell from the dungeon-like window. He valued the sunbeam for no
other reason but that his treasure would not shine without its help.
And then would he reckon over the coins in the bag; toss up the
bar, and catch it as it came down; sift the gold-dust through his
fingers; look at the funny image of his own face, as reflected in the
burnished circumference of the cup; and whisper to himself, “O
Midas, rich King Midas, what a happy man art thou!”
Midas was enjoying himself in his treasure-room, one day, as
usual, when he perceived a shadow fall over the heaps of gold; and,
looking up, he beheld the figure of a stranger, standing in the bright
and narrow sunbeam! It was a young man, with a cheerful and
ruddy face.
Whether it was that the imagination of King Midas threw a yellow
tinge over every thing, or whatever the cause might be, he could not
help fancying that the smile with which the stranger regarded him
had a kind of golden brightness in it. Certainly, there was now a
brighter gleam upon all the piled-up treasures than before. Even the
remotest corners had their share of it, and were lighted up, when
the stranger smiled, as with tips of flame and sparkles of fire.
As Midas knew that he had carefully turned the key in the lock,
and that no mortal strength could possibly break into his treasure-
room, he, of course, concluded that his visitor must be something
more than mortal.
Midas had met such beings before now, and was not sorry to meet
one of them again. The stranger’s aspect, indeed, was so good-
humored and kindly, if not beneficent, that it would have been
unreasonable to suspect him of intending any mischief. It was far
more probable that he came to do Midas a favor. And what could
that favor be, unless to multiply his heaps of treasure?
The stranger gazed about the room; and, when his lustrous smile
had glistened upon all the golden objects that were there, he turned
again to Midas.
“You are a wealthy man, friend Midas!” he observed. “I doubt
whether any other four walls on earth contain so much gold as you
have contrived to pile up in this room.”
“I have done pretty well,—pretty well,” answered Midas, in a
discontented tone. “But, after all, it is but a trifle, when you consider
that it has taken me my whole lifetime to get it together. If one
could live a thousand years, he might have time to grow rich!”
“What!” exclaimed the stranger. “Then you are not satisfied?”
Midas shook his head.
“And pray, what would satisfy you?” asked the stranger. “Merely
for the curiosity of the thing, I should be glad to know.”
Midas paused and meditated. He felt sure that this stranger, with
such a golden lustre in his good-humored smile, had come hither
with both the power and the purpose of gratifying his utmost
wishes. Now, therefore, was the fortunate moment, when he had
but to speak, and obtain whatever possible, or seemingly impossible
thing, it might come into his head to ask. So he thought and
thought, and thought, and heaped up one golden mountain upon
another, in his imagination, without being able to imagine them big
enough.
At last a bright idea occurred to King Midas.
Raising his head, he looked the lustrous stranger in the face.
“Well, Midas,” observed his visitor, “I see that you have at length
hit upon something that will satisfy you. Tell me your wish.”
“It is only this,” replied Midas. “I am weary of collecting my
treasures with so much trouble, and beholding the heap so
diminutive, after I have done my best. I wish every thing that I
touch to be changed to gold!”
The stranger’s smile grew so bright and radiant, that it seemed to
fill the room like an outburst of the sun, gleaming into a shadowy
dell, where the yellow autumnal leaves—for so looked the lumps and
particles of gold—lie strewn in the glow of light.
“The Golden Touch!” exclaimed he. “You certainly deserve credit,
friend Midas, for striking out so brilliant a fancy. But are you quite
sure that this will satisfy you?”
“How could it fail?” said Midas.
“And will you never regret the possession of it?”
“What could induce me?” asked Midas. “I ask nothing else, to
render me perfectly happy.”
“Be it as you wish, then,” replied the stranger, waving his hand in
token of farewell. “To-morrow, at sunrise, you will find yourself
gifted with the Golden Touch.”
The figure of the stranger then became exceedingly bright, and
Midas involuntarily closed his eyes. On opening them again, he
beheld only one yellow sunbeam in the room, and, all around him,
the glistening of the precious metal which he had spent his life in
hoarding up.
LXXIX.—THE ROAD TO THE
TRENCHES.
Lushington.
“Leave me, comrades, here I drop,—
No, sir, take them on,
All are wanted, none should stop,
Duty must be done;
Those whose guard you take will find me
As they pass below.”
So the soldier spoke, and staggering,
Fell amid the snow;
And ever on the dreary heights,
Down came the snow.

