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Recent Developments in Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication: Materials,

Processes, and Innovations

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Journal of Global Research in Electronics and Communication
Volume 2, No. 2, February 2025
Available Online at: https://jgrec.info/index.php/jgrec/index REVIEW ARTICLE
ISSN: 2321-3175

Recent Developments in Semiconductor Wafer

Fabrication: Materials, Processes, and Innovations
Dr. Manish Jain1,
Associate Professor, Department of Electricals and Electronics,
Associate Professor,
Email: [email protected]

Dr. Nilesh Jain2,

Associate Professor,Department of Computer Applications,
Mandsaur University, Mandsaur(M.P.)
[email protected]

Abstract—The semiconductor industry plays a critical role in 200,000 people work in the semiconductor industry, the
modern electronics, with semiconductor wafer fabrication being United States employs close to 250,000. More than one
a fundamental process in integrated circuit (IC) production. million jobs in the United States and Europe are indirectly
This review explores the key materials, fabrication processes, supported by this industry. The US semiconductor industry
and recent advancements in semiconductor wafer was worth $146 billion in 2012, whereas the European
manufacturing. The study highlights the importance of industry was worth $33 billion. Semiconductors are essential
materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide, and silicon carbide, to the global electronics sector, which is worth billions of
along with emerging alternatives that enhance device dollars. The US semiconductor industry reportedly invested
performance. Additionally, advanced lithography techniques,
$34 billion in research and development in 2013, according to
including extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and deep ultraviolet (DUV)
lithography, are discussed for their impact on miniaturization
the Semiconductor Sector Association. Wafer manufacturing
and transistor density. The paper also examines challenges in is the process by which integrated circuits (ICs) are made from
wafer fabrication, such as defect detection, process semiconductor wafers, which are thin slices of semiconductor
optimization, and sustainability concerns. Future research material, usually silicon. Several steps are involved in this
directions emphasize AI-driven manufacturing, automation, intricate process, including producing the wafer, processing it,
and the development of eco-friendly processes to improve and then integrating circuits into it. At last, an IC wafer is
efficiency and reduce environmental impact. The study sheds ready to be inserted into a variety of electrical devices [4].
light on the consequences of the changing semiconductor wafer
The manufacturing process for semiconductor wafers
production environment for the future of electronics
manufacturing.
incorporates electrical and photonic circuits, including LEDs,
optical computer components, and radio-frequency (RF)
Keywords—Semiconductor wafer fabrication, integrated amplifiers. It is easier to build components with the required
circuits, lithography, silicon wafers, gallium arsenide, extreme electrical designs when wafers are fabricated. In order to make
ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, deep ultraviolet (DUV) lithography, chips from raw wafers, the wafer manufacturing process is
artificial intelligence, automation, sustainable manufacturing. essential.

I. INTRODUCTION The traditional technique of creating semiconductor

wafers included distinct procedures for different electronic
The electronics industry is now the largest in the world, parts, including conductors, transistors, resistors, and more.
surpassing all others. An important aspect of this industry is These procedures, which are often separated into front-end
the manufacturing of integrated circuits. One step in making and back-end phases, each need exact control and cutting-
semiconductors is fabricating integrated circuits on silicon edge technology. Wafer fabrication is an essential part of
wafers. Improvements in operational processes within constructing contemporary electronics because of the direct
semiconductor manufacturing systems, smaller chips, larger correlation between its reliability and precision and the
wafers, and higher yield have all been targets of previous dependability and performance of electronic devices [5]. The
price-cutting efforts [1]. Semiconductor technology is driving force behind the ever-changing needs of contemporary
fundamental because it forms the foundation of computer electronics, where semiconductor devices are key components
hardware. Currently, it seems that improving operating of almost every technological advancement.
processes offers the best opportunity to achieve the necessary
cost savings. A substantial initial expenditure is necessary for A. Structure of the paper
the semiconductor fabrication process [2]. The structure of this paper is as follows: Section II
The production of semiconductors begins with silicon overview semiconductor wafer fabrication materials process.
wafers, which go through a series of transformations before Section III discusses the importance of semiconductor wafers.
becoming actual components [3]. The semiconductor Section IV reviews literature and case studies. Section V
manufacturing process focuses on fabricating integration concludes with findings and future research directions.
circuits on silicon wafers. After 55 years of existence, it has
grown from an obscure academic discipline into a sizable
industry in its own right. In contrast to Europe, where just over

