Ethics
-Rational reflection on what is right, wrong, just, unjust, good, and what is bad
in terms of human behavior.
-Derived from Latin word “Ethicus”
-Arrangement of decent principles and branch of attitude which defines what is
good for individuals and society.
-Greek philosophers; Plato and Aristotle. Modern influences; Immanuel Kant,
Jeremy Bentham, & John Stuart Mill.
-Evaluation of moral values, principles and standards of human conduct and
its application in daily life to determine acceptable human behavior.
-Principles rationally formulated.
-As a philosophical discipline, Ethics solely relies on natural reason, logic, and
wisdom of human experience.
Ethical Principles
1. Truthfulness
- Always telling the truth and not lying or hiding facts.
2. Honesty
- Being open and clear about what you say and do, without cheating or
deceiving.
3. Loyalty
- Staying faithful and supportive to someone or something, like a friend or a
group.
4. Respect
- Treating others kindly and valuing their feelings, rights, and opinions.
5. Fairness
- Treating everyone equally and making decisions that are just and unbiased.
6. Integrity
- Doing the right thing even when no one is watching, and staying true to your
values.
Morality
-Derived from Latin word “Moralis,” means custom or character in which
people do things.
-Moral code or Conduct
-Looks at how good or bad our conduct is and our standards about conduct.
-Ethics in action.
- Actual application of the principles.
Difference between Ethics and Laws
Law Ethics
-Legality -Morality
-Usually Public -Public and Private
-Action -Actions, Thought and Feeling
-Oftentimes, Decided by majority -Deliberation
-Outcomes/Results -Foundation
Religion
-As a philosophical discipline, Religion primarily relies on supernatural reason,
authority of Holy Book and Sacred writings.
- Ethics and religion are concerned with right and wrong behavior.
Concerns of Ethics
The concept of:
-Good or Bad
-Right or Wrong
-Moral or Immoral
-Proper or Improper
-Appropriate or Inappropriate
Norm
-Rule or standard that tells us how to act or behave in a certain situation. It
helps us understand what is acceptable or expected in a group or society.
Norm of Morality
-Standard or rule that helps us decide what is right or wrong, good or bad in
our actions. It guides us to live a life that is fair and kind to others.
Types of Norms
1.Technical Norm
-Rules about how to do something correctly or efficiently, usually focused on
skills or tasks.
Examples:
-Farmers in the Philippines using the proper way to plant rice for a good
harvest.
-Student following instructions to assemble a parol (Christmas lantern)
properly.
-Jeepney driver following the correct route to ensure passengers reach their
destination.
2.Societal Norm
-Rules about how we should behave in society to get along with others.
Examples:
-Saying "po" and "opo" when talking to elders to show respect.
-Falling in line properly when buying.
-Wearing modest clothing when visiting a church.
3.Aesthetic Norm
-Rules about what is considered beautiful or pleasing to the senses.
Examples:
-Decorating the streets with colorful banners during fiestas.
-Creating intricate designs in a Filipino barong Tagalog or terno.
-Maintaining clean and green parks.
4.Ethical or Moral Norm
-Rules about what is right or wrong, based on values like honesty, respect,
and fairness.
Examples:
-Returning a lost wallet you found on the street to its owner.
-Helping an elderly person cross the street.
-Refusing to accept a bribe, even if it would benefit you financially.
Characteristics of Moral Principle
1.Reasonability
-We need to think carefully about what’s right and wrong. You think about it
before acting.
Example:
-You let your friend borrow your crayons because you’d want them to share
with you too.
-You wait your turn on the swing because you know it’s fair.
2.Impartiality
-Treating everyone the same.
Example:
-You give each friend one cookie so everyone gets the same.
-You let everyone have a turn with the ball, not just the person you like most.
3.Prescriptivity
-Moral rules that guide us to act in the right way, like a list of things we should
do to be good people.
Example:
-Saying “please” and “thank you” because it’s the polite thing to do.
-Helping a classmate if they drop their books because it’s kind to help.
4.Overridingness
–Moral rules or doing the right thing is more important than any other rule or
desire.
Example:
-You stop running around when your friend trips and help them up instead.
-You don’t lie to your parents, even if it means you’ll get in trouble.