“Men, it must be as he asks;

Duty must be done;
Far too few for half our tasks,
We can spare not one.
Wrap him in this; I need it less;
Fear not, they shall know;
Mark the place, yon stunted larch,—
Forward,”—on they go;
And silent on their silent march,
Down sank the snow.

O’er his features as he lies,

Calms the wrench of pain:
Close faint eyes, pass cruel skies,
Freezing mountain plain;
With far, soft sound, the stillness teems,
Church bells—voices low,
Passing into English dreams
There amid the snow;
And darkening, thickening o’er the heights,
Down fell the snow.

Looking, looking for the mark,

Down the others came,
Struggling through the snowdrifts stark
Struggling through the snowdrifts stark,
Calling out his name;
“Here,—or there; the drifts are deep;
Have we passed him?”—No!
Look, a little growing heap,
Snow above the snow;
Where heavy on his heavy sleep,
Down fell the snow.

Strong hands raised him, voices strong

Spoke within his ears;
Ah! his dreams had softer tongue,
Neither now he hears.
One more gone for England’s sake,
Where so many go,
Lying down without complaint,
Dying in the snow;
Starving, striving for her sake,
Dying in the snow.

Simply done his soldier’s part,

Through long months of woe;
All endured with soldier heart,
Battle, famine, snow.
Noble, nameless, English heart,
Snow cold, in snow!
 LXXX.—THE ROOT.
Figuier.

Commit a seed to the earth; plant, for example, a Lima bean, at

the depth of two inches in moist vegetable soil. The seed will not be
slow to germinate; first swelling, and then bursting its outer skin, a
vegetable in miniature will, after a time, slowly reveal itself to the
observer. In the meantime two very distinct parts make their
appearance; one, yellowish in color, already throwing out slender
fibrous shoots, sinks farther into the soil,—this is the radicle, or root;
the other of a pale greenish color, takes the opposite direction,
ascends to the surface, and rises above the ground,—this is the
stem.
This root and stem are the essential organs of vegetation, without
which, when we have excepted certain vegetables of an inferior
order, plants adorned with leaves and flowers cannot exist. How vast
the difference between the verdant top of a tree, which rises
graceful and elegant into mid-air,—not to speak of the flower it bears
—and the coarse, tangled mass of its roots and rootlets, without
harmony, without symmetry! These organs, so little favored in their
appearance, have, however, very important functions in the order of
vegetable action.
The chief offices of the root are two: in the first place, it attaches
the plant to the soil, holds it in its place, and prevents it from being
overwhelmed by the elements. In the second, it feeds the plant by
absorbing from the earth the sap necessary to its growth. How is
this done?
The root branches again and again as it grows, throwing out
numerous smaller branches. These hollow, thread-like rootlets suck
up, from the soil, the water and other things, which are to go,
through the stem or trunk and the branches, to all the leaves. Here
these are made into the perfect sap, which, being distributed,
causes the plant to grow, to blossom, and to bear fruit.
The manner in which roots succeed in overcoming obstacles, has
always been a subject of surprise to the observer. The roots of trees
and shrubs, when cramped or hindered in their progress, have been
observed to exhibit considerable mechanical force, throwing down
walls or splitting rocks; in other cases, clinging together in bunches,
or spreading out their fibres over a prodigious space, in order to
follow the course of a rivulet with its friendly moisture.
A celebrated botanist of the last century relates that, wishing to
preserve a field of rich soil from the roots of a row of elms, which
would soon have exhausted it, he had a ditch dug between the field
and the trees in order to cut the roots off from it. But he saw with
surprise that those roots, which had not been severed in the
operation, had made their way down the slope so as to avoid
meeting the light, had passed under the ditch, and were again
spreading themselves over the field.
There are some roots which are developed along the stem itself.
These supplementary organs come as helps to the roots properly so
called, and replace them when by any cause they have been
destroyed. In the primrose, for example, both the principal and the
secondary roots springing from it, perish after some years of growth,
but the supplementary roots, springing from the lower part of the
stalk, prevent the plant from dying.
In the tropical forests of America and Asia, the vanilla, whose fruit
is so sought after for its sweet aroma, twines its slender stem round
the neighboring trees, forming an elegant, flexible, and aerial
garland, an ornament in these vast solitudes, at once grateful and
pleasing. The underground roots of the vanilla would not be
sufficient for the nutriment of the plant, and the rising of the
nourishing sap would take place too slowly. But Nature makes up for
this inconvenience by the air roots which the plant throws out at
intervals along its stem. Living in the warm and humid atmosphere
of tropical forests, the stronger shoots soon reach the ground and
root themselves in the soil. Others float freely in the atmosphere,
inhaling the moisture and conveying it to the parent stem.
A grand tree—the banyan, or the pagoda fig-tree—adorns the
landscape of India, and presents the most remarkable development
of aerial roots. When the parent stem has attained the height of
some fifty or sixty feet, it throws out side branches in every
direction, and each branch in its turn throws out supplementary
roots, which descend perpendicularly in long slender shoots till they
reach the ground. When they have rooted themselves in the soil,
they increase rapidly in diameter, and soon form around the parent
stem thousands of columns, each throwing out new lateral branches
and new roots.

