M

VO LU M E 5 A R C HA E O L O G Y O F P R E H I S T O R I C A RT

A ER
AT
D IA
D L
IT
IO ON
N L
A IN
L E
Rock Art Research
in the Digital Era
Case Studies from the 20th International Rock Art
Congress IFRAO 2018, Valcamonica (Italy)

EDITED BY
M I G U E L C A R R E R O - P A Z O S, R E B E C C A D Ö H L ,
J U L I A N J A N S E N VA N R E N S B U R G , P A O L O M E D I C I ,
A L I A VÁ Z Q U E Z - M A R T Í N E Z

BA R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 0 9 8
VO LU M E 5 A R C HA E O L O G Y O F P R E H I S T O R I C A RT

Rock Art Research

in the Digital Era
Case Studies from the 20th International Rock Art
Congress IFRAO 2018, Valcamonica (Italy)

EDITED BY
M I G U E L C A R R E R O - P A Z O S, R E B E C C A D Ö H L ,
J U L I A N J A N S E N VA N R E N S B U R G , P A O L O M E D I C I,
A L I A VÁ Z Q U E Z - M A R T Í N E Z

BA R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 0 9 8
Published in 2022 by
BAR Publishing, Oxford

BAR International Series 3098

Archaeology of Prehistoric Art, Volume 5

Rock Art Research in the Digital Era

isbn 978 1 4073 6011 9 paperback

isbn 978 1 4073 6012 6 e-format

doi https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

© the editors and contributors severally 2022

cover image 3D model of Laxe dos Carballos (Campo Lameiro, Galicia, Spain),
by Alia Vázquez-Martínez

The Authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright,

Designs and Patents Act, are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored,
sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted
in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

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BAR titles are available from:

BAR Publishing
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 ARCHAEOLOGY OF PREHISTORIC ART
Series Editors: Andrew Meirion Jones, University of Southampton, UK
and Ing-Marie Back Danielsson, Uppsala University, Sweden

This series was initiated in 2017 in response to a renaissance in research activity in archaeology of art, specifically the field
of prehistoric art. Several major research projects, high profile exhibitions, and conferences have been devoted to the topic
in recent years. The launch of this new series reflects the renewed interest in the archaeology of prehistoric art.

One consequence of the intense scholarly interest is that the theoretical and methodological approach to prehistoric art
underwent a sea change over the last ten years.

The Editors of this timely series encourage contributions that take a fresh approach to prehistoric art (particularly
new materialist or post-humanist perspectives) and new methodological or scientific approaches to the analysis of art
(especially new digital methods, or new methods of dating). Having said this, high-quality contributions of all theoretical
and methodological kinds are considered. The geographical scope of the series is global, and contributions are encouraged
from all regions of the world.

If you are interested in publishing in the Archaeology of Prehistoric Art series, please contact: [email protected]

Editorial Advisory Board

Ben Alberti, Framingham College, USA

Lara Bacelar Alves, Coimbra University, Portugal
Marta Díaz-Guardamino, Durham University, UK
Fredrik Fahlander, Stockholm University, Sweden
Ingrid Fuglestvedt, Oslo University, Norway
Dragoş Gheorghiu, National University of Arts, Bucharest, Romania
Joakim Goldhahn, Linneaus University, Sweden/Griffith University, Australia
Simon Kaner, University of East Anglia, UK
Antti Lahelma, University of Helsinki, Finland
Jo McDonald, University of Western Australia, Australia
David Morris, McGregor Museum & Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
Stratos Nanoglou, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, Athens, Greece
Courtney Nimura, University of Oxford, UK
Elisabeth Arwill Nordbladh, Gothenburg University, Sweden
David Pearce, University of Witwatersand, RSA
Guillaume Robin, University of Edinburgh, UK
David Robinson, University of Central Lancashire, UK
Ylva Sjöstrand, Uppsala University, Sweden
 Titles in the series
Design and Connectivity
The case of Atlantic Rock Art
Joana Valdez-Tullett
BAR International Series 2932 | 2018 Volume 1

Rock Art, Water, and Ancestors

The semiotic construction of a sacred landscape in the central Andes (1800 BCE - CE 1820)
Gordon Ambrosino
BAR International Series 2969 | 2020 Volume 2

Arts and Crafts in Iron Age East Yorkshire

A holistic approach to pattern and purpose, c. 400BC-AD100
Helen Chittock
BAR British Series 660 | 2020 Volume 3

Change and Continuity in the Prehistoric Rock Art of East Siberia

An archaeological and anthropological exploration into ethno-cultural identity, belonging, and symbolism
Irina A. Ponomareva
BAR International Series 3057 | 2021 Volume 4

Rock Art Research in the Digital Era

Case Studies from the 20th International Rock Art Congress IFRAO 2018, Valcamonica (Italy)
Edited by Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Rebecca Döhl, Julian Jansen van Rensburg, Paolo Medici,
Alia Vázquez-Martínez
BAR International Series 3098 | 2022 Volume 5
 Of Related Interest

Rock Art in the Landscapes of Motion

Proceedings of a session of the 20th International Rock Art Congress IFRAO 2018 in Valcamonica, Italy
Edited by Pawel L Polkowski and Frank Förster
BAR International / British Series 3092 | 2022

Change and Continuity in the Prehistoric Rock Art of East Siberia

An archaeological and anthropological exploration into ethno-cultural identity, belonging, and symbolism
Irina A. Ponomareva
BAR International Series 3057 | 2021

Carved in Stone
The archaeology of rock-cut sites and stone quarries
Edited by Claudia Sciuto, Anaïs Lamesa, Katy Whitaker and Ali Yamaç
BAR International Series 3054 | 2021

¡El Yunque se levanta!

Interdisciplinarity and activism at the La Mina petroglyph site
Rhianna C. Rogers, James Schuetz and Rex Cauldwell
BAR International Series 3019 | 2021

Shepherds Who Write

Pastoral graffiti in the uplands of Europe from prehistory to the modern age
Edited by Marta Bazzanella and Giovanni Kezich
BAR International Series 2999 | 2020

Drawn and Written in Stone

An inventory of stepped structures and inscriptions on rock surfaces in Upper Tibet (ca. 100 BCE to 1400 CE)
John Vincent Bellezza
BAR International Series 2995 | 2020

Design and Connectivity

The Case of Atlantic Rock Art
Joana Valdez-Tullett
BAR International Series 2932 | 2019

For more information, or to purchase these titles, please visit www.barpublishing.com

 Contents

Contributors....................................................................................................................................................................... viii
Abstract.............................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Rebecca Döhl, Julian Jansen van Rensburg, Paolo Medici, Alia Vázquez-Martínez

1. The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil: perspectives Concerning Amazonian
Sheltered Petroglyphs.................................................................................................................................................. 7
Marta Sara Cavallini, Raoni BM Valle, Filippo Stampanoni Bassi, Claide de Paula Moraes, Márcio Amaral,
Carlos Augusto Palheta Barbosa, Marcos Eugênio Brito de Castro, Rogério Andrade, Manoel Fabiano da Silva
Santos, Jaime Xamen Wai Wai, Levemilson Mendonça “Lei’’ da Silva, Miguel Espino Villarreal

2. Phantoms on granite: evidence of Iron Age engravings in Western Galicia (NW Iberia).................................. 25
Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

3. The prehistoric open-air sanctuary of Penedo do Ferro (Monforte, Portugal)................................................... 37

Leonor Rocha, Paula Morgado

4. Neolithic image, symmetry and context: challenges in montane stone from Cumbria, U.K.............................. 45
Steve Dickinson

5. New technologies for the survey, documentation and representation of rock art remains................................. 53
Gianni Furiassi

6. Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art in the Canyons of the Ancients
National Monument, Colorado (USA)..................................................................................................................... 63
Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

7. Close encounters of the third dimension: recording the three-dimensionality of the “topographic
representations” in the prehistoric rock art of Valcamonica and Valtellina (Italy)............................................ 81
Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

8. New digital insights over the Domus de Janas with paintings: some case studies............................................... 95
Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

9. More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies: the case of the Assa
Valley rock art (Vicenza, Italy)............................................................................................................................... 107
Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

10. Rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1 (Santa Cruz, Argentina): unravelling the
sequence using digital technologies........................................................................................................................ 123
Agustina Papú

11. The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°: an alternative way to experience a story from the past....................... 135
Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

vii
 Contributors

Editors Alia Vázquez Martínez (University of Santiago de

Compostela/University of Alcalá, Spain)
Miguel Carrero-Pazos (University of Oviedo, Spain)
Postdoctoral researcher at the University of Santiago
Lecturer in Prehistory at the University of Oviedo. Specialist de Compostela (USC), and currently with a Margarita
in computationally informed landscape archaeology, his Salas contract at the University of Alcalá (UAH). She is
research focuses on the application of GIS and spatial a specialist in the application of computer techniques for
statistics to model monumental landscapes. He is also the documentation and study of rock art in Northwestern
interested in 3D imaging techniques and the application Iberia. Her previous studies allowed her to create some of
of computer tools for the study and 3D analysis of rock art the most complete rock art databases currently available
engravings and Roman inscriptions. in Galicia (GEPN-AAT, University of Santiago de
Compostela). These repositories are essential both for the
Rebecca Döhl (Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany) study and documentation of a set of very delicate sites in
terms of their conservation (e.g. the Galician petroglyphs),
Archaeologist and Egyptologist (PhD), lecturer at the and for making heritage decisions with contrasted data.
Institute of Archaeology - Archaeology and Cultural Her research stay at the University of Alcalá focuses on the
History of Northeast Africa, specialised in rock art research, documentation of rock engravings with photogrammetric
landscape archaeology, GIS, 3D photogrammetry, Digital techniques and the development of databases in other
Humanities. Field director of rock art survey in Wadi Iberian territories.
Berber, Egypt (2010-2017, German Archaeological
Institute, Cairo). Since 2016 project coordinator for Authors
Corpus of Ancient Egyptian Multimodal Communication
(Humboldt University of Berlin). Márcio Amaral (Institute for Sustainable Development
Mamirauá, Brazil)
Julian Jansen van Rensburg (Paleowest, Phoenix,
United States) He has a bachelor degree in Archeology from the
Archaeology and Anthropology Program at the Federal
Dr Julian Jansen van Rensburg has 22 years of experience University of Western Pará (UFOPA), senior technician
in archaeological heritage projects throughout the in archaeology at the archaeology laboratory of IDSM -
world and is currently a Senior Principal Investigator at Institute for Sustainable Development Mamirauá, linked
Paleowest. His main focus of research is in the Middle East to the Research Group on Archaeology and Cultural
and has worked extensively on the island of Soqotra where Heritage Management in the Amazon.
he has led numerous research projects and two National
Geographic expeditions to examine rock art. During these Rogério Andrade (Federal University of Western Pará
expeditions he has developed a range of techniques to (UFOPA), Brazil)
record parietal and open-air petroglyph rock art sites. He
has also worked in close collaboration with local Soqotra Archaeologist, he had his bachelor degree in Archaeology
people and government officials to develop heritage from the Federal University of Western Pará (UFOPA).
awareness activities and establish protection measures for He developed a monograph in the archaeology of the
rock art sites on Soqotra. Santarém area. He is working with contract archaeology in
several parts of Brazil. He was an invaluable field assistant
Paolo Medici (Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici, Italy) and excavator during the 2014 excavation campaign at the
Arara Vermelha site.
He has a PhD in Egyptology and works as archaeologist
as Excavation Director at the Centro Camuno di Studi Xavier Barros Pereira (University of Vigo, Spain)
Preistorici since 2010. He participated in several
interdisciplinary projects for the technological advancement Geosciences and Geological Heritage specialist, University
in archaeological research and documentation. In 2020, he of Vigo, Spain. Graduate in Mine Engineering with
also founded the association ArchExperience, focused on specialisation in Geology and Environment. Currently
experimental archaeology, and since September 2021, the high school´s Science teacher and manager in Olho de
association manages the archaeological site and museum Sapo Geocultural Services for geologic dissemination
of the Riserva Naturale delle Incisioni Rupestri di Ceto, activities.
Cimbergo e Paspardo.

viii
 Contributors

Cinzia Bettineschi (University Augsburg, Germany) Antonio Curci (University of Bologna, Italy)

Cinzia Bettineschi (PhD) is Lecturer and Associate Antonio Curci is Associate Professor at the University
Researcher in Archaeology at the University of Augsburg of Bologna, co-director of the Aswan-Kom Ombo
(Germany). Her main expertise lies in craft productions, Archaeological Project (AKAP-Egypt). He is scientific
ancient technology, and in digital applications for responsible for ArcheoLaBio-Bioarchaeological Research
landscape studies. Since 2021, she is also a member of the Centre, with archaeozoological research activities and
directive board of the Centro Camuno di Studi Presitorici. participation in projects led by the Department of History
Author or co-author of more than 40 scientific publications, and Cultures in Italy and other countries. His research areas
including 2 edited volumes. also include methods of archaeological documentation,
3D survey and relief, cultural heritage conservation and
Marcos Eugênio Brito de Castro (Independent researcher enhancement.
and freelance consultant)
Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos (Federal University of
Experimented field archaeologist specialised in Western Pará (UFOPA), Brazil)
archaeological topography with undergraduate degree in
Civil Engineering. He has been contributing to several Archaeologist, he had his bachelor degree in archaeology
archaeological research with topography, surveying, from Federal University of Western Pará (UFOPA). He
excavations and drawings of archaeological material. developed a monograph on archaeobotanical analysis
He was the first topographer to reach the site in 2008 of materials from Santarém sites. He is working with
producing the fundamental topographic map of the Arara contract archaeology throughout Northern Brazil. He was
Vermelha. an invaluable field assistant and excavator during the 2014
excavation campaign at the Arara Vermelha site.
Alessia Brucato (University of Bologna, Italy)
Armando De Guio (Department of Cultural Heritage:
Archaeologist devoted to the study of the Near-Eastern Archaeology and History of Art, Cinema and Music,
Prehistory and Protohistory. She participates in research University of Padua, Italy)
teams in Italy, the United States, Egypt and Ethiopia as
Supervisor, Topographer and Photogrammetry Specialist. Armando De Guio is Senior Professor in Methods and
Her work focuses on 3D modelling, data storage, Techniques of Archaeological Research at the University
quantitative and computational methods for archaeological of Padua. He has developed a domain of expertise spread
research, virtual tours for educational purposes and for the in a wide range of disciplines: General Method and Theory,
preservation of the cultural heritage Quantitative Archaeology (from Seriation to Survival
Analysis, Spatial Analysis, GIS, Expert Systems, Simulation
Laura Burigana (Department of Cultural Heritage: and Modelling, CNN), Surface Archaeology, Remote Sensing,
Archaeology and History of Art, Cinema and Music, Landscape Archaeology, Demographic Archaeology, Conflict
University of Padua, Italy) Archaeology, Ethno-Historical Archaeology, Experimental
Archaeology, Public Archaeology, and Eco Cultural
Laura Burigana, PhD candidate (s. 2018) in Archaeology at Resource Management. In his major field of practical activity,
University of Padua (Italy). Working mainly on innovative Surface Archaeology, Armando De Guio is also president of
means of investigation of archaeological artefacts and the CISAS (International Centre for the Study of Surface
landscapes, through remote sensing, geographical Archaeology) and is directing several long-term field surveys
information systems (GIS) management, digital image that have involved far reaching collaborations with major
processing, and Agent-based Modelling (ABM). Italian and international institutions.