5.Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority
-Doing what’s right because it’s right, not just because someone says so.
Example:
-Apologizing to your friend after breaking their toy, even if no one saw you do
it.
-Picking up litter in the park because it’s good for everyone, not because
someone told you to.
6.Publicity
-Moral rules should be shared so everyone knows them.
Example:
-Rules on the playground say no pushing, and everyone knows about it.
-Your parents tell the whole family to always clean up after eating.
7.Practicability
-Rule should be something we can actually do.
Example:
-You can clean up your toys after playing because it’s not too hard.
-You can say sorry if you accidentally hurt someone because it’s easy and
kind.
8.Universalizability
-Rule applies to everyone, everywhere.
Example:
-Everyone in class knows it’s wrong to cheat on a test.
-Everyone at home knows you should always be honest with your family.
Moral Standards
-Rules about what’s right and wrong based on values like kindness, honesty,
and fairness. They guide us in making good choices.
Example:
-It’s wrong to hurt someone on purpose.
-Telling the truth is the right thing to do.
Non-Moral Standards
–Rules that are not about right or wrong but more about how things should be
done or followed for convenience or practicality.
Example:
-Don’t walk on the grass in a park (rule, but not about morals).
-Use the sidewalk for your safety.
Etiquettes
–About good manners and polite behavior. It’s not about being moral, but it
helps people get along nicely.
Example:
-Saying “please” and “thank you.”
-Not talking with your mouth full at the dinner table.
Four Kinds of Law
1.Statutes
-Laws made by governments to control actions and protect people.
Example:
-A law says stealing is illegal.
-A law says kids must go to school.
2.Regulations
-Specific rules created by agencies to manage certain activities.
Example:
-Rules about how much noise a factory can make.
-Food safety rules to ensure cleanliness in restaurants.
3.Common Law
-Based on past decisions by judges. They create rules for new cases based on
older cases.
Example:
-A judge decides what happens if two neighbors argue over a fence.
-A judge uses a previous case to decide what’s fair in a similar situation.
4.Consititutional Law
-Checks if laws or rules follow the country’s constitution.
Example:
-A court decides if a new law respects your right to free speech.
-A court says a rule can’t be enforced because it’s unfair under the
constitution.
Professional Codes
-Rules for how people in specific jobs should behave. They help keep things
fair and professional.
Example:
-Doctors must keep patient information private.
-Lawyers must not lie in court.
Ethical Relativism
-What’s right or wrong can change depending on where you are and the
culture you’re in.
Example:
-In some cultures, it’s polite to eat with your hands; in others, it’s rude.
-In one country, it’s okay to bow as a greeting; in another, people shake
hands.
Human Acts
–Deliberate and free act, performed with advertence and motive, determined
by free will.
Example:
-Choosing to help a friend with their homework.
-Saying sorry when you hurt someone.
Acts of Man
– Acts performed by human beings without advertence, or the exercise of free
choice.
Example:
-Sneezing or blinking.
-Yawning when you’re tired.
Basic Elements of Human Acts
1.Be Deliberate
-You think about your action before doing it.
Example:
-Deciding to share your toys with a friend.
2.Performed in Freedom
- You’re free to make a choice without being forced.
Example:
-Saying “yes” or “no” when someone asks for help.
3.Done Voluntarily
– You do it because you want to, not because someone makes you.
Example:
-Offering to clean up your mess after playing.
Major Determinants of the Morality of Human Acts
1.The Act itself or the Object of the Act
- About what you’re doing. Is the act good or bad?
Example:
-Helping someone = Good.
-Stealing = Bad.
2.The Motive or the Intention
-About why you’re doing it. Are your reasons good or bad?
Example:
-Sharing food to be kind = Good motive.
-Sharing food to show off = Bad motive.
4 Principles
1. An indifferent act can become morally good or morally evil depending upon
the intention of the person doing the act
Example:
-Giving someone candy to cheer them up = Good.
-Giving candy to make them like you more = Bad.
2. An objectively good act becomes morally evil due to a wrong or bad motive
Example:
-Helping someone to show off = Bad.
3. An intrinsically (objectively) morally good act can receive added goodness, if
done with an equally noble intention or motive
Example:
-Helping a friend because you care about them = Extra Good.