“The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow

About the mother tree, a pillared shade.”

The natives love to build their temples in the intervals left between
these roots of the wild fig-tree. A famous banyan tree on the
Nerbuddah is said by Professor Forbes to have three hundred large
and three thousand smaller aerial roots; it is capable of sheltering
thousands of men, and thus forms one of the marvels of the
vegetable world; it is, in short, a forest within a forest.
Roots constantly endeavor to bury themselves in the earth. They
seem to shun the light of day; and this tendency is to be seen from
the very first moment when the root shows itself in the seed. The
tendency is so decided, and appears so inherent in the life of all
vegetables, that if we reverse a germinating seed, placing it with the
root upwards, the root and the stem will twist round of themselves,
—the stem will stretch upward, and the root will bury itself in the
ground.
LXXXI.—THE WATER FOWL.
Bryant.
 Whither, midst falling dew,
While glow the heavens with the last steps of day,
Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue
Thy solitary way?

Vainly the fowler’s eye

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong,
As, darkly painted on the crimson sky,
Thy figure floats along.

Seek’st thou the plashy brink

Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide,
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink
On the chafed ocean side?

There is a Power whose care

Teaches thy way along that pathless coast,—
The desert and illimitable air,—
Lone wandering, but not lost.

All day thy wings have fanned,

At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere;
Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land,
Though the dark night is near.

And soon that toil shall end;

Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest,
And scream among thy fellows; reeds shall bend
Soon o’er thy sheltered nest.

Thou’rt gone; the abyss of heaven

Hath swallowed up thy form; yet on my heart
Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou hast given,
And shall not soon depart:

He, who from zone to zone,

G id th h th b dl k th t i fli ht
 Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
Will lead my steps aright.

Phrase Exercise.
1. Glow the heavens.—2. The last steps of day.—3.
Rosy depths.—4. Pursue thy solitary way.—5. Might
mark thy distant flight.—6. Darkly painted.—7. Plashy
brink.—8. Marge of river.—9. Rocking billows.—10.
Chafed side.—11. Pathless coast.—12. The desert and
illimitable air.—13. Lone wandering.—14. Thy wings
have fanned the atmosphere.—15. Welcome land.—16.
Sheltered nest.—17. The abyss of heaven.—18.
Boundless sky.—19. Certain flight.
 LXXXII.—SHAPES OF LEAVES.
Gustavus Frankenstein.