Marta Sara Cavallini (Museum of Archeology and Claide de Paula Moraes (Program of Anthropology and
Ethnology of the São Paulo University (MAE/USP), Archeology Program of the Federal University of Western
Brazil) Pará (PAA-UFOPA), Brazil)

She is a PhD student at the Museum of Archeology and He is an archaeologist, professor in the Anthropology
Ethnology of the São Paulo University, (MAE/USP), and Archaeology Program at the Federal University of
MSc degree in archeology from the same Institution Western Pará (UFOPA) and postdoctoral fellow in the
and graduated in Ancient Literature and Archaeology, Anthropology program at the University of São Paulo. He
Universitá di Bologna (UNIBO), Bologna, Italy (2007) was coordinator of the Bachelor’s Degree in Archaeology
with a specialisation in Archaeology (Prehistory). She has at UFOPA between 2014 and 2016. PhD in Archaeology
been researching since 2008 in Amazonian pre-colonial at the USP Archaeology and Ethnology Museum; master
archaeology, with a focus on Rock Art investigation. She in archeology by the same institution; and graduated in
is a member of the ARQUEOTROP (Archaeology of the History from the Pontifical Catholic University of Goiás.
Tropics Laboratory) and she is an associate researcher at He specialises in Amazonian archaeology, with a primary
Museu da Amazônia MUSA, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. interest focused in archeology in dialogue with indigenous

ix
Contributors

peoples; initial settlement of the Amazon; formation of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish
process of the archaeological record; lithic technology, Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. She is a broadly trained
ceramic technology; socio-political dynamics of the archaeologist of North Africa and the Near East with
Amazon in the year 1000; experimental archaeology and expertise in the archaeology of the Nile Valley, particularly
teaching archaeology. of Nubia, and the Sahara. She has held research, teaching
and curatorial positions at Yale University, University
Steve Dickinson (Independent researcher) of Leicester, University of Birmingham, the American
University in Cairo, and the British Museum. She is the
He is an independent researcher specialising in the co-Director of the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological
archaeology of the Lake District, Cumbria, U.K. He has Project.
been conducting excavations and surveys in the Lake
District World Heritage Site since 1980,and is a member Luigi Magnini (Department of History, Human Sciences
of the Prehistoric Society. He is currently coordinating a and Education - University of Sassari, Italy)
new research programme centred on a newly discovered
array of Neolithic sites in SW Cumbria. Luigi Magnini is researcher and lecturer in Methods and
Techniques for Archaeological Research at the University
Miguel Espino Villarreal (Independent researcher and of Sassari (Italy). He is specialised in Landscape
freelance consultant) Archaeology and in the study and interpretation of remotely
sensed data (UAV, aircraft, and satellite-based), with
Experienced Panamanian field archaeologist with a long particular interest in artificial intelligence, automation,
trajectory in the archaeology of Minas Gerais state, Brazil. and object-based image analysis applied to archaeological
He has broad-spectrum experience, but somewhat focused research. Since 2014 field coordinator and now director
on lithic archaeology. Also encouraged by archaeologists of the excavation in the Protohistoric village of Bostel
Eduardo Neves and Fernando Costa, to be part of the di Rotzo (northern Italy). He has actively participated in
Central Amazon Project (PAC), he moved on to Amazonas several national and international projects on the topics
state and became an important asset to several fieldworks. of Conflict Archaeology, Digital Archaeology, Pre-
protohistoric Archaeology, and Ethnoarchaeology.
Emanuela Faresin (Department of Cultural Heritage:
Archaeology and History of Art, Cinema and Music, Carla Mannu (Centro Studi “Identità e Memoria”
University of Padua, Italy) (CeSim/APS), Italy)

Emanuela Faresin is PhD in Study and Conservation Carla Mannu, graduated in Electronic Engineering at the
of Archaeological and Architectural Heritage at the Engineering Faculty of the University of Cagliari, with a
Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Padua. thesis on the 3D processing systems of prehistoric rock
She is currently a laboratory technician at the University engravings. For years, she has collaborated with Prof.
of Padua as a specialist in 3D surveying and modelling, Tanda in the study of engraved rock art, carved and
point cloud processing and data output management painted.
(reconstructions in virtual/augmented/mixed reality). She
also deals with 3D printing with particular attention to the Vanesa Mariño Calvo (University of Santiago de
aspects of valorization and inclusiveness. Compostela, Spain)

Gianni Furiassi (Independent researcher and freelance Art Historian and Archaeologist, University of Santiago
consultant) de Compostela, Spain. Graduate in History of Art with a
master’s degree in Archaeology. Currently a PhD student
Archaeologist with a master’s degree from the University of at the University of Santiago de Compostela. Member
“G. d’Annunzio” in Chieti (Italy), since 2014 he has been a of the research group Síncrisis. Investigación en Formas
freelancer in the Preventive Archaeology field. Previously Culturais (USC).
he collaborated with professional firms in central Italy in
restoration and conservation of Cultural Heritage projects Alberto Marretta (Parco Archeologico Comunale di
and in the Relief and Archaeological Documentation Seradina-Bedolina, Italy)
field. He carries out geophysical investigations applied
to archaeological research in Italy and abroad, in various He is a rock art researcher focused on Valcamonica and
archaeological contexts. At present, in addition to the other Alpine sites. He works as Scientific Director of the
profession, he is an independent researcher and deals with Archaeological Park of Seradina-Bedolina (Capo di Ponte,
digital documentation of archaeological contexts bearing Valcamonica), has conducted several documentation
traces of rock art. fieldworks in the Central Alps and has devoted extensive
research on various topics concerning rock art. He is author
Maria C. Gatto (Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland) of many scientific papers and monographs and has active
collaborations with numerous museums and international
Maria Carmela Gatto is a researcher at the Institute institutions.

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 Contributors

Eloy Martínez Soto (University of Vigo, Spain) In 2001, he graduated in Geography at the Federal
University of Pará (UFPA). Later, he obtained a Master
Historian and Archaeologist, University of Vigo, Spain. degree in Archaeology from the Federal University of Piauí
Graduate in History with a master’s degree in History, (UFPI). Currently, he is a PhD student in the postgraduate
Territory and Heritage resources. Currently a high school Program of Anthropology at the Federal University of Pará
History teacher. Member of the archaeology section of (UFPA), where he developed research on archaeological
the Miñoráns Studies´ Institute (IEM). Vice-president of sites in natural cavities in the Carajás mountain range. He
Amigas e Amigos do Museo de Pontevedra Association. has experience in the area of Geography and Archeology,
acting on the following subjects: amazonian archeology,
Angelo Martinotti (Istituto Archeologico Valtellinese, pottery analysis, Maracá culture funerary urns, and
Italy) mapping of archaeological sites.

Archaeologist, he deals with prehistory and protohistory of Radosław Palonka (Department of New World
Northern Italy. He participated in excavations and research Archaeology/Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian
in Lomellina (province of Pavia, Italy), Valcamonica and University in Kraków, Poland)
Valtellina, dedicating himself especially to Alpine rock art,
a theme that he has developed in numerous local, national Associate Professor at the Department of New World
and international scientific publications. Archeology, Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian
University in Krakow (Poland) and Research Associate
Levemilson Mendonça “Lei’’ da Silva (Independent at the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Colorado
researcher and freelance consultant) (USA). He specialises in archaeology and anthropology
of North America, particularly the US Southwest. Since
Expert field archaeologist from Iranduba, Amazonas. He 2011 he has been leading the archaeological project
is an Amazonian self-made and all-in-one man, native to focusing on socio-cultural and settlement changes in the
the things of that land. Encouraged by the archaeologist thirteenth century A.D. Ancestral Pueblo culture from
Eduardo Neves (MAE-USP) to be part of his Central the central Mesa Verde region, southwestern Colorado
Amazon Project (PAC) team, since the late nineties, within the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.
he rapidly became a skillful and experimented field His research interest also connects with the documentation
archaeologist developing invaluable participation in and analysis of the pre-Hispanic Ancestral Pueblo and
several fieldworks of many derived research projects. He historic Ute and Navajo rock art. He cooperates with
had a crucial role in the topographic campaign of 2008, as several American institutions as well as the members of
an Arara Vermelha project crew member. the Hopi tribe from the Hopi Culture Preservation Office
(Second Mesa, Arizona) in terms of the indigenous oral
Paula Morgado (Municipality of Monforte - Centre for traditions and knowledge. He applies various digital
Art History and Artistic Research, Portugal) techniques in the process of documentation, conservation,
and protection of cultural heritage. He is also involved in
She has a master in Museology (University of Évora) popularising archaeology and history of Native Americans
and a degree in Archaeology (University of Lisbon). in Poland and in Europe.
She is an archaeologist at the Municipality of Monforte
and researcher at CHAIA (Centre for Art History and Agustina Papú (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Artistic Research). Her research, although diverse, is Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); Instituto Nacional de
mainly focused in Alentejo. She has extensive experience Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano (INAPL),
in directing (or participating in) national research Argentina)
projects. Published papers in peer reviewed journals and
has several participations in national and international Agustina Papú is a PhD student in Archaeology at
congresses. the University of Buenos Aires. She has a degree in
Anthropological Sciences (with a specialisation in
Alexandre Paz-Camaño (University of Santiago de Archaeology) and currently holds a doctoral grant
Compostela, Spain) awarded by Argentina’s National Scientific and Technical
Research Council (CONICET) to study early rock art in
Archaeologist and independent researcher, University of the Argentinian Patagonia.
Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Graduate in History with
specialisation in Prehistory and Archaeology. Currently Leonor Rocha (School of Social Sciences - University of
field archaeologist and manager in BETILO, Arqueoloxía Évora, Portugal)
e outras Historias for development of archaeological
projects and Cultural Heritage dissemination. She has a doctorate in Archaeology, in the Prehistory
specialty at the University of Lisbon. She is currently
Carlos Augusto Palheta Barbosa (Instituto Nacional do a professor of Archaeology at the University of Évora
Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional in the State of and a researcher at CEAACP (Centre for Studies in
Pará (IPHAN - PA), Brazil) Archaeology, Arts and Heritage Sciences). Her research

xi
Contributors

on Recent Prehistory is focused in Alentejo Megalithism working on projects using Virtual Reconstructions and
and Rock Art. She has extensive experience in directing Virtual Reality Tours of archaeological sites for scientific,
(or participating in) national and international research educational, and communication purposes.
projects, supervising master’s and doctoral dissertations.
In addition to publishing books and articles, she is a Raoni BM Valle (Program of Anthropology and
member of the editorial committee of journals, and also Archeology Program of the Federal University of Western
reviewer for articles within her specialty. Pará (PAA-UFOPA), Brazil)

Giuseppe Salemi (Department of Cultural Heritage: He has an undergraduate degree in History (2000), an
Archaeology and History of Art, Cinema and Music - MSc degree in Prehistory (2003), both from the Federal
University of Padua, Italy) University of Pernambuco (UFPE), and a PhD in
Archaeology at the Archeology and Ethnology Museum
Giuseppe Salemi is Associated Professor of Geomatics at (MAE-USP) (2012). Currently, he is an Associate
the University of Padova. The scientific activity concerns Professor in the Anthropology and Archaeology Program
advanced numerical and computational techniques for at the Federal University of Western Pará (UFOPA-PAA),
geodetic, topographic and photogrammetric applications, where he has been teaching and researching since 2012.
at small, medium and large scale in the framework of His research topics involve rock art, archaeology and
cultural heritage. The main topics are: laser scanning, ethnography. Raoni has developed intercultural research
point cloud processing, digital image processing and with various Indigenous peoples in Amazonia since 2005
computational photography, data mining, spatial databases, and in the NE of Brazil since 2001. He also coordinates
and multimedia cartography. the Visual Anthropology and Archaeology of Image
Laboratory (LAVAI-UFOPA).
Filippo Stampanoni Bassi (Museu da Amazônia –
MUSA, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil) Jaime Xamen Wai Wai (Federal University of Western
Pará (UFOPA), Brazil)
Deputy Scientific Director of the Museu da Amazônia –
MUSA. PhD in Archaeology at the USP Archeology and He became the first Indigenous undergraduate in
Ethnology Museum (MAE/USP) (2016), and bachelor in archeology in Brazil by the Federal University of Western
Ancient Literature and Archaeology, Universitá di Bologna Pará (UFOPA). He is currently in the process of completing
(UNIBO), Bologna, Italy in 2008 with a specialisation in his master’s research in The Federal University of Minas
Archaeology (Prehistory). His research topics involve Gerais, which aims to tell the ancient stories of the Kikwo
Amazonian Archaeology, settlement patterns, household River region, an important river in the trajectory of the
archaeology, Rock Art and heritage management with Wai Wai people. His goal is to tell this story from a Wai
traditional communities. Wai perspective and in dialogue with archaeology and the
scientific academy. In addition, he is vice president of the
Giuseppa Tanda (Cagliari University; President of Centro Association of Indigenous Peoples of Mapuera (APIM).
Studi “Identità e Memoria” (CeSim/APS), Italy) He was an invaluable field assistant, excavator and
surveyor during the 2014 excavation campaign.
Giuseppa Tanda is a retired professor of Prehistory and
Protohistory at the University of Cagliari, director of the Bolesław Zych (Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian
“Centro Interdipartimentale per la Preistoria e Protostoria University in Kraków, Poland)
del Mediterraneo” (C.I.P.P.M.) and the School of
Specialisation in Archaeological Heritage, until 2012. In Archaeologist and faculty member at the Department
2017, she founded the “Centro Studi Identità e Memoria” of New World Archeology, Institute of Archaeology of
(CeSim /Aps), of which she is President. She carried out an the Jagiellonian University with extensive experience in
intense research and excavation activity in Italy and abroad, archaeological projects conducted in Poland, Guatemala,
from the Neolithic, to the Iron Age, in a Euro-Mediterranean Germany, and the USA. His research in the field of
perspective and with an interdisciplinary approach. She has archaeology focuses on the application and using
published over 300 works on different topics, including various digital methods, including photogrammetry,
about 90 articles about the art of the domus de janas. terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) or Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI).
Alberto Urcia (Yale University, USA) His research interests include analysis in the virtual
environment: analysing and digitisation of the data and
Specialist in Digital Archaeology and Preservation of 3D modelling of architectural remains, rock art, and the
Cultural Heritage. For the past decade, Alberto has surrounding landscape using various software as well
been managing the data recording and documentation as the dissemination of new forms of three-dimensional
for several international expeditions. Since 2012 he visualisations. Participant in many conferences and
has been employed at Yale University (USA) where his workshops in Poland, Italy, Germany, and Great Britain on
primary focus is on developing innovative methods to digital archaeology and application of digital techniques
support archaeological research in Egypt. He is currently in rock art, settlement research, and GIS/spatial analyses.

xii
 Abstract

The monograph entitled Rock Art Research of the Digital Era: Case studies from the 20th
International Rock Art Congress IFRAO 2018, Valcamonica (Italy) covers the research presented
in several sessions that took place at the 20th International Rock Art Congress (IFRAO) held in
Darfo Boario Terme, Valcamonica (Italy), from the 29th of August to the 2nd of September 2018.
With a broad understanding of Digital Archaeology, different specialists in this book show how
digital technologies can benefit the study of rock art in a variety of themes. Digital methods and
3D modelling are clearly changing the field of rock art documentation and interpretation, with
new approaches that allow us to make eroded rock art panels more visible, especially in those
cases where the human eye or a raking light is ineffective. Over a range of case studies, this book
demonstrates how cutting-edge methodologies are integrated within 3D modelling workflows,
and how these can manage and disseminate the results to the general public in an interactive way.

DOIs to additional online material can be found at the end of chapters 2 and 6.

xiii
 Introduction

Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Rebecca Döhl, Julian Jansen van

Rensburg, Paolo Medici, Alia Vázquez-Martínez

The expansion of computer technology within Archaeo– monograph is composed of 11 chapters from these sessions
logical Science has contributed to the growth of a variety and offers a comprehensive insight into the application of
of new approaches in archaeological research. Specifically, digital technologies within rock art research.
the representation and analysis of archaeological sites
and objects by means of virtual reconstruction. This is I.1 Interdisciplinarity, archaeological data and
particularly noticeable within rock art studies, where 3D methods
modelling has been used in the documentation, evaluation,
dissemination, and historical analysis of rock art. The need to find research tools beyond the traditional,
coupled with the technological innovation of the last thirty
This monograph demonstrates, through different case years has expanded the development of new documentation
studies, how digital approaches can benefit rock art methods and of archaeological data representation. In
research by providing new visualisations for rock art historical and archaeological studies this technological
panels with different levels of preservation and, by innovation is extensively used within an interdisciplinary
using these, extracting historical and archaeological framework that utilises traditional and new methods. A
information. These case studies also demonstrate how change that has broadened horizons. Among these new
cutting-edge methodologies are integrated within 3D methods a large contribution has been made by computer
modelling workflows and how the results can be managed sciences, both hardware and software, mathematics, optics,
and disseminated to the general public. physics, mechanics and network communication. Thanks to
this innovation, it has been possible to refine the traditional
The 20th International Rock Art Congress, IFRAO 2018, recording methods with these digital methodologies
Standing on the Shoulders of Giants, held in Darfo Boario confirming the centrality of their role and taking advantage
Terme, Valcamonica, Italy, from the 29th August to the of the many opportunities offered by the continuous advance
2nd of September 2018, was one of the largest rock art of technical and computer-based methods.
conventions, with more than 800 people participating,
530 scientific papers presented, and over 36 sessions Four studies presented in this monograph highlight
organised. Among these were three sessions concerned the application of this interdisciplinary approach and
especially with digital technology and its usage within its results. Rocha and Morgado, in the municipality of
rock art research: Monforte (Portugal), studied the site of Penedo do Ferro,
a prehistoric open-air sanctuary. This project showed the
• Challenges and changes for rock art research in the integration of photogrammetry techniques in order to
digital age, a session centred around the possibilities help to obtain a better documentation of the engravings.
and consequences of digital technologies applied to The research team combined the documentation of the
rock art concerning recording, dissemination and area with Georeferencing (GPS) and a photographic
digital curatorship of rock art, and rock art heritage survey, to obtain both a photogrammetry and a three-
management. dimensional view of each panel. The combined work of
• Rupestrian archaeology, question & answers: these techniques resulted in a good characterization of
tools, methods and purpose, which focused on the the rock art present, even where the surface was almost
relationships between methods, techniques of analysis indecipherable. A similar approach has been used also by
and goals of the archaeological research applied to rock the team led by Paz-Camaño, who worked on Iron Age
art studies. engravings in Western Galicia. This work documented
• Made for being visible. Developing 3D methodologies the rock art panel by employing digital photography and
for the study of rock art carvings. Managing suitability photogrammetry, that was complemented by a geological
in sites with Rock Art. The purpose of this session was to analysis of the stone. The results offered important
present different case-studies centred on the application information and produced a wide variety of different
of 3D modelling and post processing techniques in imagery products that were used to enhance the visibility
relation to the study of rock art carvings. of the rock art. The article of Dickinson combines the
integration of archaeological assessment with the benefit
Four years later, with a world pandemic having stopped our of digital imaging, including the comparison of the Upper
lives for over a year, we can now present the proceedings Eskdale site and the engravings from other sites. He
of these sessions, all of which focus on the application focused on the polissoir and the incorporation of digital
of digital methodologies within rock art research. This image interpretation, 1:1 tracing and digital graphical

1
Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Rebecca Döhl, Julian Jansen van Rensburg, Paolo Medici, Alia Vázquez-Martínez

transcription of specific features. In the fourth study, we of archaeological carved remains, such as rock art,
look at the Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil inscriptions, or emblems. In the last decades, there has been
with the team of Cavallini, where the preservation of a wide expansion on the use and application of techniques
archaeological layers offered greater chances for rock art such as SfM Photogrammetry and laser scanning (Robin
contextualization and dating. This project demonstrated 2015). Reflective Transformation Imaging is also being
how the use of AMS radiocarbon dating can lead to better adopted in cultural heritage to highlight the readability
understanding the graphic transformations and in the of incised surfaces, such as rock art, wall graffiti (Valente
defining of a chrono-stylistic analysis of the rock art. 2020).