4. An intrinsically evil act can never be morally good, even if it is done with a
good motive or intention.
Example:
-Lying to make someone happy = Still Bad.
3.The Circumstances
-Extra details that affect if the act is good or bad.
4 Types of Circumstances
1.Mitigating or Extenuating Circumstances
-Makes the act less bad.
Example:
-You were late because you helped someone.
2.Aggravating Circumstances
-Makes the act worse.
Example:
-Lying and blaming someone else for your mistake.
3.Justifying Circumstances
-Makes the act acceptable.
Example:
-Breaking a rule to save someone’s life.
4.Specifying Circumstances
-Tell more details about the act.
-Example:
Who was involved? Where did it happen?
7 Specific Kinds of Circumstances
1. Who
-Person doing the action and their role or responsibility.
Example:
-A doctor giving medicine to a patient is good because they are trained to help
people.
-A child giving medicine without knowing what it is might be dangerous.
2. Where
-Place where the action happens.
Example:
-Eating in the dining room is fine, but eating in a library where food isn’t
allowed is rude.
-Playing soccer in a park is okay, but doing it inside a church is disrespectful.
3. By What Means
-How the action is done and what tools or methods are used.
Example:
-Helping someone by carrying their bag is good, but snatching it from them
roughly is not.
-Winning a race by running fast is fair, but cheating with shortcuts is wrong.
4. Why
-Reason or purpose behind the action.
Example:
-Giving someone a gift to make them happy is good.
-Giving a gift just to make others jealous is selfish.
5. How
-The way the action is done.
Example:
-Speaking kindly to correct someone is good.
-Yelling at them to embarrass them is bad.
6. When
–Timing of the action.
Example:
-Calling someone to talk during the day is fine, but calling them late at night
might disturb them.
-Giving advice when someone is upset might not be helpful; waiting for the
right moment is better.
7. To Whom
-Person affected by the action. How the action impacts others can change
whether it’s right or wrong.
Example:
-Sharing your lunch with a hungry friend is good.
-Sharing your lunch with someone who doesn’t need it while ignoring a hungry
friend is less kind.
Modifiers of Human Acts
-Can change or affect how we decide and act. It’s like how your choices can
be influenced by what you know, feel, or experience.
1. Ignorance
–Not knowing something. It can change your actions because you might not
know what’s right or wrong.
Types of Ignorance
a. Vincible Ignorance
-When you don’t know something but could have learned it if you tried.
Example:
-You don’t study the rules for a game, so you accidentally cheat.
b. Invincible Ignorance
-When you don’t know something, and there’s no way you could have known.
Example:
-You give someone food not knowing they are allergic to it.
c. Affected Ignorance
–When you pretend not to know something so you can do what you want.
Example:
-You act like you don’t know it’s wrong to copy homework so you can avoid
doing your own work.
2. Passion
–Strong feelings or emotions that can push you to act a certain way.
Types of Passion
a. Antecedent Passion
-Happen before you think about what you’re doing.
Example:
-You get so angry that you shout at your friend without thinking.
b. Consequent Passion
–Happen after you decide what to do.
Example:
-You decide to talk calmly to someone even though you’re upset.
3. Fear
–When you’re scared of something, and it can make you act differently.
Example:
-You lie because you’re afraid of getting in trouble.
-You freeze and don’t move when a dog barks at you.
4. Violence
–When someone forces you to do something against your will.
Example:
-Someone pushes you to take something that isn’t yours.
-A bully makes you say something mean to another person.
5. Habits
–Actions you do again and again, even without thinking. They can be good or
bad.
Example:
-You always say “thank you” after someone helps you (good habit).
- You always bite your nails when nervous (bad habit).
6. Action and Emotion
–How your feelings can affect what you do. Emotions like happiness, sadness,
or anger can push you to act in a certain way.
Example:
-You help a friend because you feel happy to see them smiling.
-You refuse to share your toy because you feel jealous.
7. Refinement of Emotions
-Controlling your emotions so they don’t control you. It’s like learning to handle
your feelings in a better way.
Example:
-Instead of crying when you’re mad, you take deep breaths to calm down.
-When you feel excited, you wait your turn patiently instead of jumping ahead.