FIRST READING.
By far the greater number of plants have leaves of an oval shape,
and we have only to go through our forests and gardens to see them
on every hand. Exceedingly varied are they indeed, from very
narrow to very broad oval, some with toothed, some with smooth
edges, and some even deeply notched; and yet to such an extent
does this tendency toward a rounded form prevail, that there seems
scarcely a plant in whose leaves a trace of the oval may not be
found.
The apple tree gives us a good specimen of an oval leaf; and an
immense number of plants have leaves resembling it in shape. In
many plants, the leaves are almost the very counterpart of those of
the apple-tree; in some, they are narrower, and in others, still
narrower, till we come to very slender blades like those of the
grasses; and then, beyond still, to the needle-like leaves of the
pines. On the other hand, plants are to be found with leaves broader
than the apple-leaf; and so on, rounder and rounder, until we come
to such plants as the nasturtium and the water-lily, whose leaves are
almost as round as circles.
There are certainly to be met with most remarkable departures
from the oval shape, and we need but refer to such leaves as those
of the buckwheat, to find that roundness seems to be entirely
absent.
This style of leaf, of which there are many variations, is apparently
built on the model of the heart-shaped leaf, of which the morning-
 glory affords a familiar example. It
will be noted, however, that instead
of the curvilinear flow of outline, in
which a tendency to oval roundness
is plainly visible, the hastate leaf of
the buckwheat is angular
throughout.
Another marked characteristic of
most leaves is, that they terminate
Leaf of Apple. in a point, either sharp to extreme Buckwheat Leaf.
slenderness, or blunt to broad
roundness; for even in a
circular leaf there is one point which is its
extremity, and to which the margin from either
side approaches by a convexity. To this
pointedness of leaves the exceptions are
exceedingly rare. A plant found in some parts of
our own country—the magnificent tulip-tree—
presents, perhaps, the most extraordinary of all.
Now this leaf comes
out of a bud-case which
Morning-Glory Leaf. is actually oval. The
young leaf is folded
double inside of its bud-
case; and, besides, its small stalk is bent over
so as to bring the little leaf to hold its end
downwards. We can see this curious
arrangement very well, just after the bud has
opened, and the young leaf has come out.
Leaf of Tulip-Tree.
However, it soon straightens up, holds its little
head aloft, and looks like a pretty little flag.
After this it spreads apart into the full leaf,
and stands up like a banner. If the bud be held up to the light, the
young leaf can be seen nicely folded up inside, with its head snugly
bent down. There is nothing prettier, or more curious, to be seen in
the woods, than the young buds of the tulip-trees, when they are
about to open, or after they have unfurled their little flags; and all
summer long, even from earliest spring, the tulip-trees are
continually unfolding their buds.
There are leaves broader above
than below, and some, instead of
ending in a point, have a notch or
indentation of some sort. Oak-trees
give us many fine and varied samples
of notched and lobed leaves. And yet
the leaf of the chestnut-oak is not at
all notched, being simply ovate,
pointed, and toothed. The leaves of
the bur and the pin oaks, on the
Opening Leaf- Early Leaf-
Bud of Tulip- Bud of Tulip-
contrary, are lobed and notched, and
Tree. Tree. are therefore characteristic oak-leaves,
while those of the chestnut-oak are
not so, because almost all oaks have
leaves more or less scalloped or deeply indented.
Great as is the variety in the shapes of oak leaves, any one of
them would almost surely be at once recognized as belonging to an
oak-tree by its peculiar scallopings. But suppose a person had never
seen or heard of a chestnut-oak leaf, would he be likely to recognize
such a leaf simply by its outline? There is still another oak with
simple leaves; and they are not even toothed, but entirely smooth all
around the edge. Looking at that tree, which is called the willow-
oak, scarcely anyone would suppose it to be an oak unless he could
see its flowers or its fruit, the acorns.
 Chestnut-Oak Bur-Oak Leaf. Pin-Oak Leaf.
Leaf.