I.2 3D modelling, Photogrammetry, RTI Following these developments, the use of digital image
techniques to improve the visualisation of the engraved
The documentation of rock art is one of the most important panels has become a particular field of research (see e.g.,
factors for a good interpretation of these manifestations. Mudge et al. 2006, 2012; Díaz-Guardamino, Wheatley
For years, researchers have used manual methods for the 2013; Olsen, Bryant 2013; Duffy 2013; Domingo et
reproduction of rock art, which have a great impact on the al. 2013; Pires et al. 2014). In technical terms, these
panel in the moment of its documentation, for example, approaches use several filters and analyses over the created
tracing on plastic sheets or the rubbing technique. Both 3D models to highlight their morphological features,
methods have a negative impact on the conservation of the evolving to digital tracings of the rock art panels that try
panel, yet are still being used frequently. to surpass the traditional hand-drawn based techniques.
One of the most used is Radiance Scaling (Vergne et al.
From the 21st century, there has been a major change in 2010; Granier et al. 2012). Currently widespread through
the methodology of the documentation of the rock art, and the MeshLab open-source software, its fast application
the manual documentation techniques had been replaced allows the highlighting of the different views of a 3D
by digital techniques. Digital techniques allow 3D model. Thus, it allows a more detailed view over rock
virtualisation of the engravings as well as a detailed and art panels (Vázquez-Martínez et al. 2016). The list of
reliable study of rock art. The current digital methodology techniques includes the management of mesh comparisons
is the result of an improvement of digital techniques that and manipulating shadows over the 3D models at different
were first experimented at Stonehenge in the late 1960s scales (e.g., exaggerated shading, Carrero-Pazos et al.
(Atkinson 1968). 2018), and the application of traditional raster and LiDAR
visualisation techniques (Lymer 2015; Horn 2019).
The digital representation of rock art has also become
a tool for dissemination. The acquisition of the data The present monograph highlights the application of
necessary for the creation of 3D models requires a good digital filters to improve the visualisation of the 3D rock
choice of methodology that depends on the variables that art models. Tanda and Manu take this opportunity to
affect the documentation phase. The main methods of data present new research over the famous Domus de Janas,
acquisition today, which we will see in the articles of this by applying DStretch analytical imaging filters, thereby
book, are: Laser Scanning, Structure from Motion (SfM) providing new insights into the paintings within the
photogrammetry and Reflectance Transformation Imaging funeral hypogea. Bettineschi et al. present the results of
(RTI). The main difference between them is the handling the application of LiDAR-derived enhancing techniques
of the instruments according to the accessibility of the site over several engravings from the vertical walls of the Assa
and the derivation of the 3D point cloud. Laser Scanners Valley, in Vicenza. The application of multiple digital
provide range data that contains the 3D coordinates needed methods allows them to discuss the motifs and techniques
for the mesh generation phase, i.e., they extract the points used. Finally, Papú demonstrates how digital techniques
from reality by themselves. Whereas Photogrammetry and can be used to unravel long-term complex sequences of
RTI obtain data taken from 2D images that require further superimpositions at the Cerro de los Indios 1, in Santa
processing to transform them into 3D information. Cruz (Argentina).

The use of these techniques in rock art and the results I.4 Display and interaction with data
obtained from them are explained in several of the articles
in this book. Palonka and Zych show the benefits and A new way of presenting and looking at the output of 3D
disadvantages of these three techniques, highlighting not digitization processes has come into focus: “virtuality”.
only the results obtained but also the ease and difficulty A term that encompasses 3D computer graphics,
of each. Furiassi focuses on the use of the laser scanner Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)1.
and Martinotti and Marretta on the reproduction of a panel
utilising SfM photogrammetry. 1
The two terms are not always clearly distinguished from one another.
Virtual Reality creates a completely virtual 3D world for the observer,
I.3 Digital analysis and enhancing techniques in which the observer can “move” and interact with it. This is usually
done with the help of VR equipment, such as glasses, gloves, etc. In
Augmented Reality, the observer perceives the real world, but additional,
3D modelling and Digital Imaging Techniques are virtual information is added to it, using simple devices such as e.g., a
currently a standard in data acquisition and analysis smartphone.

2
 Introduction

Virtual environments have the advantage of being able to An increasingly popular form of using virtual simulated
combine spatial information with contextual annotations environments are virtual tours. One of the first virtual
and give the observer an interactive three-dimensional tours started in 1994 with the virtualization of Dudley
insight into the real-world appearance of the object and its Castle4 with a “walk-through” of a 3D reconstructed castle
environment. dated to 1550. From this starting point, virtual tours have
evolved to modern game-based tours5, which can convey
The use of virtual environments was first undertaken in scientific content to an audience. Urcia et al. (this volume)
the 1970s within the fields of engineering, aviation and presents the setup of an interactive virtual reality tour of
the military, before it entered the realm of gaming and the rock art area in Nag el Hamdulab, Aswan, Egypt. They
entertainment in the 1980s and 1990s. By the 1990s, this stress the necessity of not only recording the site in 3D, but
application also found its way into museums and cultural also in reconstructing the perception between the viewer,
heritage institutions, where it was used to create a new the image and the landscape in which it is embedded. The
medium for interacting with objects and the transfer of advantages proposed by Urcia et al. are that virtual reality
knowledge. At the end of the 1990s it began to be more can bring specialist knowledge to an audience and be used
widely used in archaeology,2 where it has been used in as an innovative tool for research purposes.
knowledge transfer, making inaccessible sites virtually
accessible, and to allow for the interactive appropriation of The editors, on January 2021
a reconstructed past with associated scientific questions.
Moreover, it has been proposed to undertake virtual exca­ References
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from the real world. While in the early applications the very Martínez, A. Digital imaging techniques for recording
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3
There exists a range of projects, which apply virtuality as a means to
explore rock art, e.g., 3D-Pitoti project: http://3d-pitoti.eu/index.php/
project-details (Last accessed: 23.11.2021). British Museum rock art
project: https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/vr/ (Last accessed: 4
http://www.exrenda.com/dudley/index.htm (Last accessed: 23.11.2021).
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org/en/ (Last accessed: 23.11.2021). assassins-creed/discovery-tour (Last accessed: 23.11.2021)

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Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Rebecca Döhl, Julian Jansen van Rensburg, Paolo Medici, Alia Vázquez-Martínez

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graffiti documentation: Overview and applications”.
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42 (2016): 29-40.

4
 Introduction

Case studies in this book

5
 1

The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil:

perspectives Concerning Amazonian Sheltered Petroglyphs

Marta Sara Cavallini, Raoni BM Valle, Filippo Stampanoni Bassi,

Claide de Paula Moraes, Márcio Amaral, Carlos Augusto Palheta
Barbosa, Marcos Eugênio Brito de Castro, Rogério Andrade,
Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos, Jaime Xamen Wai Wai, Levemilson
Mendonça “Lei’’ da Silva, Miguel Espino Villarreal †

Abstract Among the known petroglyph sites in the Brazilian Amazon, very few are located in
rock shelters, where the preservation of archaeological layers offers greater chances for rock
art contextualization and dating. Since 2008, one such case has been investigated, the Arara
Vermelha site, in the Roraima State. Though still in its incipient stage, our research has produced
radiocarbon dates for the human occupation of the shelter beginning from the Early Holocene.
This chapter focuses on these preliminary results and their implications for future investigations
regarding petroglyph dating and contextual understanding amidst Amazonian rock art.

Keywords Amazonian rock art – Sheltered petroglyphs – Archaeological context – Rock art
dating – Amazonian archaeology

1.1 Introduction the objective of reaching a contextual archaeological

comprehension. Indeed, most known Amazonian rock
A few decades ago, rock art was regarded as poorly art sites are in open-air and riverine locations, and, due
informative when brought into the perspective of the broader to pronounced seasonal flooding, they remain underwater
Amazonian archaeological record. Often overlooked, rock for most of the year. That circumstance has restricted the
art’s role in the understanding of regional dynamics of potential for indirect dating by stratigraphic association with
human occupation was minimal. This marginality was archaeological layers, while also preventing assessments of
inherent to the challenge of building a chronological the material contexts of rock art production. Additionally,
framework for this phenomenon. In most cases, rock art hydraulic erosion and heavy tropical weathering of rock
research was characterised by a non-systematic approach surfaces have challenged developing technological
in which data-gathering occurred predominantly without and taphonomic analyses of petroglyphs. Moreover, on
softer sedimentary rocks, these environmental conditions
tend to easily distort internal chronological sequences,
increasingly compromising the survival of the most
ancient rock art. Upland sheltered sites may provide more
secure layers of sediments containing a wealth of chrono-
stratigraphic archaeological data directly associated with
petroglyph production and use; however, they are among
the least investigated contexts in Amazonian archaeology.
Indeed, the minute fraction of studied sheltered petroglyph
sites is most certainly a result of sampling bias and
limited knowledge of the terrain. Even rarer are those
where archaeological surveying, mapping, and excavation
have taken place. Known sites include: Werehpai in
the Trio Indigenous Territory, Suriname (Stichting
Surinaams Museum and Conservation International 2007),
Tïhtakariwaïn in the Parque do Tumucumaque Indigenous
Land, in Amapá, Brazil (Frikel 1963; Calado 2014), Arara
Vermelha, in Southern Roraima, Brazil (Valle 2012,
2017); Miriãporã’wi, in the Middle Tiquié River, Upper
Rio Negro Indigenous Land, Amazonas, Brazil (Tenório
Tuyuka et al. 2022); and Abrigo do Sol, in Mato Grosso,
Brazil (Miller 1987).

7
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

The first four sites are at the same geological formation, in South America. Rock art, seen as an archaeological
igneous rocks from the Guyana Crystalline Shield, situated variable, was slowly organised into cultural units inside
in the north and northwest from the main Amazonian rivers. sequences of social transformations over time. The
They also have heavily weathered petroglyphs in sheltered perspective for a coherent integration, or correlation, of
contexts. The research team has been intermittently South American and Amazonian rock art into long-term
working in the Arara Vermelha (Red Macaw) rock shelter indigenous histories, was, thus, becoming a more feasible
in the Roraima State since 2008. Preliminary results possibility (Dubelaar 1986; Williams 1985).
indicate early and middle Holocene occupations in the
site’s deposits. Yet, it remains unclear how the radiocarbon However, Amazonian rock art studies in Brazil were not
dates from charcoal samples recovered from the layers B following the same pace. During the 70s, rock art data-
and C identified inside the shelter relate to the rock art gathering was still negligible in the Brazilian Amazon
panels just above them. (Simões 1983; Simões and Araújo-Costa 1978). As
such, rock art was not mentioned in the first regional
In this chapter, we firstly present a brief overview of reconstruction of the human occupation process. The
the archaeological background of the Amazonian rock following decade sees no significant improvement.
art research. We then report on the results of the first However, in the early 90s, stylistic differences and
excavation campaign in the Arara Vermelha site (2014). possible relationships with other Amazonian regions were
Finally, we make some preliminary considerations about proposed (Miller 1992a; 1992b; Miranda 1994; Miranda
the potential of this site specifically, and of that type and Souza, 1992; Ribeiro et al. 1986; 1987; 1989; 1996).
of context in general, for tackling the problems of the Those efforts gave room for, a few years later, the first
chronological framework and cultural contextualization of attempt to systematically organise Amazonian rock art
Amazonian rock art. into a more wide-ranging regional archaeological scale
(Pereira 1996; 2003). Over the 90s, increased attention to
1.2 Brief Archaeological Background meticulous documentation and stylistic analysis became
prominent in Amazonian rock art studies. Comparative
The beginning of the 20th century witnessed the first approaches through analogy with other aspects of the
dedicated rock art expeditions in the Amazon. By then, material culture and with ethnography also regained some
the first interpretations of its representational character interest. These approaches sought to explain possible
appeared (Coudreau 1901; Koch-Grünberg 1979 [1907]; socio-ritual functions of the different sites and their
Ramos 1930-39; Stradelli 1900; 1901; for a little earlier cultural contexts of use and reuse. The analogy with other
source see, e.g., Wallace 1979 [1853]). These analyses iconographic expressions, such as ceramic decoration,
often reflected hyper-diffusionist theories of racist allowed for inferring cultural relationships between rock
background, which was the intellectual fashion in Europe, art authors and ceramic horizons from dated periods. That
attributing a Euro-Asian origin to South American rock art resumption of a comparative and contextual approach,
(Brandão 1937; Ramos 1930-39; Thoron 1889). Although, articulating rock art and ceramics, aimed at clarifying
in many cases, information on rock art was sporadic broader relational perspective of Amazonian iconographies
(Albuquerque 1922, 52-71; Katzer 1933, 103-209; Oliveira with chronological implications (e.g., Pereira 2010). Rock
1928a; 1928b,14-30; Snethlage 1937, 90-95), eventually, art research in the Venezuelan Amazon pioneered an
few works came up with entirely dedicated attention to integrative approach. That implies the coalescence of rock
petroglyphs and pictographs (Borges 1933; Rauschert art analysis into a broader contextual interdisciplinary
1959; Vellard 1931). Exploratory journeys for geological, study. This approach articulates data from several sources:
zoological, and ethnological purposes added further archaeology, linguistic, ethnography, ethnohistory, and
information on Amazonian rock art (e.g., Ehrenreich 1948, paleoecology, seeking to understand rock art’s role in the
91; Frikel 1963; Nimuendajú 1950). cultural construction of space (Greer 1995; 2001; Rivas
1993; Tarble and Scaramelli 1999; 2010; Zucchi 2010). In
Over the second half of the 20th century, contextual and the last three decades, Amazonian rock art investigation has
interpretive approaches became more frequent. These improved rapidly as more researchers became involved.
tendencies can be exemplified by iconographic analogies However, the knowledge on its technical, thematic,
comparing Amazonian paintings and petroglyphs with and stylistic distribution and variability remains poorly
ceramic decoration (e.g., Brajnikov 1974) and by more understood, let alone framed in time (e.g., Cavallini 2014;
systematic interpretation of rock art through ethnographic Greer 1995; 2001; Pereira 1996; 2003; Riris 2017; Ruiz
analogies with Native Amazonian cosmological and Estrada 2008; 2010; Tarble and Scaramelli 2012; Ugalde
symbolic systems (e.g., Reichel-Dolmatoff 1967), a trend 2012; 2016; Urbina 1991; 2016; Valle 2010; 2012; 2015).
first envisioned by Stradelli’s pioneering work (Stradelli Among these recent investigations, two approaches stand
1900). From the 70s onward, especially in the Colombian out: 1) application of new methods for documentation
and Venezuelan Amazon and its vicinities, it was possible and analysis (e.g., Castaño-Uribe and Van der Hammen
to see methodological improvements in rock art survey, 2005; Kipnis et al. 2013; Pereira et al. 2009; Pereira et al.
documentation, and analysis (e.g., Dubelaar 1974; 2013; Riris and Oliver 2019); 2) efforts for archaeological
Volsky 1975). By the 1980s, systematic archaeological contextualization (e.g., Cavallini et al. 2015; Ruiz Estrada
approaches to rock art became more commonly applied 2010; Morcote-Ríos et al. 2020; Pereira 2010; Pereira

8
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

and Moraes 2019; Riris 2017; Roosevelt et al. 1996; Amazon, in the south-eastern sector of Roraima State, in
Scaramelli and Scaramelli 2017; Valle 2017). However, the São Luiz do Anauá municipality (00° 51’ 13.4” N, 60°
known contexts suitable for testing the association of 07’ 55.4 W) (Figure 1.1). The site lies almost on top of a
rock art production, using, and reusing against chrono- slight rocky elevation, within an island of upland dense
stratigraphic archaeological data is rare in the Amazon, forest that rises above recently deforested pastures (Figure
being restricted to scarce occasions. 1.2).