Ethical Relativism
-what is right or wrong depends on what a group or culture believes. It says
there’s no universal rule that fits everyone, so actions are judged based on the
culture they happen in.
Examples:
-In some cultures, eating with your hands is normal, but in others, it's rude.
-In one country, people might greet with a bow, while others prefer a
handshake.
-Polygamy is accepted in some cultures but not in others.
Arguments for Ethical Relativism
1.Cultural Differences Argument
-People have different beliefs about what is right or wrong depending on their
culture.
Examples:
-Wearing traditional clothing in one country is normal, but it's considered fancy
in others.
-Celebrating New Year on different dates.
-Eating certain animals is fine in one culture but unacceptable in another.
2.Argument from Respect
-Respect the beliefs and practices of other cultures, even if we don’t agree
with them.
Examples:
-Respecting dietary restrictions during Ramadan.
-Observing silence when visiting temples.
-Not mocking accents or languages.
3.Psychological Argument
-People’s morals depend on how they were raised and what they’re used to.
Examples:
-Calling elders by their first name might be okay in one family but rude in
another.
-Some people grow up thinking hugging is normal, while others don’t.
-Sharing food might be expected in some families but not in others.
4.Conformity Argument
-People tend to follow the norms of their culture to fit in.
Examples:
-Dressing modestly because everyone else does.
-Celebrating a cultural festival to belong to the community.
-Avoiding public displays of affection because it’s frowned upon in the culture.
5.Provability Argument
-There’s no way to prove one culture’s morals are better than another’s.
Examples:
-You can’t prove which is better: shaking hands or bowing.
-You can’t prove whether it's right to work on a holiday or rest.
-You can’t say eating pork is right or wrong—it depends on beliefs.
The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values
1."Hiya"
-Feeling embarrassed or shy about not meeting expectations.
Examples:
-Feeling shy to speak up in a group.
-Avoiding eye contact when scolded.
-Apologizing repeatedly for small mistakes.
2."Ningas-cogon"
-Being energetic at first but losing interest later.
Examples:
-Starting a school project but not finishing it.
-Joining a new hobby but stopping after a week.
-Cleaning your room halfway and leaving the rest messy.
3."Pakikisama"
-Going along with the group to avoid conflict.
Examples:
-Agreeing to hang out even if you’re tired.
-Helping classmates even when you’re busy.
-Watching a movie you don’t like because your friends want to.
4."Patigasan"
-Being unyielding even when it’s not helpful.
Examples:
-Refusing to apologize even when wrong.
-Not asking for help even if you’re struggling.
-Arguing with a friend even when it’s unnecessary.
5."Bahala na"
-Taking risks and leaving things to chance.
Examples:
-Not studying and saying, “Bahala na sa exam.”
-Joining a competition without preparing.
-Crossing the street without looking carefully.
6."Kasi"
-Giving reasons or excuses instead of taking responsibility.
Examples:
-Saying, “I’m late kasi traffic.”
-Not doing homework and saying, “Kasi walang internet.”
-Forgetting something and blaming others.
7.Saving Face
-Avoiding embarrassment or shame by hiding mistakes.
Examples:
-Pretending you know the answer in class.
-Blaming a sibling for your broken toy.
-Hiding your test score from friends.
8."Sakop"
-Prioritizing your family or group over others.
Examples:
-Choosing to spend weekends with family instead of friends.
-Helping your sibling with their chores before doing your homework.
-Always defending a friend, even when they’re wrong.
9."Manana or Bukas na/Mamaya na"
-Delaying tasks for later.
Examples:
-Saying, “Gagawin ko mamaya,” but never doing it.
-Leaving homework until the night before it’s due.
-Skipping today’s chores and saying you’ll do them tomorrow.
10."Utang na loob"
-Feeling obligated to repay someone for their kindness.
Examples:
-Helping a friend with their homework because they helped you before.
-Treating a friend to food because they lent you money.
-Always thanking your parents for their sacrifices.
11."Kanya-kanya"
-Thinking only of yourself and not others.
Examples:
-Eating the last slice of cake without asking others.
-Refusing to share toys with your siblings.
-Ignoring your friend’s problems because you’re focused on your own.