This fact brings us to consider a very important point in the study

of a plant. It is not the leaf which tells us what kind of plant it is: it
is the flower and the fruit. Whatever be the shape of the leaf, if the
plant bears acorns it is an oak. If a tree has cherries and cherry
blossoms, it is a cherry.
It is true that, in many families of plants, leaves, by their shape
alone, announce at once the kind of plant to which they belong; at
the same time there is a large number of plants that cannot be
known by their leaves, but only by their flowers and fruits. It is by
flowers and fruits that plants are classified; and the more nearly
alike these are in two plants, the more closely are those plants
related. The flower and the fruit proclaim the nature of the plant. “A
tree is known by its fruit.”
LXXXIII.—THE BROOK.
Tennyson.
I come from haunts of coots and hern,
I make a sudden sally,
And sparkle out among the fern,
To bicker down a valley.

By thirty hills I hurry down,

Or slip between the ridges,
By twenty thorps, a little town,
And half a hundred bridges.

Till last by Phillip’s farm I flow

To join the brimming river,
For men may come and men may go,
But I go on for ever.

I chatter over stony ways,

In little sharps and trebles,
I bubble into eddying bays,
I babble on the pebbles.

With many a curve my banks I fret

By many a field and fallow,
And many a fairy foreland set
With willow-weed and mallow.

I chatter, chatter, as I flow

To join the brimming river,
For men may come and men may go,
But I go on for ever.

I wind about, and in and out,

With here a blossom sailing,
And here and there a lusty trout,
And here and there a grayling,

And here and there a foamy flake

U It l
 Upon me, as I travel,
With many a silvery waterbreak
Above the golden gravel.

And draw them all along, and flow

To join the brimming river,
For men may come and men may go,
But I go on for ever.

I steal by lawns and grassy plots,

I slide by hazel covers;
I move the sweet forget-me-nots
That grow for happy lovers.

I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance,

Among my skimming swallows;
I make the netted sunbeam dance
Against my sandy shallows.

I murmur under moon and stars

In brambly wildernesses;
I linger by my shingly bars;
I loiter round my cresses;

And out again I curve and flow

To join the brimming river,
For men may come, and men may go,
But I go on for ever.
 LXXXIV.—SHAPES OF LEAVES.
Gustavus Frankenstein.