1.3 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter The rock shelter formation process began with the
tropical weathering exposing parts of the bedrock,
Arara Vermelha (also known and recorded as Pedra do forming outcrops. As erosion continues, outcrops partially
Sol) is a granitic rock shelter located on northern Brazilian disintegrate, forming boulders and smaller particles.

Figure 1.1: Localization map of Arara Vermelha site (author: Stampanoni F. B.)

9
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

Figure 1.2: Topographic map of Arara Vermelha site (author: Stampanoni F. B.) and aerial drone image (author: Cláudio
Caetano da Silva).

10
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

Boulders are less transportable, tending to remain closer to The identification of the archaeological deposit, indicated
the outcrop, sliding or falling over other rocks. Eventually, by small ceramic fragments, occurred at a depth of 15 cm.
they may rest at sheltered dispositions enabling sediment At the base of the first layer (A) (Figure 1.5a), between 15
accumulation. The dimly lit internal space of the shelter and 20 cm, charcoal samples were recovered in association
comprises 16 square metres, 4.5 metres long and 3.5 metres with other archaeological materials. One of these samples
wide. It is partially obstructed on its east/southeast end, was AMS radiocarbon dated from 1305 to 1190 years
and open on its northwest extremity (Figure 1.3). Its north/ BP (Beta 400858/RRPS-PN058 [see images table for
northeast wall contains a heavily weathered palimpsestic mentioned dates]). In the transition between layers A and
panel of mostly geometric petroglyphs (Figure 1.4). A B, next to the east-southeast petroglyph boulder, the top
boulder with smoothly weathered geometric petroglyphs of a stone structure became evident. During the removal
blocks the east/southeast side, while few other motifs of the topmost clasts, surrounded by layer B sediments,
occur throughout the shelter. That recent deforestation researchers found more charcoal trapped among the
allowed for archaeological surveys surrounding the site. cobbles. One of these samples yielded an AMS radiocarbon
During 2014 fieldwork focused on an area to the southeast dated interval from 4290 to 4090 years BP (Beta 400859/
of the shelter, resulting in the discovery of 37 rocks with RRPS-PN129).
petroglyphs. Later surveys increased those numbers,
reaching a total of 91 engraved rocks in an area of 31 The vertical positioning of some rock slabs inside the
hectares. Consequently, this isolated monument became structure, found repeatedly during its exposure, suggests
part of a larger rock art landscape. anthropic agency rearranging it (Figure 1.5b). In addition,
the structured igneous clasts, while not from an exogenous
Archaeologically known since 2005, research started with rock type, had different mineral structure, granulometry,
opportunistic recordings and preliminary rock art analysis. and cortex morphology from those of the shelter walls
Accordingly, the initial hypothesis assumed a long historical and internal boulders. Another evidence comes from the
sequence of petroglyph making, backed up by striking fine-grained sedimentation of the layers. It indicates a
internal variations on taphonomic, technological, and low-energy depositional environment without competence
morph-thematic parameters. Therefore, while comprising to transport cobble clasts. Together these observations
noticeable techno-stylistic change through time, this suggest external provenience and human transportation
palimpsestic deep history of superimposed and juxtaposed to the shelter interior. An exogenous silicate hammerstone
layers of thoughts and actions shows the persistence of with percussion stigmas found within layer C resting on
this small sheltered space for reiterated and different rock the structure`s top flat surface (see figure 1.5b and 1.5c)
art practices over millennia. Moreover, considering the completes the whole scenario. Furthermore, quartz chips,
shelter geomorphology, the hardness of the granite, and the possibly produced by direct percussion, were found
heavy weathering state observed in the main panel, a Late nearby. The ongoing analysis seeks a detailed examination
Pleistocene origin appears to be plausible (Santos Junior of the lithic tool and the debris to clarify their relation with
et al. 2018). The planning for more intensive research petroglyph production.
only became viable after the topographic mapping in
2008 (Valle 2012). Since then, two excavation-dedicated Dismantling the structure’s upper part revealed, in its lower
seasons have occurred, 2014 and 2019. The first season section (layer C), small sealed spaces among the stone
was part of a research project funded by the Brazilian fragments that were interposed by minute sedimentary
National Research Council (CNPQ) and coordinated by accumulations. Inside one of these lower sealed pockets
Prof. Raoni Valle from Federal University of Western Para a third charcoal concentration was collected and dated
(Valle 2017). The second season was coordinated by the by AMS radiocarbon from 9485 to 9410 years BP (Beta
first author of this chapter, as part of her Ph.D. project at 400861/RRPS-PN154). That sample consists of the oldest
the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of São Paulo combustion event-related data retrieved from the 2014
University (MAE-USP) and is currently under analysis. excavation, associated with the hypothetically anthropic
stone structure. While not constituting a formal in situ
The excavation of a stratigraphic section inside the hearth structure, the context suggests that anthropogenic
shelter (N 95 E101, figure 1.5) followed the sequence fire took place inside the shelter more than 9000 years ago.
of natural strata deposited up to the depth of 57 cm. The These results indicate that the Arara Vermelha rock shelter
three strata sequence thus identified was not the end of was possibly occupied since the Early Holocene, and
the archaeological deposit, just the furthest attained provide an account of 8000 years of Indigenous history.
during that fieldwork season. However, rigorous control
of archaeological remains, granulometry, colour, and Outside the shelter, a second test unit (N 100, 101 E 100,
compaction of sediments, provided secure interpretation figure 1.6), controlled by artificial levels, revealed an 80
and precise sampling. A stratigraphically consistent cm-depth deposit with two archaeological layers (A and
sequence of radiocarbon dates, spanning eight thousand B) without reaching the bedrock.
years, was thus obtained. Collectively, that evidence
enables the inference that slow-paced sedimentation took Two charcoal concentrations in the south-eastern sector of
place in the shelter, with strong indications that there were the external test pit were found, one between 50 and 80 cm
no long periods without human presence. and another between 60 and 80 cm of depth. These were

11
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

Figure 1.3: Arara Vermelha rock shelter site, plan and sections (authors: Castro M. B. and Stampanoni F. B.).

spatially associated with an accumulation of burnt granite 1180- and 730-years BP (Beta 400863/RRPS-PN1084;
laying on the foot of a boulder partially exposed near the Beta 400860/RRPS-PN1110).
shelter entrance. Here, the contextual signature for an in-
situ fireplace was less elusive and burnt sediments enclosed During the 2019 excavation season, both test pits were
by the cobbles seemingly conformed to a second lithic connected by a continuous trench (Figure 1.7). In the
arrangement that could be interpreted as a hearth. Four process, a fourth deeper and older archaeological layer was
charcoal samples were AMS radiocarbon dated between found. While its samples and materials have not yet been

12
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

Figure 1.4: Petroglyphs of the N-NE wall (author: Valle R. B. M.).

analysed, it is likely that this deposit is from a transitional petroglyphs were already in practice by the onset of the
period between the Pleistocene and Holocene. Holocene and may have an earlier origin.

The preliminary results of this research refer to an 1.4 Discussions

archaeological sequence spanning from 9000 to 1000
years BP, deposited in close spatial association with The earliest dates associated with rock art contexts
a long history of rock art making, using, and reusing. (mostly pictographs) so far studied in the Amazon and its
This scenario affords the hypothesis that Guyana Shield closest surroundings situates its production already in the

13
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

Figure 1.5: Unit N95 E101 stratigraphic section North (author: Stampanoni, F.B.) and (b) photo of the structure found in
2014 between layers B and C with silicate hammerstone with percussion stigmas found on the structure’s top flat surface
(author: Cavallini M. S.).

14
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

Table 1.1: AMS dates.

Reference Date Test Unit Layer Material

Beta 400861/RRPS-PN154 9485 to 9410 Cal years BP N95/El0l C Wood charcoal

Beta 400859/RRPS-PN129 4290 to 4090 Cal years BP N95/El0l B Wood charcoal

Beta 400858/RRPS-PN058 1305 to 1190 Cal years BP N95/El0l A Wood charcoal

Beta 400864/RRPS-PNl114 935 to 800 Cal years BP Nl00, Nl0l/El00 A Wood charcoal

Beta 400860/RRPS-PNl110 805 to 730 Cal years BP Nl00, Nl0l/El00 A Wood charcoal

Beta 400863/RRPS-PN1084 1180 to 1050 Cal years BP Nl00, Nl0l/El00 B Wood charcoal

Beta 400862/ RRPS-PNl118 1065 to 955 Cal years BP Nl00, Nl0l/El00 B Wood charcoal

Pleistocene-Holocene transition (Castaño-Uribe and Van Neves et al. 2012). In the Amazon, only two petroglyph
der Hammen 2005; Magalhães et al. 2019; Morcote-Ríos sites on sandstone were studied for chronometric and
et al. 2020; Pereira and Moraes 2019; Roosevelt et al. contextual purposes, Abrigo do Sol (Miller 1983; 1987)
1996; Shock and Moraes 2019). Collectively, they indicate and Caretas (Cavallini 2014).
three things: 1) the Amazonian biome was extensively
occupied by humans during the final Pleistocene; 2) a To enhance our understanding of the dating and
widespread practice of rock art among those populations; contextualization of ancient Amazonian rock art, we
3) Its early expressions in South America pre-date the focused on petroglyphs located at the Guyana Shield,
mentioned transition, and must be placed into the upper northern Amazonia. Geological factors such as sheltered
Pleistocene, as complexly developed and widely practised geomorphology and resistant igneous lithology guided
as they were around 12000 years ago (e. g., Bueno and that sampling. A severe weathering state added taphonomy
Dias 2015; Correal and Van der Hammen 2001; Dillehay to the sample choice. Indeed, applying taphonomic
et al. 2015; Guidon and Delibrias 1986; Neves et al. 2012; logic (Ifrao 2010: 16; Bednarik, 1994), upland sheltered
Parenti 2001; Prates et al. 2020; Vialou et al. 2017). petroglyphs on hard granite lithology, not affected by
seasonal flooding and fluvial hydraulic erosion, are perhaps
Painted shelters have already proven to be particularly one of the most durable archaeological variables available
suited to clarify aspects of rock art dating and in humid tropical environments, besides lithic tools. Such
archaeological context in the Amazon and elsewhere contexts may afford access to the most ancient periods
(Guidon and Delibrias 1986; Lage 1999; Morcote-Ríos et of human occupation in Amazonia. Sheltered igneous
al. 2020; Pereira and Moraes 2019; Roosevelt et al.1996). petroglyphs could have survived from the Late Pleistocene
Investigations at Pedra Pintada cave, on the lower to the present, roughly crossing the 12000 years boundary,
Amazon, have shed some light on these issues (Roosevelt much more if buried into sediments (e.g., Bednarik
et al. 1996; Pereira and Moraes 2019). More recently, 2001). Depending on the rock matrix and surrounding
compelling data also came from painted rock shelters on environment, petroglyphs are generally far more durable
the Serranía La Lindosa complex, Northern Colombian than paintings for mechano-mineralogical reasons. If one
Amazon (Morcote-Ríos et al. 2020). These cases have allows 12000 years for the survival of pictographs in the
provided evidence showing that pictogram production Amazon, one must also be prepared to assume much older
in the Amazon may well have a Late Pleistocene origin, petroglyphs. Therefore, sheltered igneous petroglyphs
continuing into the Holocene. should be hypothesised as recoverable indexes from the
first humans in Amazonia. We think that Arara Vermelha
Other sporadic evidence has led to Holocene rock art is a suitable candidate for the testing of that hypothesis.
contexts throughout the Amazon. As noticed, these are
most upland painted sites, executed on shelters, caves, Previous investigations occurred in two similar petroglyph
and outcrops. As in the case of the Pedra Pintada cave, sites: Tïhtakariwaïn (Frikel 1963) and Werehpai (Stichting
their indirect ages were obtained through the dating of Surinaams Museum 2007). Protasio Frikel’s pioneering
archaeological layers with the fortuitous presence of ochre research in the 1950s excavated the Wayana Indigenous
or pigment samples, pigment drops on lithic tools, paint people’s sacred place of Tïhtakariwaïn, bringing the
stains on clasts and boulders, and fallen fragments of the problem into perspective, however, without dates. More
shelter wall with rock art (Castaño-Uribe and Van der recently, in southern Suriname, a team from the Stichting
Hammen 2005; Correal et al. 1990; Ribeiro et al. 1989; Surinaams Museum researched a Trio Indigenous people’s
Scaramelli and Scaramelli 2017). sacred place called Werehpai, a complex of rock shelters. A
test pit at one of the shelters provided a sample of charcoal
Conversely, only a few petroglyphs rock shelters have radiocarbon dated in 5000 years BP.
been excavated in Brazil so far (Prous 1999; Pessis 2002;

15
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

Figure 1.6: Unit N100, 101 E100 stratigraphic sections West, North and East (author: Stampanoni, F.B.).

Protásio Frikel briefly reported his excavation of the Vermelha. However, Frikel’s account is poorly informed,
sheltered petroglyph site of Tïhtakariwaïn. He identified: not to mention that very likely, he ignored important
a profusion of petroglyphs, scarcity of formal artefacts, information available in that archaeological context, for
even fragments, and the occurrence of fireplaces at the example, the charcoal content of the hearth deposit. Frikel,
shelter`s entrance. His description seems to echo those of nonetheless, inspired our work in the Arara Vermelha rock
the Suriname team and, in some respects, ours at the Arara shelter, for he has foreseen the potential of these sites.

16
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

Figure 1.7: a) Unit N95 E101 b) Unit N100, 101 E100 during the campaign 2014 (author: Valle R. B. M.) and c) Trench N97,
98, 99 E100 during the campaign 2019 (author: Cavallini M. S.).

17
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

During the 2014 fieldwork (Valle 2017), two test pits A phenomenological perspective (Tilley 1994) would
provided seven calibrated AMS radiocarbon dates, likely consider how that landscape might have been experienced
related to the human occupation of the shelter. These dates by those who made and used the petroglyphs. In that sense,
were stratigraphically consistent and spanned from later rock art visibility may become particularly informative.
results around 1200 years BP to 800 years PB (Late Pre- It may also hold a key for paleoenvironmental insight
Colonial Period), followed by a Middle Holocene result with chronological implications. The visibility of the
(4200 years BP), with an older date of 9400 years BP external petroglyph rocks throughout the surrounding
(Early Holocene). Collectively, it suggests three peaks plains and drainages can only occur with open vegetation,
of human activity at the site during the Holocene, with like savannah grasslands or caatinga dry forests. During
an increase towards the later periods and a clue to the the first campaigns to the site, the whole access trail
antiquity of its occupation. None of the results, though, to the shelter cut through a forested route. When the
could be securely associated with the rock art inside the local community deforested the zone to open pastures,
shelter. Nonetheless, correlations between pronounced they became aware of the petroglyph boulders in the
differences in the weathering states of petroglyphs, landscape (Figure 1.8). Although knowing the shelter,
coupled with marked stylistic and technological diversity, the surrounding graphic landscape remained unnoticed,
are taken to indicate age differences likely connected with covered by thick vegetation. It follows that when the
the sequence of radiocarbon dates. Tentatively, and as a external petroglyphs were made and used by Indigenous
working hypothesis, those severely weathered geometric people, the environmental context might have been an
petroglyphs of the north-northeast wall seem to correlate open one, not a humid dense forest. Otherwise, their
with the Early Holocene fire activity prior to 9000 years visibility and usability would be impracticable.
BP. Those significantly less weathered petroglyphs of the
E-SE boulder are associated with the Mid-Holocene fire Back to the shelter, the overload of superimposing layers
activity around 4000 years BP. of severely weathered petroglyphs in the main panel
defies attempts to segregate the palimpsest of graphic
These earlier carbon samples, trapped as they were inside transformations, following a chrono-stylistic analysis
the sealed spaces among cobbles at different internal (e.g., Linke and Isnardis 2008). However, differences in
levels of the anthropogenic stone structure, suggest it weathering states, morphologies, and techniques coupled
was persistently associated through time with combustion with distinct spatialities inside the shelter allowed
activities in that same spot, between the E-SE boulder preliminary identification of at least two remarkably
and the N-NE wall and their diverse graphic inhabitants. different phases of petroglyph production.
The shelter sedimentation slowly covered that structure
encompassing two archaeological strata (B and C), But their analytical potential remains significantly under-
where fire activities and petroglyph making occurred explored. Much more needs to be done, beginning with
for millennia. The site and its N-NE panel are dimly lit serious conservation diagnosis and 3D laser scanning to
spots demanding artificial illumination to be adequately fully document the panels and the shelter itself to start
seen and used as a work surface. That is why information a thorough understanding of the rock art. Those poorly
concerning fire using inside the shelter importantly lit panels are likely to hold one of the most profound
connects with petroglyph production. historical sequences of rock art events of the entire
Indigenous Amazonia. The taphonomy of long-term
Considering taphonomic, technological and morpho- Indigenous history encrypted in the N-NE wall may yield
thematic similarities between the E-SE boulder sample a long transformation journey back through the Holocene
and many of the external petroglyph rocks in the shelter right into the Late Pleistocene. Excavating the site’s
surrounds, we are hypothetically extending a Mid- deeper deposits may hold the key to start unveiling such a
Holocene age to that rock art landscape. paramount complexity.