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II. SEMICONDUCTOR WAFER FABRICATION MATERIALS B. Types of semiconductor wafer

PROCESS There are many different kinds of semiconductor wafers
To create ICs and other semiconductor devices utilized in that are used in the semiconductor manufacturing process.
contemporary electronics, a comprehensive, multi-stage Each form has its unique set of properties and uses [10]. The
process known as semiconductor wafer manufacturing is three most common types are gallium arsenide, silicon, and
necessary. The steps required to create wafers must be carried germanium.
out in a certain sequence [6]. The process of making
 Silicon wafers: Solar panels, electrical components,
semiconductor chips consists of five separate steps: wafer
microchips, and semiconductors are some of the many
preparation, wafer fabrication, wafer sorting and testing, chip
things made from silicon wafers. Furthermore, they
assembly and packaging, and chip testing. The process of
play a role in the structural design of MEMS, which
fabricating semiconductor chips consists of both front-end and
are used in the fabrication of sensors and electronics
back-end processes, as shown in Figure 1 [6].
[11].
 Germanium wafers: Getting back to the topic at hand,
germanium substrate wafers are well-suited for the
production of many types of transistors, including
high-frequency ones. Potential applications include
infrared detectors and related optical devices [12].
 Gallium arsenide wafers: Additionally, it is worth
noting that gallium arsenide wafers are often used in
the manufacturing process of high-speed transistors
and other specialized electronic devices. The
production of solar cells and other gadgets that need
ultra-efficient performance also makes use of them
Fig. 1. Process of Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication [13].
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) visual inspection C. Fabrication Processes
to identify defects is therefore often performed by a The electrical measurements of the operating Nano-
professional after each of these steps in the manufacturing mechanical device prove that the two manufacturing
process. Problems with efficiency, high labor effort, lack of procedures are compatible. This text is reprinted with the
precision, and poor real-time performance are some of the permission of colloidal lithography, a crucial technique for
issues with quality inspectors' manual surface inspection nano and micro manufacturing with huge surface areas; it
approaches [7]. allows for the self-assembly of colloids on large surfaces
A. Key component function of Semiconductor Wafer without the need for costly equipment [10].
Fabrication  Liu et al. developed a method for optimum demanding
The main purposes of several of the building's components that reduces demanding force while maintaining
are. excellent pattern transfer fidelity and preventing
deformation of soft imprinting moulds and supports.
 Thin-film processing: the technique of physically or Olalla et al. suggested a method to imprint pyramidal
chemically vapor-depositioning crystals onto thin feature composition structures with dimensions on the
sheets. For CVD film thickness, several ML models order of wavelengths using colloidal lithography; these
were compared in. Researchers found that GPR structures would then be coated with a material to
(Lasso-Gaussian Process Regression) performed better serve as a post-processing, post-deposition solar cell,
than Boost (Gradient), Forest (Random), and Adobos. increasing its potential usage in industrial settings [14].
Uses tree-based models to calculate the thickness of  Centavo et al. suggested a scalable colloidal
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) and compares all lithography approach for developing surfaces with
of the results. efficient light trapping and hydrophobic properties that
 Planarization: After deposition and etching, the are easy, cheap cost, and operate at low temperatures
surface of the wafer is smoothed using CMP. This [15]. Its surface characteristics' controlled nano/micro
makes sure that the surface is level and even for the structure has significant anti-reflection and light
next processing process. At the 45 nm, 32 nm, and 22 scattering effects, which boosts average daily energy
nm nodes, the tougher constraints on thickness, spatial output by 35.2%.
homogeneity, planarity, conformance, thermal
stability, and mechanical integrity must be considered III. THE IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR WAFERS
throughout the planarization process. The electronic industry relies on semiconductor wafers as
 Wafer Dicing and Packaging: The wafer is cut into its fundamental substrate. Numerous items in the form of
separate chips or dies after fabrication. After that, each transistors, resistors, and capacitors, among other things, are
die is packed for protection and external connections, created. Because of their integral role in the finished goods,
allowing for incorporation into electrical equipment these wafers determine the efficiency, dependability, and
[8]. A. Types of semiconductor wafers. There are a overall performance of the different electronic devices [16].
number of different kinds of wafers used in the Semiconductor wafers play a crucial role in modern
semiconductor industry, and they all have different electronics, forming the foundation for integrated circuits
properties and uses. The most often seen kinds are (ICs) and microchips. These thin, disc-shaped substrates are
silicon, gallium arsenide, and germanium [9].