SECOND READING.
Although the flower and its fruit tell us what the plant is, and
leaves do not with any certainty, there is yet a strong similarity, as
well in texture as in shape, in the leaves of most of the plants
comprised within any one family. Especially in texture is this marked
similarity observable; and, perhaps, in most cases the peculiar
structure of the leaf, aside from its shape, is indicative of the order
to which the plant belongs. The leaves of the grasses are very much
alike; so are the leaves of the sedges;—and though it is true, also,
that in some instances a sedge-leaf might be mistaken for a grass-
leaf, it must be remembered that the sedge family and the grass
family have some points of similarity.
Again, if we should come upon a plant belonging to the common
potato or nightshade family, we should be almost sure to recognize
the family resemblance at the very first glance, provided we were
already familiar with a number of plants included in that order. Yet
the leaves of the nightshade family vary considerably in shape, and
it is therefore decisively the texture and peculiar appearance of the
leaves, that announce the kinship of the plant. And thus we are led
back to the consideration of the willow-oak and chestnut-oak leaves,
which, entirely unlike the typical oak-leaf in shape, are yet very
much like all other oak leaves in texture and other essential
structure.
Still more widely divided than oak leaves, are such as are called
pinnate, in which the separated parts are actually distinct leaflets,
some even provided with stalks. Such compound leaves may be seen
 in almost every garden by looking at a rose-bush.
In the cut, we see what appears to be five
distinct leaves attached to one twig; but the fact
is that they are only leaflets, and, together with
the stalk which bears them all, constitute but one
complete leaf. Each of these leaflets has a short
stalk, connecting it with the main stem, which
passes between the pairs, and has an odd leaflet
at the end. A rose-bush may have leaves of
seven or nine leaflets.
Leaf of the Rose.
Among our forest trees, hickory, walnut,
butternut, locust, and ash have pinnate leaves;
and on the honey-locust not only are the leaves pinnate, but on the
same tree, may also be found leaves doubly pinnate, and even
tripinnate. Compound leaves may be seen also in the pea-vine,
which is simply pinnate; but here the place of the absent terminal
leaflet is supplied by a tendril.
But if we examine a bean-plant, we do find an odd leaf, together
with a pair of leaflets; that is, each leaf is composed of three
leaflets. The many varieties of bean-plants are all thus three-leaved.
Besides, the woods are full of three-leaved plants, belonging to
other kinds of the bean or pulse order of plants. In addition to these
and some others, we must not overlook a most extraordinary three-
leaved plant, plentiful in almost every forest, and on almost every
stone-fence in the country; only too well known by persons who
have been poisoned by it, and yet not so well known by most people
as it ought to be, for it is often confounded with a plant having
digitate leaves.
Here, side by side, the forms of the two leaves can be compared.
On the right is the digitate leaf of the beautiful Virginia creeper,
entirely harmless; on the left is the pinnate leaf of the poison-vine.
The innocent plant is five-leaved; the noxious plant is three-leaved.
But we should also notice particularly that the arrangement of the
leaflets is quite different in the two plants. In the poison-vine, we
 see a pair of
leaflets and
a terminal
odd one;
whereas in
the Virginia
creeper,
there is no
pairing of
leaflets
Leaf of Poison-Vine. Leaf of Virginia Creeper.
whatever,
but the five
parts radiate
from a centre. All the leaflets come out together from one point at
the tip of the leaf-stalk.
Plants there are with digitate leaves, having three, five, seven,
nine, or more leaflets. Clover has digitate leaves of three leaflets,
while the leaves of the buck-eye and horse-chestnut have five,
seven, and nine leaflets. The pretty little wood-sorrel plant of small
yellow flowers, has three most beautiful, inverted, heart-shaped
leaflets, radiating from the tip of the little leaf-stalk.
In leaves like those of the maple we see
the main veins radiating from a point at the
top of the stalk. Such leaves are therefore
much like the digitate kind, only they are not
completely divided into separate leaflets.
Sassafras leaves offer forms something
different. On the same tree may be seen
oval, two-lobed, and three-lobed leaves.
Thus on one and the same plant, we see
Leaflet of Wood-Sorrel. leaves strikingly different in form; yet the
texture, the color, and the veining are
exactly after the same pattern in them all, so
that a sassafras leaf, whether oval or cleft, can at
once be easily known.
Recalling to mind the leaf of the apple,
buckwheat, morning-glory, oak, rose, Virginia
creeper, maple, and sassafras, we have pretty
good models after which nearly all leaves are built,
approximating to one or other of these, with
certain variations peculiar to the species.
Another important matter regarding the leaves
of plants, is their relative position on the stems. Maple Leaf.
There are two principal and very marked
arrangements of leaves. Leaves are either opposite
one another on the stem, or they are alternate or not opposite.
There are whole orders of plants with none but opposite leaves, as
the mint family. In other orders, the leaves of every plant are
alternate. And again, in some orders, and even on the same plants,
are found both opposite and alternate leaves, as in the composite or
sunflower family; and a single wild sunflower plant itself has
opposite leaves below, and alternate leaves above.
Of our forest trees, there are very few species with opposite
leaves. If you see that the branches and leaves of a tree do not
stand one opposite another on the stem, you can at once be sure
that it is not an ash, a maple, or a buck-eye, because all these trees
do have opposite leaves. On the other hand, there are many trees
having alternate branches and leaves, such as the oak, chestnut,
elm, hickory, walnut, butternut, tulip-tree, alder, beech, birch, poplar,
willow, mulberry, linden, locust, and others.
LXXXV.—THE BURIAL OF MOSES
Mrs. Cecil Frances Alexander.
By Nebo’s lonely mountain,
On this side Jordan’s wave,
In a vale in the land of Moab,
There lies a lonely grave.
And no man knows that sepulchre,
And no man saw it e’er;
For the angels of God upturned the sod,
And laid the dead man there.