Paleoenvironmental fluctuations may also carry some 1.5 Concluding Remarks

burden of causality. That significant change in using the
site and effectively building a new cultural landscape may Research on sheltered Amazonian petroglyphs consists of
be connected with transformations in the environment. an embryonic exploration with little to no chronometric
During the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary and over the and contextual data concerning their production. To better
early Holocene, a dense humid forest likely predominated approach these issues some archaeologists working in the
around the site. In the Mid-Holocene, however, Brazilian Amazonia have been delving into petroglyph-
general climatic alterations towards increased dryness dedicated research. Part of this agenda consists of
south of the Rupununi savannahs (e.g., Behling and searching for sheltered petroglyph sites with archaeological
Hooghiemstra 2001) may have expanded savannah and deposits available for excavation. These deposits would
dry forest ecosystems up to the outskirts of the Arara plausibly contain related production debris, artefacts, or
Vermelha rock shelter. In turn, this may help understanding buried panel fragments, indexes that could provide access
how such a change in rock art behaviour, observed in to petroglyph contextual and chronometric data in the
the deep history of the site and its landscape, came into absence of direct dating alternatives (Santos Junior et al.
being. 2018).

18
 The Arara Vermelha Rock Shelter, Roraima, Brazil

Figure 1.8: Landscape view of the surroundings of the rock shelter (author: Ednelson Souza Pereira Macuxi), and a boulder
with petroglyphs (author: Cavallini M. S.).

As a partial, coarse, and hypothetical biography of the Likewise, geology, taphonomy, and archaeology converge
place, we suggest the following: In the final Pleistocene, in the Arara Vermelha to engender a perfect rock art storm.
Indigenous peoples occupying that area started making
petroglyphs inside the shelter. Seemingly only in there, Acknowledgements
secretively, in a secluded place. That way of conceiving
and living the site endured for millennia accumulating We would like to thank Dr. Paolo Medici for his kindness,
scars and experiences in the N-NE wall. The shelter patience and generosity in inviting us to publish this account
became inscribed in the deep myth-history of hundreds of our Amazonian rock art research in this important
of generations. However, in the manner of a Kanaimá volume. We are also grateful to the Conselho Nacional
place, that is, an avoided and secluded location used for de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ),
undisclosed ritual purposes of dark shamans (see Whitehead through the research grant process n. 485948/2013-3, and
[2002:17-23] on Kuyali ‘ yen cave), it remained apart in the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
that forested rocky hill. During the Middle Holocene, Superior (CAPES), through research grant process n.
though, things changed. Society, environment, and climate 01419.000026/2019-27 for allowing us the funds to grant
may have experienced transformations towards a dryer the excavation fieldworks at the site. We acknowledge
cosmos. Then, visitors to the site, inspired by different the Museu da Amazônia (MUSA), for the logistic and
motivations, started making rock art in the surrounding scientific support, the Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia da
public rocks, visible in the expanded savannahs. Then, Universidade de São Paulo (MAE/USP), the Universidade
the nature of their relationship with the place, with the Federal do Oeste do Pará (UFOPA) and the Instituto do
landscape, and with the cosmos may all have changed, Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN) for the
giving rise to ontological transformations on the rock art institutional endorsement. We also would like to thank to
itself (e.g., Troncoso 2019). indigenist Ednelson Souza Pereira Macuxi for help with
field prospecting and for key discussions, Raul Perigo and
Arara Vermelha rock shelter is one of the few petroglyph Ruan Perigo for excavation assistance and photos, Luiza
sites that bring together crucial factors to access Pleistocene Vieira for excavation assistance, Emilia Cavallini for
rock art in Amazonia. Meteorologists characterise a perfect additional translation support, and the Rocha Family, the
storm by the rare alignment of climatic and other factors local owners of the site’s rural property, for their constant
catalysing and releasing extreme amounts of energy. logistical support and friendly company. At last, but never

19
Marta Sara Cavallini, et al.

least, we owe gratitude to Dr. Edithe Pereira, from Goeldi Correal, G. U., Van der Hammen, T. and Piñeres, F.
Museum, for her constant support to our research over the “Guayabero I: un sitio precerámico de la localidad
years, and for lending us the power generator, the light Angosturas II, San Jose del Guaviare”. Caldasia 16
system, and the total station used in the 2014 excavation. (1990): 245–254.
Correal, G. U. and Van der Hammen, T. “Mastodontes en
In memoriam of Miguel Spino Villareal
un humedal pleistocénico en el valle del río Magdalena
(Colombia) con evidencias de la presencia del hombre
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 2

Phantoms on granite: evidence of Iron Age

engravings in Western Galicia (NW Iberia)

Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira,

Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

Abstract This chapter presents new protohistoric rock art data found out of hillfort sites in
Galicia, NW of the Iberian Peninsula. One of these cases is the engraved panel of A Xesteira
8, which shows a scene of a horse with rider. The composition of the scene was created by
overlapping figures. The Galician open-air rock art is mainly made on granite. The rough granite
surface shapes the visual appearance of the engraved panel and, consequently, their recording. We
perform a record of the rock art panel by employing digital photography and photogrammetry,
complemented with a geological survey of the stone. The geological analysis on granitic etched
surfaces allows us to cast new light on Galician rock art studies.

Keywords Rock Art – Geology – Digital recording – Iron Age – Horse

2.1 Introduction we used Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry.

This recording process is a non-intrusive system, using
This work approaches an anomalous type of Galician rock photography to capture the light and orientation of the
art which could be related to the Iron Age period. The pictures.
main objectives of this work are to make a geological,
photographic and photogrammetric recording of the Galicia is a region located in the northwest of the Iberian
engravings and describe the rock art panel of A Xesteira 8. Peninsula and neighbouring Portugal. This territory is
Starting from the rock surface visibility conditions and the known for its numerous sites of open-air engraved rock art
characteristics of the rock, an investigation of the engravings sites, currently estimated at around c. 3374 rock art panels,
was undertaken in three different ways: the rock art panel which date from Prehistory through to the mediaeval period
(geology), the morphology of the rock surface (3D), and the (Rodríguez et al. 2018, 111). The themes represented in
perception of the motif engraved (2D). the rocky outcrops include geometrical figures as circles,
lines and cup marks (Peña and Rey 2001, 33; Peña 2005,
The surface and grooves of the rock were analysed 18). Other figurations represent animals, humans, weapons
geologically to help understand the working surface state and other less numerous figures – such as ships, idols, or
and its characteristics. Considering the engravings made engraved mills - (Peña and Rey 2001, 41).
on granite rocks, the topic of overvaluing the weathering
effects on granite and then in engraved stones has frozen In neighbouring Portugal, in the Côa valley, several
the progress of rock art studies in Galicia (Vidal et al. examples of Iron Age rock art were documented inside and
2018). Another important aspect was to recover volume outside settlements (Abreu et al. 1999; Baptista and Reis
information of the stone and grooves, and for this proposal 2009; Neves and Figueiredo 2015; Figueiredo et al. 2016;
Luís and García 2008; Luís 2008, 2009, 2010, 2016; Alves
and Reis 2014; Reis 2011; Santos et al. 2012; Silva et al.
2016) (Figure 2.1).

In Galicia, we have two fortified Iron Age settlements with

protohistoric engravings discovered during excavation
campaigns, and chronology backed by the archaeological
context (Figure 2.1): Castro de Formigueiros (Samos,
Lugo) and Monte do Facho de Donón (Cangas do Morrazo,
Pontevedra)1.

1
In some Galician hillforts there are other samples of rock art that
could be related to the Iron Age with engraved figures of snakes. Those
examples are inside hillforts in the province of Pontevedra and represent
snake figures: Castro de Penalba (Campo Lameiro), Castro de Troña
(Ponteareas) and Castro dos Remedios (Moaña) (García and Peña 1980).

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Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

Figure 2.1: Rock art sites with engravings related to iron age in Northwest Iberia: 1.Val do Côa (Guarda, Portugal); 2. Castro
de Formigueiros and 3. Monte do Facho de Donón (Galicia). On square, survey area and location of A Xesteira 8 rock art site.
Below: Some engravings found in hillforts of Formigueiros –A, fish and B, horse- (Meijide et al.2009) and Monte do Facho
–C, engraved cylinder and D snake shape over a granite slab-.

26
 Phantoms on granite

The hillfort of Formigueiros, located in inner Galicia, has 8, the design of the horse uses two lines to create the body
different representations; these cases are incised on slate plus two more for the legs (Figure 2.2). The upper traces
slabs located between dwellings of the settlement (Meijide form the neck, the back and the hindquarters. The bottom
et al. 2009). These engravings exhibit horses, fishes, line also forms the neck, a marked chest, the belly and the
triangles and circular and labyrinthine designs (Figure other hind leg. The front legs are added to the body by
2.1). In Monte do Facho de Donón, two other examples of adding two more lines from the chest below (Figure 2.2).
engraved art on granite were discovered, spatially related
to a circular building and related to the use of this space in The figure of the horse is defined by grooves with an
Proto-history (Suárez 2008, 300-303). The first example irregular width that varies between 5 mm and 19 mm, and
is a worked stone cylinder of granite located in front of a depth that varies between 3 mm and 8 mm. In some areas
possible entrance and inside the vestibule of the structure. the grooves present ripped and fragmented edges, which
It has grooves on its surface, two eyes and other parallel refer us to the tools employed on the execution of the
lines on the upper section. The other example is a small figure. Another animal figure appears to be attached to the
slab of granite that is part of a platform structure located neck and belly of the horse (Figure 2.2 right). The body of
inside. The slab has an engraved snake created with a zig this figure is made up of the belly contour of the horse and
zag line (Figure 2.1). another shallow line below. Different traces in this shape
are superimposed on the horse´s grooves.
2.2 The engravings of A Xesteira 8
The problem with these shallow grooves is the tendency
Our area of survey is located on the southern side of O to be over lighted. Thus, a complete vision of the figures
Morrazo, in western Galicia, province of Pontevedra. O is difficult from only one point of view or using a single
Morrazo is a peninsula 10 km wide and 40 km long with a lighting position.
NE-SW orientation, that is characterised by an orography
surrounded by the Ria of Vigo and Ria of Pontevedra. O The group of thin and intermittent lines over the horse’s
Morrazo is an arm of land articulated by a central ridge that back schematized a rider. The legs are engraved in two
divides the southern and northern slopes; subdivided by opposite arcs over the horse´s engraved layer. The upper
different mountain ranges that create regions and valleys. body of the rider figure is blurred by the addition of a
circular shape with superimposed lines on his torso that
A Xesteira is an open-air rock art site with eight engraved resembles a shield (Figure 2.4, low image).
panels of cup marks, a circle with cup-marks inside,
concentric circles, strokes, lines and two animal shapes. On the rest of the panel of A Xesteira 8 we can distinguish
One of the figures, a horse, is located on the panel named fragments of other motifs, such as circles or groove
A Xesteira 8 (Meira, Moaña), which measures 95 cm on sections. Furthermore, we can see traces of work in the
the N-S axis and 160 cm on the E-W axis (Figure 2.2). The modification of the initial volume of the stone outcrop.
most discernible engraving is placed on the middle of the The granite panel is modified to what appears to be
panel. This sample includes an equine figure. The horse shaping a horse, by lowering specific areas of its surface.
shape is constituted by abnormal morphology compared This bas-relief work is prior to the layer of the horse and
to other representations of horses in Galician prehistoric the rider engravings (Figure 2.2 and figure 2.4). This work
petroglyphs (Peña 2005, 26). They are usually formed by of removing stone material is most apparent in the right
one or two continuous lines. When the silhouette of the of the upper quarter of the panel. The neck and head of
animal uses two lines, each of the lines constitutes the the horse relief is created by removing a triangular area
upper and lower part of the horse. In the case of A Xesteira contiguous to the geologic fracture in this part of the panel.

Figure 2.2: Right: A Xesteira 8 panel with oblique lighting. At centre of panel, horse and rider figure. Left: Animal figure
attached below line of horse’s body. See the texture of surface due to the height of the quartz/feldspar grains.

27
Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

Considering the technical aspects of the execution, the tool feldspar grains and the geomorphic approach can be useful
marks left by a quartz pick and recovered in experimental to the photographic analysis of the engraved panel. Thus,
archaeology (González 2020, Otero 2020) are different to the surface of the engraved panel is reviewed for diagnosis
marks left in this rock art panel. As such, the engraving and here geology becomes essential to comprehend
of horse A Xesteira 8 was probably made with a metal characteristics and micro topography in the context of
instrument by the short width of grooves – more difficult Galician open air rock art of the studied area.
to reach with quartz picks – and the presence of loose
and deep pits in stone surface. Those pits have a low 2.3 Geological analysis of the surface
diameter and are deeper in comparison with another
made with quartz picks. Quartz picks and chisels have In northwest Iberia, the most remarkable geological
some limitations due to the mineral structure and impact formation is the Iberian Massif. This massif represents one
resistance. Due to this, it is believed that direct percussion of the largest size outcrops of Variscan Mountain Range2.
over the surface was used in Galician prehistoric rock art The survey area matches with Galicia-Tras-Os-Montes
(PAAR 2011). Indirect percussion is possible but increases geological zone inside the Iberian Massif3. Galicia-Tras-
the risk of chisel breakage because quartz has cleavage Os-Montes is a geological territory with tectonic, structural
lines that are activated by bipolar percussion. and metamorphic features which are different to the Centre
Iberian Zone. It is also characterised by rocks of oceanic
In reference to the perceptive aspect several problems nature and metamorphic events developed under high
arise when analysing the engravings, as many of them pressure, related to subduction processes. Focusing on our
are eroded or camouflaged. Likewise, being able to studied area, the Variscan Orogenic episode comprised the
discern a figure could be related to factors such as visual intrusion of different kinds of granitic rocks4 that include
interference, lighting, micro-shadows, superposition of granite and biotite granodiorite, granodiorite with feldspar
lines and, to a great extent, the texture of the rock, its relief mega-crystals and alkaline feldspar granite. This intrusion
and micro topography or heterogeneity of the grooves of igneous rocks caused the transformation of previous
used to compose the engraving. sediments and rocks into metamorphic materials (schist
and gneiss) as a result of the Hercynian cycle.
Regarding the visibility of the engraved motifs, the
referents in this area are prehistoric or historical examples 2.3.1 The granite studied in Xesteira 8 panel
which show grooves made of deep lines with a clear
shadow. In addition, the geological characteristics of Structure
the granite outcrop configure a favourable scenario for
camouflaging, because of the background heterogeneity The engraved panel of Xesteira 8 is composed of alkaline
due to the variety of colours from different mineral grains. feldspar granite (Figure 2.3). Despite the presence of
lichens, which attenuate the colour effects on the most part
The visual interference is another factor that hinders the of the rock surface, its vermilion colour is dominant. The
panel’s perception. In a groove, the lights and shadows are rock art panel has a mineralogical composition similar to
essential for its comprehensibility, but in our example, light granodiorite, but excluding the presence of plagioclase,
points and sharp shadows (micro-shadows and illuminated more content in potassic feldspar (K-feldspar) and less
points) make it even more difficult to analyse the figures. quantity of biotite. The size of the grain is medium in
This is mainly because of the confusion between the general, while the grain tends to be equi-granular on
characteristics and weathering of the support (texture), the
engraved areas (types of grooves), and in some cases the
overlapping traces and shapes.
2
It was formed due to the collision of Gondwana and Laurasia continents
300 million years ago (Rubio 1997, 3).
3
The geological zone Galicia-Trás-Os-Montes was defined recently, it
Finally, the volumes and the micro-topography of the was not until the end of the 1980s that it was individualised. Previously
surface make it difficult for the artificial lighting techniques it was part of the Central Iberian Zone (Julivert et al., 1972), but Farias
et al. (1987), and Arenas et al. (1988), proposed the existence of a new
to illuminate the whole panel in a homogeneous way. This zone, the contact between both areas is a great ride that superimposes the
impedes a clear visibility and the accurate reading of the Galicia-Trás-Os-Montes area to the Central Iberian one. The authors cited
figures engraved on stones. above also proposed a subdivision of the new area into two structurally
overlapping domains: Domain of Galicia-Trás-Os-Montes in the lower
part and Domain of the Allochthonous Complexes in the upper part
If we look at the surface of an engraved panel from a (Vidal and Grandal 2016, 8). The Xistoso domain is currently an integral
geomorphic point of view, we can see a micro-landscape part of the distant margin of Gondwana transported tectonically to inside
areas of the continent (Arenas et al. 1986; Farias et al. 1987; Martínez et
generated by differential erosion. The original surface of al. 1999). In lithological terms, it is mainly made up of metasedimentary
the rock was cut by the grooves as if they were valleys and and metavolcanic rocks of a felsic nature.
canyons. The addition of more lines in different directions
4
According to a recent scenario about the origin of Variscan granites,
Pastor et al. (2013) develop the idea of terrestrial super volcanoes whose
cuts the surface on different pieces of the original magmatic substances arose because of subduction of Gondwana under
outcrop. The resulting surface, due to its composition and Laurasia. That process happened in Variscan orogenic episodes, from
evolution during the time, has resulted in a volumetric late Devonic to final stages of Carboniferous. Granites of today would
be in fact the roots of proposed super volcanoes consolidated at 20 km
loss. Furthermore, due to the high resistance of the grains of depth. By the genesis of Galician granites, we had explained, they are
of quartz and feldspar the reliefs endure. These quartz/ classified as class “S ‘’ granites according to Chappell and White (1974).