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made primarily from silicon, though other materials such as 2) Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) and Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV)
GaAs and SiC are also used for specialized applications. lithography
A. Materials of semiconductor wafers DUV and EUV lithography are advanced
photolithography techniques used in semiconductor
Highly refined single crystals are used to make manufacturing to create extremely small and precise circuit
semiconductor wafers. A wide range of materials are used, the patterns on wafers. DUV lithography operates at wavelengths
most prevalent of which is silicon. such as 193 nm (ArF laser) and is widely used for fabricating
 Germanium: Optoelectronics and high-speed chips at nodes up to 7 nm with multiple patterning techniques.
electronics both need high carrier mobility. EUV lithography, on the other hand, uses a much shorter
 Gallium Arsenide (GA As): Frequently used in RF wavelength of 13.5 nm, enabling direct patterning of smaller
and microwave devices because to its efficiency at features down to 2 nm, reducing the need for complex multiple
high frequencies and temperatures [17]. patterning. EUV allows higher transistor density, improved
 Silicon Carbide (SiC): Power electronics benefit power efficiency, and performance in modern chips, making
greatly from its high breakdown voltage and it essential for next-generation semiconductor manufacturing
exceptional heat conductivity. [23].
 Indium Phosphide (InP): Extremely mobile IV. LITERATURE REVIEW
electrons, used in high-frequency, high-speed systems
like fiber optics This section provides the previous research on
 Silicon Germanium (SiGe): Powers up transistors, Developments in Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication. This
which are a staple of high-speed integrated circuits Table I provides a structured comparison of the reviewed
[18]. literature, outlining their key focus areas, contributions, and
avenues for future research.
 Sapphire (Al2O3): A substrate used in the
production of optoelectronics and LEDs due to its In this study, Pan et al. (2018) analyze cluster tools'
excellent thermal stability and insulating qualities. scheduling and modeling approaches, including both
 Gallium Nitride (GaN): Excellent power revisiting and non-revising approaches. After that, their
management and efficiency, necessary for light- approaches to solving the problem are examined and
emitting diodes and power transistors. contrasted. Prior to delving into revisiting procedures, this
 Zinc Oxide (ZnO): Optoelectronic uses for this article addresses the scheduling issue of certain generic
transparent semiconductor include transparent thin- production systems that include revisiting. Finally, the
film transistors and ultraviolet detectors [19]. conclusion and future directions of the study are addressed. As
 Diamond: Highly mobile electrons and very good a word to the wise, semiconductor production systems are
thermal conductivity; used in high-frequency, high- among the most intricate and cutting-edge in the industry.
power devices. The development of several They rely on cluster tools that are powered by highly
semiconductor technologies that are essential to automated robots. It is hard to plan and manage them due to
contemporary electronics is made possible by these factors such as wafer residence time limits, wafer revisiting,
materials [10]. activity time volatility, chamber cleaning needs, and PMs that
are prone to failure[24].
B. Wafer Fabrication Techniques used in semiconductor
There are hundreds of phases in the manufacturing process In this study, Taha, (2018) suggests a method for
of semiconductor wafers, and each one involves a complex evaluating the semiconductor manufacturing process known
technique. These operations include oxidation, as CDID. In a particular manufacturing processing step, an in-
photolithography, cleaning, etching, and planarization, among line inspection tool may detect a cluster of defects; CDID can
many others. When making semiconductor wafers, each one determine which carry-over defect class was responsible for
goes through a series of mechanical operations called "process these clusters. The first step for CDID is to determine the kind
steps," which are also called "unit processes." [20]. There are of Rx defect by comparing the Rx picture with reference wafer
usually more than 500 manufacturing steps involved in the maps of previously acquired defect clusters. Applying the
creation of semiconductor wafers. The manufacture of laws of inference triggers the premises. To find the source of
semiconductor wafers is an intricate process that transforms d, CDID uses the inference rules to apply the defect definition
silicon, gallium arsenide, and germanium into miniature rules recursively[25].
devices. Constructing photonic or electrical circuits on In this study, Wang (2023) combination of two-
semiconductor wafers is a lengthy process [21]. New dimensional materials, especially graphene, with silicon
developments in wafer fabrication technology are detailed CMOS circuits might radically alter the history of electronic
here: devices. This presentation delves into the use of Back-End-of-
Line (BEOL) processing to include these materials
1) Lithography Innovations
seamlessly, showcasing their compatibility and performance
There would be no semiconductor industry without
advantages. The importance of this development is
lithography, an essential enabling technology. There is no way
highlighted by the expected economic changes in the markets
to make ULSI circuits without the lithography step of
for graphene-based applications that include silicon. They are
semiconductor wafer fabrication. Immediate results include
moving closer to a future where 2D materials expand the
smaller features and higher transistor densities. Additional
boundaries of technology as recent advances tackle critical
applications of optical lithography are being explored via the
issues in wafer-scale production[26].
use of 157 nm technology for nodes ranging from 65 nm to 45
nm [22]. In this study, Noori et al. (2024) examine the processes
involved in the creation of semiconductor technologies, which