That was the grandest funeral

That ever passed on earth;
But no man heard the trampling,
Or saw the train go forth;—
Noiselessly as the daylight
Comes when the night is done,
And the crimson streak on ocean’s cheek
Grows into the great sun;

Noiselessly as the spring-time

Her crown of verdure weaves,
And all the trees on all the hills
Open their thousand leaves:
So, without sound of music,
Or voice of them that wept,
Silently down from the mountain’s crown
The great procession swept.

Perchance the bald old eagle,

On gray Beth-peor’s height,
Out of his lonely eyrie
Looked on the wondrous sight;
Perchance the lion stalking,
Still shuns that hallowed spot;
For beast and bird have seen and heard
That which man knoweth not.
But when the warrior dieth,
His comrades in the war,
With arms reversed and muffled drum,
Follow his funeral car;
They show the banners taken,
They tell his battles won,
And after him lead his masterless steed,
While peals the minute gun.

Amid the noblest of the land,

We lay the sage to rest,
And give the bard an honored place,
With costly marble dressed,
In the great minster transept,
Where lights like glories fall,
And the sweet choir sings, and the organ rings
Along the emblazoned wall.

This was the bravest warrior

That ever buckled sword;
This the most gifted poet
That ever breathed a word;
And never earth’s philosopher
Traced, with his golden pen,
On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
As he wrote down for men.

And had he not high honor,—

The hill-side for his pall;
To lie in state, while angels wait,
With stars for tapers tall;
And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
Over his bier to wave;
And God’s own hand, in that lonely land,
To lay him in the grave;—

In that strange grave without a name

In that strange grave, without a name,
Whence his uncoffined clay
Shall break again—O wondrous thought!—
Before the Judgment-day,
And stand with glory wrapped around
On the hills he never trod,
And speak of the strife that won our life,
With the Incarnate Son of God?

O lonely grave in Moab’s land!

O dark Beth-peor’s hill!
Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
And teach them to be still.
God hath His mysteries of grace,—
Ways that we cannot tell;
He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep,
Of him He loved so well!
 LXXXVI.—THE GOLDEN TOUCH.
Nathaniel Hawthorne.

SECOND READING.
Whether Midas slept as usual that night, the story does not say.
But when the earliest sunbeam shone through the window, and
gilded the ceiling over his head, it seemed to him that this bright
yellow sunbeam was reflected in rather a singular way on the white
covering of the bed. Looking more closely, what was his
astonishment and delight, when he found that this linen fabric had
been transmuted to what seemed a woven texture of the purest and
brightest gold! The Golden Touch had come to him with the first
sunbeam!
Midas started up, in a kind of joyful frenzy, and ran about the
room, grasping at every thing that happened to be in his way. He
seized one of the bedposts, and it became immediately a fluted
golden pillar. He pulled aside a window-curtain in order to admit a
clear spectacle of the wonders which he was performing, and the
tassel grew heavy in his hand,—a mass of gold. He took up a book
from the table; at his first touch, it assumed the appearance of such
a splendidly bound and gilt-edged volume as one often meets with
now-a-days; but on running his fingers through the leaves, behold! it
was a bundle of thin golden plates, in which all the wisdom of the
book had grown illegible.
He hurriedly put on his clothes, and was enraptured to see himself
in a magnificent suit of gold cloth, which retained its flexibility and
softness, although it burdened him a little with its weight. He drew
out his handkerchief, which little Marygold had hemmed for him;