28
 Phantoms on granite

Figure 2.3: Geological survey areas perceived on potassic granite surface of A Xesteira 8 panel.

contact areas. Finally, we have the biotite aligning phase, pattern. This net of fractures represents several weakened
which corresponds to an episode of thermal deformation areas of rock structure and likewise it could be the
during an orogenic mechanism, presumably by intrusion origin for new weathering processes. These processes
of a medium-grain granitic rock. could substantially change the physical and chemical
morphology of the rock.
Regarding the stone colour, the panel presents, as one of
its main features, a central area with red colour (Figure In the case of A Xesteira 8 the examined and surveyed
2.3 second area). The red hue varies from 5R 5/4 to 8/8 in stone does not present any apparent fracking nets, but is
the Munsell colour chart (Munsell Colour Co. 2010). This a fragment of a bigger intrusive mass which had to be
red hue informs us that there is a potassium abundance dismantled a long time ago. The granite presents a lightly
(K2O) with a volume close to 30%. Thus, with a high altered surface resulting from its natural exposure to
probability, the granite mass had been secondarily altered climate conditions during millions of years.
by hydrothermal fluid one time cooled. That process could
explain quartz dilution and potassium increase on this The Xesteira 8 rock art panel is a flagstone with polygonal
granite. shape, and the stone rests on a lower outcrop (Figure 2.3).
A shearing plane is visible on the lower part of the stone
On the right side, the boulder presents the surface altered where no evidence of stone cutting marks was found.
(Figure 2.3 third area). The interpretation to this could be
the physical weathering caused by haloclasty, which could The stone of Xesteira 8 shows a high level of structural
be explained by the nearness of the archaeological site to resistance to deformation. The engraved panel has neither
the sea. In medium grain granite the sea salt enters the rock faults nor notable oxidation areas on the surface. On closer
through pores. The salt precipitates there, and increases examination, the rock shows a partial oxidation of its
its volume causing press pore breaking stone material on minerals, especially biotite, with a localised distribution
a millimetre scale. As a result of that process, we see a that does not affect the general structure of the stone.
surface roughness and a prominence of the most resistant
mineral grains as in the case of quartz. This mineral has As previously mentioned, the stone does not show any
enduring quality, resistance and therefore indicates the fractures of the net, neither orthogonal, polygonal nor
maximum preserved heights of the original surface. horizontal. Also, we do not account for other samples of
weathering effects that are typical on granitic landscapes,
Surface and structure alteration such as gnammas or gutters (Vidal 1989, 101). The visible
surfaces of the panel look worn, which indicates that the
The granite rock usually alters due to the existence of local rainfall is to some extent also important, and has
discontinuities, either isolated or following a regular affected the chemical weathering of the surface.

29
Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

At the level of structural alteration, the most striking Natural light recording
feature is the contact limit zones but these do not represent
a marked effect on the structure of stone, being the usual A photographic survey was taken with natural light and
evolution of natural agents on the rock. different humidity degrees in 2017 and 2018. The most
balanced results were obtained on wet and cloudy days
Apart from the surface roughness area mentioned above, but also when the light is softer and more diffused. This
we also see that there is a fracture line between the third helped to homogenise the lighting on the rock surface and
and fourth area (Figure 2.3), which was a fragility rupture. catch general views without interference of the shadows of
In addition, there is a sequence of subverted channels in the surrounding vegetation.
the second area (Figure 2.3). This might not be caused by
differential erosion, as there are no relevant differences Artificial light recording
in the mineral hardness of this alkaline granite. In such
a limited area of alteration, the idea of weathering due Artificial lighting was specifically used to focus on the
to rainwater is also inconsistent, as the channels are in a engraved motifs. For this task, portable spotlights and
very specific zone and have no continuity in the rest of LED bars were used. We used 60-Watt white light LED
the support. The loss of volume in the right upper quarter lamps at 170 lumens. The results improved the distribution
could be derived by weathering process or anthropic of the light by making it more homogeneous. In the case
activity. It is however difficult to specify what factor was of the 10-Watt and 20-Watt portable spotlights, they emit
the most determinant one, as the information recovered more intensity of light but are more concentrated. While
in the field might point out a combined action of several this caused parts of the stone surface to be overexposed it
kinds of alteration. However, we believe it is more likely was possible to obtain information about the relief of the
to have been an anthropogenic alteration of the rock. support (Figure 2.4).

2.4 The Digital Recording of Engravings in A Xesteira 8 The points and angles of light incidence play a fundamental
role in the system of documentation as the grooves differ
Currently studies of engraved rock art rely on lighting, the in width, depth and orientation. Hence, we implemented
morphology of the stone or the biotic colonisation of the the use of colour gels in lamps of lighting and flash. Gels
surface by lichens. Since the 19th century, many different have primary colours5 in order to discern orientation areas
systems of tracing have been tested to study engraved from the surface. That is a similar approach to the relief
panels, such as manual drawings, raking light, photographs, orientation charts in cartography. The combined use of two
frottage, etc. (Domingo et al. 2013, 79). At the end of opposite spotlights with coloured gels allowed us to recover
the 20th century, the introduction of digital technologies more information about the surface in one camera shot
radically changed the recording methods, providing a (Figure 2.4), differentiating between the coloured walls of
wide range of resources and tools for the archaeologists the furrow and the deep´s furrows shaded. The results of
and facilitating non-invasive documentation techniques this method provide valuable information for the analysis
(Domingo et al. 2013, 21). Within our work we combine of stone surfaces. Also, the captures with coloured lighting
photography with SfM photogrammetry, as a system for allows for the possibility of finding other markings.
2D and 3D recording and analysis of the engraved panel.
Digital analysis
2.4.1 The photographic recording
Digital images not only collect quantitative data – e.g.,
Digital photography was used for two-dimensional rock art the percentage of light or reflectivity – but also other
recording as it was easy to transport and is non-invasive. information of the photographed space. The capture of
spatial data allows to study the rock art by using image
The photographs were taken with a digital SLR camera processing analysis over the photographs. In the case of
(24.2-megapixel resolution) and two photographic lenses painted rock art, the usefulness of colour decorrelation
(AF-S 18-55 mm and 50 mm). Flash and lights with colour treatments and false colour images (Pereira 2012) as
gels were also incorporated for nocturnal recording. well as the analysis of the main components of image is
recognized (Rogerio 2013, 55-57).
The photographs were taken in JPEG and RAW output
formats. The JPEG format was chosen for its reduced The introduction of digital technologies at the end of
digital weight and RAW for several experimental shots the 20th century brought a wide range of software and
seeking greater details. The camera was located in a technologies to capture, retouch and digital treat of images.
zenithal position and on an orthogonal view to the rock Digital tools have been employed to record painted and
surface.
5
Blue, magenta and yellow were the most used colour gels. In areas with
The recording of the carved panel was performed on a two coloured lighting beams this method has as result the differentiation
multi-method scale, experimenting with natural light of these areas by mixing of light colour. In this approach we have used
a polycarbonate-coloured filter for a zenithal flash, too. Combined use
exposure (direct sunlight, diffuse light or wet rock), and of opposite-coloured spotlights in addition to coloured flash light allows
artificial raking lights at night. recovering relief orientation data from the surface.

30
 Phantoms on granite

Figure 2.4: A. Left: Photogrammetric model with Lambertian shading (up) and areas of modified volume of stone surface to
create a horse shaped support (below). Right: Views of the panel with oblique lighting from east/west side shading areas of
modified volume of the surface. B. Detail of engraved surface with two opposite lighting axis and gel filters. C. Drawing of the
shapes identified on central engraved area of panel.

engraved rock art in the Iberian Peninsula (Domingo et survey digital images looking for specific colour tones
al. 2013) and painted rock art at the last decade in Galicia with the help of image editors and apply spatial analysis to
for decorrelation (Alves et al. 2017, fig.13; Comendador understand the distribution of light and colour hues.
2020a, 2020b; Lombera and Fábregas 2013; Rodríguez et
al. 2019, fig.7 and 8; Tejerizo et al. 2020; UVigo 2019) and 2.4.2 The photogrammetric recording
for digital tracing (Rodríguez et al. 2018, fig.6). Digital
image processing and enhancement of engravings was Using a three-dimensional record method is one of the
also used in the treatment of scanned frottage (Fábregas most accessible options for investigating the rock art
and Rodríguez 2012, fig.11). panels.

In the case of the engraved granite panels, the colour of SfM photogrammetry allows the production of 3D models
the rock has little difference in appearance between the from photographs taken with an ordinary camera which
background and the grooves. In addition to this is the is especially beneficial if we take into account that the
camouflaging effect of the smaller alignments caused by great majority of Galician rock art is found in areas with
the mineralogy of the rock. The reason for this is that an difficult access. These factors would complicate the data
image over a monochrome background allows a better gathering using other more expensive and less portable
appreciation of the shapes rather than on a polychrome methods, such as laser scanners.
and asymmetrical (in colour) background. Despite this,
it is possible to partially enhance the engraved areas. We Furthermore, the progress made in computer graphics in
have used image editing software for this purpose. The virtual representation of etched surfaces has opened new
images could be equated to cartographic documents where pathways to improve the recording of petroglyphs that had
spatial and topographical information are represented previously been undertaken using other techniques such as
by coordinates and thus, they could be treated with GIS recording by contact, like frottage or tracing with plastic
tools or 3D analysis of micro topography (Jalandoni and (Seoane 2009).
Kottermair 2018; Melard 2010). The digital image is also
a pixel matrix with different numeric values corresponding The 3D models of the engravings were created with Agisoft
to the surface´s reflectivity and different wavelengths Photoscan 1.3. This software allows the generation of a
(Rogerio 2013, 55; Sabins 1987). 3D point cloud from the photographs, creating a mesh
with geometry that is later given a photorealistic texture
On granite engraved surfaces, the colour of stone grains (Figure 2.5). Two other types of software were used for
will combine with received light. Due to this, we can the rendering and post-processing of three-dimensional

31
Alexandre Paz-Camaño, Xavier Barros Pereira, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Eloy Martínez Soto

Figure 2.5: A. Camera positions from the photogrammetric surveying in A Xesteira 8. B. Digital elevation models (DEM) with
level curves. C. 3D model sections of panel:  zenith view with section line; below, profile of the section of the rock. D. Post-
processed photogrammetric model using RadianceScalling & LitSphere. Detail of horse figure.

models: MeshLab and Blender 2.7. Both of which allow (Figure 2.5). The 3D model was later analysed in Meshlab
the user to create renderings of the 3D models with and Blender in order to produce renderings of the three-
photorealistic texture and better define the engraved dimensional mesh with virtual illuminations of the
surface of the rock panel. enhanced motifs allowing for better images of the motifs.
This virtual illumination allowed us to simulate the process
Regarding the different photogrammetric techniques, we of nocturnal illumination of the panels and establish an
used SfM photogrammetry for documenting the engravings infinite series of illumination points simultaneously
rather than others such as Reflectance Transformation (something which is very complicated to replicate in a
Image (RTI)6. For the latter the camera must be static in field work campaign). This virtual illumination greatly
the capturing process, therefore this limits the variety of improved the multiplicity of interpretations in the process
perspectives necessary to document the etchings found in of decoding the iconography.
this investigation with the utmost precision.
The post-processing analyses applied over the 3D mesh
The panel at A Xesteira 8 had been previously documented provided very interesting results regarding the etchings
in detail, by means of daily and nightly observation and visible in the panel. In order to highlight the grooves, we
photography. In this research we decided to work less applied two post-processing filters in MeshLab, such as
with photorealistic 3D models as the former are difficult Radiance Scaling and Lit Sphere RS (Figure 2.5). These
to handle on conventional computers when compared to techniques have been widely applied in Galicia over other
three-dimensional meshes. Afterwards, the models were rock art case studies (e.g., Vilas et al. 2015).
digitally scaled for the creation of the digital models
The application of these filters allowed us to highlight the
existing grooves on the rock by applying two spheres on
6
This technique consists on capturing a sequence of images -always the 3D model that codify the light, thus, highlighting the
from the same position without varying the angle-, with the corresponding differences between its cavities. The main virtue of this
changes in the position of the light source from some spheres that have
to be included in the scene, as a point from which the light source starts kind of highlighting is the simplification of the etchings in
through its reflection (Carrero et al. 2015) the rock, allowing a simple viewing and a clear distinction

32
 Phantoms on granite

of these motifs. However, this also points out an important with respect to the elevated surface illuminated by the
problem, such as the loss of definition when the 3D model opposing spotlights.
was created. This problem aside, the technique allowed
us to obtain preliminary results almost instantly, which The photographic recording also allowed us to get very
greatly reduces the time needed to define the etchings accurate 3D models, which provides information about the
using other techniques, such as frottage. topo­graphy of the stone of A Xesteira 8 and the volumes of
bas-relief horse. The photogrammetric processing allows
Some of the rock engravings, however, happened to be seeing the difficulty of carrying out lighting surveys on
more difficult to read. For these in particular we used other the field.
types of post-processing filters, such as Minnaert (similar
to V-RTI) (Elorza et al. 2014). This technique allows the Concerning the engraving technique, the tool marks
visualisation of the etchings with uniform shading, in detected in A Xesteira allow us to conclude that the horse
such a way that the renderings are not “contaminated” and rider motif could be ascribed to the Iron Age period,
like with other types of post- processing filters, which this being based on the morphology, iconography and
try to simplify the iconographic data. In this way, the tri- execution of horse figure and rider. The marked chest and
dimensional mesh seems to have a metallic appearance curved neck of the horse and head position reinforce the
(Figure 2.5), while it clearly maintains the imperfections differences with other representations of this animal in
of the rock, with the possibility of incorporating lighting Galician rock art. The rider presents a contour made with
points to illuminate the 3D model. This technique is very double line and not by etching a groove as other examples.
useful to verify the existence of less accentuated grooves In addition, the shield is circular and this typology had
in the rock, which are barely noticeable to the human eye, presence on northwest Iberia from Bronze Age (shield
something that can be approachable by other methods, with V-shaped recess) to Iron Age (caetra). These
such as Radiance Scaling or AsTrend (Carrero et al. 2016). characteristics are those that point us to the relationship
with the Iron Age. The relief under the engraved layer
Both models present high-quality metrics, with more than could be speaking of re-utilisations of nearby periods.
3 million points. This way, the existing measurements can
be obtained with utmost precision. The degree of definition Finally, as exemplified from this work, we think that a
of the geometry of the 3D models is of great quality. This detailed review of the Galician granitic outcrops would
is how we are able to observe every grain of quartz on the increase the current open air rock art inventory. Indeed,
surface. other doors could be opened for the Galician open air
rock art, joining efforts between geology and archaeology,
2.5 Conclusion by removing misconceptions based on comparison
with sculpture from the Middle Ages and the effects of
After examining the structural, morphogenetic and weathering in those carved stones.
geochemical characteristics of the granite panel in
detail we can conclude that the carvings of A Xesteira Bibliography
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Portugal) e a súa longa diacronía desde a Idade do Ferro
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castrexa”. Portvgalia 36 (2008): 295-312

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 3

The prehistoric open-air sanctuary of Penedo

do Ferro (Monforte, Portugal)

Leonor Rocha, Paula Morgado

Abstract During the present research project, in the area of Monforte (Portugal), from the
responsibility of the signatories, we identified an open-air sanctuary with rock art. Here we
present the Penedo do Ferro´s settlement, where a significant set of rock art was identified in
small shelters and isolated rocks, around the settlement which corresponds to a large prehistoric
open-air sanctuary. Therefore, the aim of the work will be to show how the use of photogrammetry
techniques might help to provide better documentation in rock art studies.