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 Manish Jain et al, Journal of Global Research in Electronics and Communication, 2 (2) January 2025, 08-12

may include hundreds or even thousands of steps carried out purpose of describing wafer fabrication equipment. This paper
by pipelines that may make use of hundreds of fabrication presents a technique for building such a model and uses a real-
tools. Size and price of semiconductor wafers may vary world application for STMicroelectronics to demonstrate how
greatly according to their components and intended use. The to check that the model is consistent[28].
installation and running expenses of a facility's fabrication
machines that can process wafers of any size and material In this study, Bardhan et al. (2021) examine a scheduling
might be somewhat significant. This study presents a and production planning issue in a semiconductor wafer
technique for processing arbitrary-sized and material wafers manufacturing facility that processes several products. The
in fabrication facilities meant for big wafers with little tool facility handles difficult aspects such as various re-entrant
contamination[27]. loops and equipment characteristics. Iterative execution of the
planning and simulation stages closes the performance gap
In this study, Maslov, Yugma and Vialletelle (2023) detail between the projected production level and the simulation
a novel method for aligning data during wafer creation, the output. The current status of work-in-process (WIP) or
first step of semiconductor production. Semantic modeling production is used to determine a wafer's priority according to
forms the basis of this method, which focuses on formalizing a suggested scheduling rule[29].
technical information by means of an ontology network for the
TABLE I. LITERATUREITERATURE ON DEVELOPMENTS IN SEMICONDUCTOR WAFER FABRICATION

References Focus Area Key Contribution Limitations & Future Work

[24] Scheduling for cluster tools of Review scheduling methods for no- Need for advanced automation and optimization
semiconductor wafer revisiting and revisiting wafer processes techniques to handle complex scheduling constraints
[25] Defect diagnosis in semiconductor Introduces CDID system for identifying Requires further refinement to enhance defect
fabrication defect sources using in-line inspection identification accuracy using AI-based
tools improvements
[26] 2D materials integration with Discusses graphene-silicon integration Challenges in large-scale fabrication and ensuring
CMOS in wafer fabrication via BEOL processing seamless integration for commercial applications
[27] Processing wafers of varying sizes Develops a method for processing Further research needed for scalability and
and materials wafers of various dimensions while contamination control across different materials
minimizing contamination
[28] Data alignment in wafer fabrication Introduces a semantic modeling Improvements needed in interoperability and
approach using ontologies standardization of ontology-based modeling
[29] Production planning and scheduling Presents an iterative scheduling method Potential for AI-driven scheduling models to enhance
in semiconductor based on work-in-process (WIP) state production efficiency

V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK maintenance, and yield enhancement. Additionally, research
The continuous evolution of semiconductor wafer should explore novel materials beyond traditional silicon,
fabrication is crucial for sustaining the rapid advancements in such as gallium nitride (GaN) and two-dimensional materials
electronics and computing technology the semiconductor like graphene, to improve semiconductor performance and
industry has evolved significantly over the past decades, with energy efficiency.
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