Keywords Rock art – Photogrammetry – Penedo do Ferro – Monforte – Portugal

3.1 The Study of Rock Art in Southern Portugal It seems this subject was rapidly forgotten in Portuguese
research until the late 20th century when, on the upper
Rock art can be found throughout Portugal, with some (exterior) part of the only cave in Portugal identified as
regional differences in terms of media, themes and having cave paintings, Escoural Cave (Montemor-o-
representativeness. The oldest known mention of a rock art Novo), where there was also a chalcolithic settlement, a
site dates to the 18th century and concerns an engraving on “sanctuary” with horizontal engraved panels was identified
a cliff known as “As Letras” (“The Letters”) at Cachão da (Gomes et al. 1993). It was also at this time that more
Valeira, by the River Douro. It was destroyed in the 19th systematic identification studies began, along with the
century, when the Douro railway line was built (Contador study of other types of rock art, namely the open-air type
de Argote et al. 1734; Correia 1916a, b) associated with major rivers (the Tagus and Guadiana),
megalithic monuments, or on isolated rocks dispersed in
In the Alentejo region, the first studies and records the landscape (Baptista and Martins 1979; Gomes 1989;
of rock art appear in the early 20th century, with the Calado 1997; Calado and Bairinhas 1994).
identification of painted art at Esperança (Arronches) and
open-air engraved art at Mora and Arraiolos (Breuil 1917; In the early 21st century, the Guadiana group of rock art
Correia 1916b, 1921). Vergílio Correia wrote in 1916 of was identified, in the region around the Alqueva Dam,
these extraordinary new findings, saying that a new field along with other groups of engraved rocks, like Penedo
of study was emerging for researchers of prehistory in do Ferro. They appear to constitute natural open-air
Portugal (Correia 1916b, 158). It was at this time that sanctuaries, some associated with settlements, others
several studies aimed at identifying rock art (painted or in landscapes with a high symbolic value, such as river
engraved) in this region began, although not on the scale valleys and monumental outcrops.
Vergílio Correia envisaged (Correia 1921).
The study and assessment (or reassessment) of this group
of rock art in the Alentejo has been the subject of specific
research projects, which have resulted in the publication
of numerous articles and theses (master’s and doctoral)
(Alvim 2009; Alves 2003; Baptista 2009; Baptista and
Santos 2013; Bueno-Ramírez et al. 2015; Calado 2004;
Calado and Rocha 2010; Cerrillo Cuenca et al. 2019;
Ferraz 2016; Martins 2014; Rocha 2004, 2010, 2013,
2016). However, most of these sites have had studies with
traditional methodologies (Gomes et al. 1993; Calado
2004; Calado and Bairinhas 1994; Oliveira and Oliveira
2012) and only in the last decade did photogrammetry and
3D survey work begin in the south of Portugal. The use
of these photographic techniques represented an important
advance in the interpretation of some of the most important
prehistoric sites in this region, especially of megalithic art
(Bueno-Ramírez et al. 2015; Cerrillo Cuenca et al. 2019;
Ferraz 2016)

37
Leonor Rocha, Paula Morgado

3.2 Geographic and Archaeological Setting located to the east, south and west of Penedo do Ferro
(Figure 3.2) (Rocha and Morgado 2018). Approximately
The Penedo do Ferro settlement is located on an elongated 350m to the east, another shelter and an isolated granite
knoll that lies in an east west direction at an altitude of monolith with rock art (small cup-marks), evidence of a
350 m. It is surrounded by granite outcrops and has good Neolithic settlement, and vestiges of more recent periods,
visibility over the surrounding area. The area stands out namely Roman, have been identified.
in the landscape not because of its high elevation, but
because it is located in a very flat area and because of the 3.3 Field and Laboratory Work: Methods
granite outcrops, which command attention even today
(Figure 3.1). Our study focuses on a group of seven panels of rock art
engraved on granite outcrops, located around the Penedo
The protohistoric settlement was established on the do Ferro settlement. These engravings, consisting of
upper part of the knoll and in some places the remains small cup-marks (of different dimensions and depths) and
of structures can still be seen. Furthermore, in some grooves, are located on isolated boulders or at the base of
locations the outcrops were used as walls, which may have small shelters.
contributed to some rock art being concealed (Gomes et
al. 1993). The studies we intended to carry out on this group included
different tasks, aimed at a comprehensive characterization
At its base, some probable Neolithic sites have also been of this sanctuary. Unfortunately, during the course of
registered. Their relationship with the sanctuary is almost our research, the owner cancelled access to the site, and
certain, considering not only the chronologies put forward in accordance with Portuguese law, we cannot carry out
for this type of rock art but also the relationships between research work without the required permit.
these and two types of vestiges in other areas (Rocha 2004,
2010). The fieldwork completed to date thus consists of:

The prehistoric sanctuary consists of a group of seven 1. Identification of the rocks with engravings (Figure
small nuclei installed in shelters or on granite boulders, 3.3). Note that to this end, it was necessary, in some

Figure 3.1: General view of Penedo do Ferro protohistoric

38
 The prehistoric open-air sanctuary of Penedo do Ferro

places, to clean the surface of the rock because the

presence of moss or lichens compromised the correct
visualisation of all the engravings and the quality of
the visual records we intended to make. As it was not
possible to carry out another round of fieldwork, there
may still be some engraved boulders not identified by
the team during the first phase.
2. Georeferencing (GPS) and brief description of all the
panels.
3. Daylight photographic survey of each panel for
the purpose of photogrammetry. There were also
some problems with this phase, which were only
identified when the pictures were being processed in
the laboratory (the angles of some parts of the panels
weren’t clearly characterised and required further
photographs). In terms of methodology, we tried to
follow the basic procedures for data collection, such
as maintaining the distance between the photographic
equipment and the rock surfaces to avoid distortion of
the perspectives or the motifs.

The photographs were processed using Adobe Photoshop

and Adobe Illustrator in the initial visualisation and
verification of all the photographs taken so as to eliminate
any that were out of focus and make other improvements.

The second phase consisted of processing the photographs

with Agisoft PhotoScan in order to obtain a three-
dimensional view of each panel. This 3-D technique
Figure 3.2: Location of engraved art at the Penedo do Ferro allowed us to obtain a full visualisation of the panel’s
Sanctuary (CMP 1:25000, Fls 399/413) surface.

Figure 3.3: Prospection work: identifying engraved outcrops

39
Leonor Rocha, Paula Morgado

The final modelling was worked on to obtain a decal of Panel I

the existing engravings. Lastly, the engraved motif images
were processed with Adobe Illustrator. Located in a small shelter, open to the north, on the southern
limit of Penedo do Ferro, with visibility over the Neolithic
3.4 Description of the Panels settlement. It features dozens of cup-marks, of different
sizes, made on the floor of the shelter (Figure 3.4). On the
As mentioned earlier, the number of panels identified floor of the shelter 5 larger cup-marks each surrounded by
(7) may increase if new fieldwork can be carried dozens of smaller sized ones are visible. Another small
out (Rocha and Morgado 2018). In all the cases the shelter, about 1.5m deep and 1.5m in height, can be seen
representations were derived from direct percussion, as in to the east. Dimensions: 2m high x 2,20m wide x 2m long.
the other cases known in the south of Portugal. In fact,
cup-marks are one of the most common themes in the Panel II
Portuguese bibliography, although there are no specific
and in-depth studies on this topic. Cup-marks appear An isolated, flat, oval-shaped granite boulder with at least
in different types of rocks (granites, schists, etc) and at 16 cup-marks some of which are connected (Figure 3.5
different types of sites: settlements, menhirs, dolmens or and 6) is located on the eastern edge of the settlement.
in scattered outcrops in the landscape. Moreover, they This boulder faces north towards the platform where the
are diverse in their grouping and size. Their systematic Neolithic settlement is located. Dimensions: 1.30m high x
association with prehistoric contexts suggests they 1.60m wide x 0,70m thick.
may have been made in that period (although some
may possibly be from a later date). In some cases, such Panel III
as Penedo do Ferro, their association with shelters
and typology could imply that they may have been Panel III is located on the SW edge of the settlement and
religious sites (Calado 2004; Calado and Bairinhas 1994; consists of two isolated granite boulders approximately
Calado and Rocha 2010; Correia 1921; Gomes et al. 1993; 2m apart. The levelled area faces the Neolithic settlement.
Leisner and Leisner 1959; Oliveira and Borges 1998;
Oliveira and Oliveira 2012; Rocha 2004, 2010, 2013, Boulder I: features 15 cup-marks at the top. Dimensions:
2016). 0.70m wide x 1.60m long.

Figure 3.4: Panel I – General view of the shelter

40
 The prehistoric open-air sanctuary of Penedo do Ferro

Figure 3.5: Panel II – General view of one of the engraved boulders

Boulder II: features 4 aligned cup-marks and one groove

at the top, which is slanted. Dimensions: maximum height
1.40m x 2.70m long.

Panel IV

An isolated granite outcrop on the SW side of Penedo do

Ferro at the base of the wall 4 cup-marks are found at the
top and at least 7 on a slanted surface facing SW.

Panel V

A small, isolated granite boulder on the SW side of Penedo do

Ferro at the base of the wall. It features 7 shallow cup-marks.

Panel VI

Granite outcrop next to a holm oak located on the SW side

of Penedo do Ferro at the base of the wall. It is located
approximately 5m to the NE of Panel V and features 8
cup-marks facing NE.

Panel VII

Granite boulder approximately 1.80m wide x 3.00m long

Figure 3.6: Panel II – Photogrammetry of the engraved art x 1.00m high with 13 cup-marks at the top. It is located
processed with Adobe Illustrator CS6 approximately 20m west of Panel VI.

41
Leonor Rocha, Paula Morgado

3.5 Conclusion ends up wearing down or even destroying the existing

engravings – a clear example of this can be found on
Extensive research undertaken in the Alentejo in the final megalithic monuments.
decades of the 20th and early decades of the 21st centuries,
has given rise to important new contributions to the topic Two methodologies of study were used during the 20th
of rock art. These have emerged from research focusing century. 1) Dichromatic technique, which made it possible
directly on this type of evidence, or from the records of to identify engravings using the contrast of black on white.
projects on similar themes or even as a result of measures This technique was eventually discontinued because of the
taken to minimise impacts on heritage. Generally speaking, possibility of the inks causing rock surface erosion. 2) The
with the consolidation of research on this theme we direct decal using polyvinyl plastic methodology is still
continue to see a clear distinction between engraved and in use today. This limited technique (it cannot be used
painted art, in terms of both spatial location, and media everywhere) may also destroy the remnants of pigment,
and motifs. Engraved art also shows a clear distinction when present.
with respect to motifs represented and techniques used on
panels of granite or schist, with a greater thematic diversity For the study of the Penedo do Ferro complex,
within the schist. One of the simplest explanations for this methodologies primarily based on collecting images
dichotomy may lie in the ease or difficulty of engraving (photographs) were chosen as a first approach. The
on either type of rock; making fine strokes, for example, is results would determine whether they could later be
more difficult on granite, due to its texture. complemented by occasional direct decals. In none of the
panels was damage to the artwork a concern because there
The study, or more specifically, the identification and were no paintings.
characterization of both types of media (rock), poses
problems. Motifs on granite, as in this particular case, The results obtained in this phase only allowed the most
are probably the hardest to recognize due to problems significant art to be identified, that is, the art that can
of erosion associated with the rocks in this area, which be distinguished fairly easily, as one can see from the

Figure 3.7: Panel I after the survey and photogrammetric processing

42
 The prehistoric open-air sanctuary of Penedo do Ferro

Figure 3.8: Panel I – Photogrammetry of the engraved art processed with Adobe Illustrator CS6

accompanying images. The best results came from Panel Bibliography

I, with a good characterization of the engraved art present
Alvim, P. Recintos megalíticos do ocidente do Alentejo
on the levelled surface of the floor (Figure 3.7 and 3.8).
Central. Arquitectura e paisagem na transição
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mesolítico/neolítico. Évora: Universidade de Évora
motifs exist, especially on the walls of Panel I (shelter) but
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Correia, V. El Neolítico de Pavía. Madrid: Comisión de
Investigaciones Paleontológicas y Prehistóricas, 1921.
Ferraz, A.L. Iconographie des sociétés néolithiques:
entre Atlantique et Méditerranée, les stèles décorées
de l’Alentejo Central. 2 vols. Paris: École des Hautes
Études en Sciences Sociales, 2016.
Gomes, M.V. “Arte rupestre e contexto arqueológico”.
Almansor, 7 (1989): 225-269. Montemor-o-Novo:
CMMN
Gomes, M.V., Gomes, R.V. and Santos, M.F. “O santuário
exterior do Escoural - Sector SE (Montemor-o-Novo

44
 4

Neolithic image, symmetry and context: challenges

in montane stone from Cumbria, U.K.

Steve Dickinson

Abstract The engravings on, and contexts for, a distinctive polissoir located in the course of
archaeological survey work at the montane core of the Lake District, Cumbria, U.K., are
examined. Conventional understandings of open-air, or landscape, rock art in Britain and Ireland
have generally moved away from attempts to interpret it, preferring emphases on its materiality
and the processes, performances and cultural transmissions embodied and associated with it.
New directions, incorporating digital image interpretation via 1:1 tracing and digital graphical
transcription of specific features, for the study of this polissoir and its contexts, emphasises its
object-agency at the heart of a mountainous, animate prehistoric landscape associated with large-
scale stone axe blade production in the Neolithic.

Keywords Polissoir – Neolithic – apotropaism – rock art

4.1 Introduction polissoirs themselves (following Ingold 2011; Malafouris

2013; Olsen 2013). Such accessibility and enaction would
Polissoirs are well-known from a variety of prehistoric encompass the creation of what some prehistorians would
funerary, domestic and landscape contexts across Britain term ‘rock art’: ‘human-made marks on natural, non-
and Europe. In Britain, their characteristics include portable rocky surfaces’ (Thomas 2016, 11, following
grooves, polished areas, or both; worked into natural, Taçon and Chippendale 1998, 6).
and sometimes, in the instances of grooves, portable rock
surfaces (Darvill 2010, 203-4; Marshall 2016, 52, 69; Such transformative processes, from ‘natural’ sources
Thomas 2016, 197). Though patently functional, it can to ‘cultural’ assemblages, have long been suggested in
be suggested that they also acted in prehistory as tactile, the British Neolithic in the selection of particular stone
physical, artefacts that allowed people to access, enact and sources alongside the acquisition, working, distribution
enable the material qualities, affordances and mutability of and deposition of portable ground and edged stone
stone through the transforming of artefacts, including the artefacts in specific locations and contexts (Bradley 2004,
Davis and Edmonds 2011, Edmonds 1995, Thomas 2016).
A key challenge for archaeologists seeking to interpret
British and Irish rock art of this period is that the majority
of the open-air art, as encountered in its many landscape
settings, is not only difficult to date, but abstract, and
thus susceptible to multiple challenges in regard to its
interpretation: particularly in the case of cup-and-ring
markings, spirals and cupules.

Digital technologies, such as Reflectance Transformation

Imaging (RTI) (Díaz-Guardamino and Wheatley 2013),
photogrammetry and laser scanning help to reveal intricate
surface detail, and allow for more accurate assessment of
images on rock. New challenges involve the incorporation
of these technologies into the montane landscape of the
stones; where the application of LiDAR and other digital
remote sensing, such as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
have specific limitations due to complex geologies and
thin stratigraphy.

4.2 Two Upper Eskdale cairns and their contexts

In 2015-2017 walkover surveys in the mountains of

Upper Eskdale, Cumbria, Britain, revealed sites and
artefacts above local cultivation limits in the mediaeval

45
Steve Dickinson

and post-mediaeval periods. The first site, Scar Lathing east of the rectangular structure, a huge, stone axe-blade
Cairn, is set near the focus of the survey area, a 12 square shaped natural boulder protrudes from the turf of this
kilometre natural amphitheatre encircled by mountains amphitheatre.
and split by a mountain ridge, all above 350 m Ordnance
Datum (OD). This cairn features a boulder of banded 4.3 The polissoir, its engravings, grooves and motifs
Borrowdale Volcanic Series (BVS) rock with distinctive
natural markings brought out through application of The volcaniclastic sandstone slab (Figure 4.3) features a
digital photography in low light and RTI. The boulder raised, roughly rectangular concave 510 mm long by 350
is positioned on the eastern side of the southern facade mm high, (at the SE), panel with distinctive engravings
of a small low, overgrown, rectangular kerbed cairn and grooves, some with bevelled edges, in its surface. The
(Dickinson and Watson 2016). This cairn, (contra Style engravings are multi-layered: intersecting, intercutting and
2016), formed an extension to a 14.0m long north-south superimposed across, on, and with, the grooves (Figure
orientated steep, scree-filled runnel. From the facade 4.4). The largest groove on the slab is clearly natural in
the cairn has a distinctive framed view to its north of a origin, though it shows signs of having been used as a
prominent adjacent mountain range: from Slight Side (748 polissoir-groove (see below). Some of the engravings run
m) and Scafell (964 m) to Scafell Pike, (978 m: the highest over the upper edge of the panel and onto the top of the
mountain in England), Broad Crag (931 m), Ill Crag (935 slab, where there is also a cupule. Detailed analysis of the
m) and Pen (768 m). engravings through tracing in situ combined with detailed
digital photography demonstrates that they fall into five
The second cairn site features a 0.45 m high slab of groups (Figure 4.5):
weathered BVS green-blue volcaniclastic sandstone let
into a socket on the edge of a small rectangular structure 1. Highlighted in white: a partial grid of small triangles
open to the west, again with a distinctive framed view in (Figure 4.3).
this direction of nearby mountains. This structure abuts the 2. Highlighted in yellow: four deeper grooves (two of
north of a natural 17.8 x 9.5 m accumulation of boulders which are vertical) and five horizontal engraved lines,
(Esk Pike Ridge/Long Crag Spring Cairn: Figure 4.1 and the topmost of which cuts across some of the uppermost
Figure 4.2): the largest, and most distinctive of which, is triangles. The largest and deepest groove, as noted
a 3.0 m high, 2.5 m wide x 1.3 m thick tabular megalith above is natural in origin and diagonal, running across
which displays evidence on its eastern side of having been the panel from its upper right to its lower left.
chocked to the vertical in antiquity. The cairn lies at the 3. Highlighted in green: Two ‘waisted’ (Davis and
SW open end of a large natural amphitheatre. Just to the Edmonds 2011, 169, citing Fell 1964, 40) Cumbrian-

Figure 4.1: Esk Pike Ridge/Long Crag Spring Cairn, Upper Eskdale, from the south-east (2m scale).

46
 Neolithic image, symmetry and context

type stone axe blade shaped motifs to either side of the

deep diagonal groove.
4. Highlighted in pink: two engraved lines that run across
the deepest diagonal groove, connecting the base of
the right-hand axe blade motif with the bottom of the
triangle grid. One of these lines cuts across this motif,
linking into five dendritic motifs to its upper right that
follow natural slim lines of calcite or quartz naturally
embedded in the stone (Figure 4.6). Further engraved
lines in the top of this blade-motif give its upper section
the appearance of anthropomorphism: as ‘fingers’. On
the upper side of the deepest diagonal groove, opposite
to where the right-hand axe blade motif meets it, there
is a small semicircle carved into the slab.
5. Highlighted in orange: a series of mainly diagonal
engraved grooves, giving the appearance of rays
engraved/cut from the top right of the slab downwards
into its lower right sector. Three of these intercepts
the semicircle, and continue across the deep diagonal
Figure 4.2: Plan of the Esk Pike Ridge/Long Crag Spring
cairn.
groove to cut across the right-hand axe blade motif.

This analysis of the motifs seems to indicate a chronological

sequence (from 1 to 5), but it should be noted that the left-
hand axe blade motif is more deeply cut into the surface
than its twin, and it seems to be respected by the triangle
grid: thereby indicating that it may be one of the earliest
motifs on the slab.

Figure 4.3: The polissior slab, from the south-east, showing the triangle motifs.

47
Steve Dickinson

Figure 4.4: The polissoir slab photographed from the south-east at night, with angled lighting.

Figure 4.5: Engravings, grooves and motifs on the polissoir slab.

48
 Neolithic image, symmetry and context

and archaeological contexts, enables a focus on its details in

relation to its singular location. Its archaeological contexts
include: those dated to the Neolithic, when stone axe
blades were created in large quantities from specific rock
sources in some of the mountains overlooking it (Bradley
and Edmonds 1993, Claris and Quartermaine 1989), and
those when upland vegetation changed (Pennington 1997).
The stone axe blade making sites of the central mountains
of the Lake District were the largest in Britain. Blades
from the area circulated across most of Britain and Ireland.

The polissoir’s contexts also include assessing the issues

and challenges surrounding the ascription and identification
of ‘Atlantic’ rock art, (Bradley 1997) described as a
prehistoric rock-carving practice found from Portugal
across Spain, France, Ireland, England and Scotland
(Valdez-Tullett 2019, 1). The motifs created by this
practice range from cup marks and cup-and-ring markings
through spirals, zoomorphs, anthropomorphs, weapons
and figurative examples (Valdez-Tullett 2019, 3–6). With a
Figure 4.6: Detail of the semi-circle and the top of the common range of such designs and techniques of making,
anthropomorphic axe-hand on the polissoir, above, the repertoire of this is commonly split into open-air rock
and above left, of the centimetric scale. A group of the art and megalithic or passage-grave art, the latter set in
dendritic/‘ramiform’ motifs are at top left.
‘architectural’ rather than ‘landscape’ locations (Thomas
2016, 11). As noted above, the majority of British and
The deepest horizontal grooves (2), on the left of the Irish landscape rock art is not only hard to date, but, being
slab have bevelled edges, as does the top right element abstract, is capable of bearing multiple interpretations in
of the distinctive deep diagonal groove. These are the respect of the intentions of its makers. As has been noted
elements on the slab that indicate the clearest use of it as a by Richard Bradley, ‘rock art research must contribute
polissoir. The walkover surveys, and associated geological directly to archaeology if it is to achieve anything of value’
consultations, have strongly indicated that this slab’s (Bradley 1997, 8). As an addition to this, we may also note
focused markings and deliberate setting are not paralleled that, following Antonia Thomas (2016, 11), and others, it
by others yet identified in the survey area, or by the natural is all too easy to ascribe and apply modern assumptions
glacial and post-glacial markings and processes visible on and values to this ‘art’, which may be totally unrelated to
the surface geologies of the area. the practices and the values of the peoples who created it
in the past. Such values in prehistory in this Upper Eskdale
Archaeological assessment with the benefit of digital montane environment arguably involved a perceived
imaging also includes comparing the Upper Eskdale animacy in specific contexts of stone, and people acting
polissoir engravings to those from other sites. The Upper in reciprocity with specific stone sources and their host
Eskdale triangular motifs can be found in profusion at the mountains as a form of apotropaism (Dickinson 2019,
Ness of Brodgar (Thomas 2016), and in the passage tombs 175).
of Newgrange (O’Kelly 1984, for example on R18: 174,
and on K91: 165) and Knowth (Eogan 1986, for example, The Upper Eskdale slab engravings find some of their
on Or. 45, and on Or. 54: 188). The dendritic motifs on it closest comparisons not in the open-air art of the majority
find parallels in the so-called ‘ramiform’ motifs noted by of Atlantic rock art contexts, but, as has been noted
Robin on stones at Newgrange, Knowth and Loughcrew, above, in the confined spaces of megalithic tombs, and
and also in Brittany at Guib, Table des Marchands and in architectural ‘domestic’ and ‘ritual’ situations, as
Lannec er Gadouer (Robin 2012, 144–145). The small axe excavated and recorded, for example, on Orkney (Card
blade motifs are paralleled by a divided, waisted central and Thomas 2012, Thomas 2016). However, there is
motif on one of the small Neolithic chalk plaques found in another, much larger, montane rock art group which can
a pit on the King Barrow ridge near Stonehenge (Harding be paralleled with them on the boulders at Copt Howe in
1988, 320–327). The semicircle abutting a groove opposite Great Langdale, just over 8 km to the east of the Upper
a complex axe-anthropomorphic motif is a singular Eskdale slab (Bradley et al. 2019, 177–192, Figure 4.7).
double-motif not paralleled elsewhere: this conjunction is At the principal Copt Howe boulder featuring art, the
further discussed below. largest motif group, as on the Upper Eskdale slab, is also
split by a prominent natural groove running from the right
4.4 Contexts for the polissoir to the left of the rock, and, again as on the Upper Eskdale
slab, there is another nearly vertical groove that bisects this
This polissoir, positioned in its geological (Millward et al. group. The Copt Howe site is located just over 3 km from
2000, 33–40, 105, 110), geomorphological (Wilson 2010), the Langdale Pikes. To its west lie sources of the majority

49
Steve Dickinson

Figure 4.7: Copt Howe, Great Langdale, Cumbria: the motif group and natural grooves and features on the principal boulder
(scale at left is in 0.50 m bars).

of the Neolithic stone axe blades from the Lake District. It is possible (contra. Cochrane and Meirion Jones 2012, 2,
Some of the motifs on the boulders here have been linked 4) within those apotropaic, animistic and mountain horizon/
to similar motifs in Irish passage grave art (Bradley et al. celestial event parameters that the semi-circle and its
2019, 187). The two principal boulders at this site form a associated anthropomorphic axe-motif on the Upper Eskdale
natural gateway that allows clear sight of the sun when it slab can be interpreted, as can the uses, affordances and
passes behind Harrison Stickle (736 m), one of the most positioning of the slab upon which they appear in relation
prominent of the Langdale Pikes), as it sets in midsummer to the cosmology of the area. The semi-circle conceivably
(Sharpe 2007, 167–169; Sharpe and Watson 2013). represents a celestial object being drawn down across a rift
(the natural diagonal groove) by the anthropomorphic axe-
A similar celestial phenomenon to that which occurs in hand below it. The rift, in the world of Upper Eskdale, is the
Great Langdale is provided, with demonstrable substantial huge valley of the River Esk which lies due west of the slab
enhancements in both the summer and the winter, at the and its cairn, a valley which separates the slab and cairn from
Upper Eskdale Long Crag Spring Cairn slab site when the high mountains to the north-west. This event is most
one stands up from it and looks to the Scafell massif to striking in mid-summer, when the setting sun, (as seen by
the north-west and the west. Here, the winter and summer an observer standing at the site in clear weather) disappears
solstice sun settings can be both observed and measured behind the Scafell-Scafell Pike massif to the north-west.
using the mountain peaks as horizon indicators, and a
similar set of celestial calendrical observations can be The discovery in prehistory of cosmological ordering of
made with major lunar setting standstills. Looking east, certain landscapes in relation to rock art has also been
an intervening ridge running south from the summit of noted by researchers in other contexts for example, in
Esk Pike (885 m), blocks a view of most of the mountain the Kilmartin area of Argyllshire (Jones 2011, Jones and
peaks from Bowfell (902 m) to Crinkle Crags (859 m) and Watson 2011). The gateway between the two largest Copt
Little Stand (727 m). However, Neolithic cairns and sites Howe boulders, allowing access to the inner recesses of
further up this ridge have clear views of these mountains the Great Langdale valley, its montane stone sources and
from the north-east round to the south-east, the directions celestial midsummer event is matched by the gateway of
of summer and winter solstice sunrises and northern to the Esk Pike Ridge/Long Crag Spring Cairn in relation to
southern major lunar standstills (Figure 4.8). The ridge Esk Pike, access to similar, remoter stone sources, and to
itself, with its many spectacular natural rock formations the celestial events visible from sites on this ridge.
and platforms, would have provided not only an access
route up on to the mountains that encircle it, but also 4.5 Object-agency, symmetry, transformation,
opportunities for veneration and acts of apotropaism at apotropaism
the time of prehistoric stone sourcing. Apotropaism and
mountains have a long history in many contexts (Dora It is thus suggested that this polissoir embodied both an
2016). object-agency, (Gell 1998, 17–21, Nyland 2020) and

50
 Neolithic image, symmetry and context

Figure 4.8: A SE-N-SW 240º panorama of Upper Eskdale’s summits around the rock platform of Low Gait Crags on the Esk
Pike ridge.

potency that acted symmetrically in prehistory in artefacts Bradley, R., Watson, A. and Style, P. “After the Axes? The
that were transformed on it in its specific montane and Rock Art at Copt Howe, North-west England, and the
celestial contexts, and through the image-making and Neolithic Sequence at Great Langdale”. Proceedings of
markings on, and incorporating, the material of the the Prehistoric Society 85 (2019): 177–192.
polissoir. Acts of sourcing and transforming montane stone
Card, N. and Thomas, A. “Painting a picture of Neolithic
through the art on this slab, and axe blade creation, did not
Orkney: decorated stonework from the Ness of
occur in isolation, but were arguably part of a larger set
Brodgar.” In Visualising the Neolithic: Abstraction,
of landscape, celestial and ritual or mythological contexts
(Taçon 1991). These found expression in deliberate acts Figuration, Performance, Representation Neolithic
of human and material transformation of, and on, the rock Studies Group Seminar Papers 13, edited by A.
of the Upper Eskdale polissoir itself. The polissoir can be Cochrane and A. Meirion Jones, 111–124.Oxford:
seen as representing key mountains from its south-west to Oxbow Books, 2012.
north-west including their high, remote sources of stone Claris, P. and Quartermaine, J. “The Neolithic Quarries and
used to manufacture axes, the celestial activities above Axe Factory Sites of Great Langdale and Scafell Pike:
them, and acts of apotropaism in regard to both. A New Field Survey”. Proceedings of the Prehistoric
Society 55 (1989): 1–25.
Acknowledgements
Cochrane, A. and Meirion Jones, A. “Visualising the
Thanks to Aaron Watson for his invaluable advice and Neolithic: an introduction.” In Visualising the Neolithic:
RTI, photogrammetry work; to geomorphologist Peter Abstraction, Figuration, Performance, Representation
Wilson and geologists Alan Smith and Hugh Tuffen for Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers 13, edited
their advice on surface features of the Borrowdale Volcanic by A. Cochrane and A. Meirion Jones, 1–14. Oxford:
Series; to Richard Bradley, to Marisa Giorgi, to Nathalie Oxbow Books, 2012.
Brusgaard, Manuel Santos-Estévez, Ana Bettencourt and Darvill, T. Long Barrows of the Cotswolds and Surrounding
Julian Jansen van Rensburg. Thanks also for the comments Areas. Stroud: The History Press, 2010.
and suggestions from participants and attendees at sessions
incorporating presentations of aspects of this research at Davis, V. and Edmonds, M. (eds). Stone Axe Studies III.
the 4th International Landscape Archaeology Conference, Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2011.
Uppsala 2016, at the Images in Stone in Prehistory and Díaz-Guardamino, M. and Wheatley, D. “Rock Art and
Protohistory Symposium, University of Minho, Braga Digital Technologies: the Application of Reflectance
2016, at the Theoretical Archaeology Group Conference, Transformation Imaging (RTI) and 3D Laser Scanning
University of Southampton 2016, at the Neolithic Studies to the Study of Late Bronze Age Iberian Stelae”. Menga
Group Seminar at the British Museum 2017, and at the 04: Journal of Andalusian Prehistory 3,04 (2013):
IFRAO Rock Art Congress, 2018, Valcamonica. 187–203.
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 5

New technologies for the survey, documentation

and representation of rock art remains

Gianni Furiassi

Abstract This work illustrates the survey and data acquisition methods of three case studies:
Anfratto Palmerini (Monte la Queglia, Pescara, Italy), Parete Manzi (Montelapiano, Chieti,
Italy), Pietra delle Croci (Lettopalena, Chieti, Italy). The acquisition of data and their three-
dimensional digital representation is a dissemination tool that allows one to reach an ever-
widening audience. Identifying the most appropriate data acquisition and restitution methodology
and the variables that affect them is a priority in the documentation phase. Only in this way can
we overcome the geographical distances and the difficulties of accessing and using rock art sites.
The documentation can be enriched with real time updated information and new comparisons.
The cognitive experience and the touristic-cultural use assume dynamic and constantly evolving
aspects. Conservation, remote multidisciplinary study and conservative / museum design are the
future objectives to which the new technologies in the field of rock art are aimed.

Keywords Virtual reality – 3D modelling – laser scanners – archaeology – rock art

5.1 Introduction range of technological solutions is a factor that should

not be underestimated. In some cases, it can lead us
The 20th International rock art Congress IFRAO, held in to inappropriate choices, in terms of results, costs and
Darfo Boario, was an opportunity to reflect on the topics usability. Accordingly, the need to gather data and draw
related to technical aspects, until now overshadowed considerations that in the future can guide conscientious
by discoveries and pure archaeological data. The three operational choices. The difficulty in making a choice
technical aspects to take into consideration when we regarding the best technology to use, respectively the
talk about “new technologies” applied to archaeological three technical aspects mentioned, comes from the
research, especially in the rock art field are: data acquisition need to analyse multiple variables that are difficult to
systems, representation methods, the accessibility criteria interpret, yet can provide the expected results if properly
of data and use. The possibility of accessing a wide evaluated.

The three sites illustrated as examples, are: “Parete

Manzi – Montelapiano (CH) Italy”, “Anfratto Palmerini
– Pescosansonesco (PE) Italy”, “Pietra delle Croci –
Lettopalena (CH) Italy”.

During the survey and graphic restitution works, the three

technical aspects mentioned were studying, analysing and
comparing parameters such as difficulties of site access,
dimensions and visibility of the figures represented,
morphology of the illustrated support, dimensions, light
conditions, possibility of long-term conservation, site
usability, etc.

The evaluation of the above parameters plays a key role in

choosing the survey technique to be used and the type of
graphic illustration, not just for documentary purposes but
also for the use and dissemination of the site.

In three different sites, surveys were carried out with three

different methodologies. This allowed us to represent the
archaeological data with different graphic representation
methods, compare limits and advantages of the various
survey methods, and evaluate the strengths of different
graphic representation systems of data.

53
Gianni Furiassi

5.2 Survey overlap on the four sides of each photograph (Gopi

2006, 259) and that each image has been made at the
5.2.1 The choice of the method and technology used in same distance from the object. These basic requirements
the data acquisition phase are essential for the software to process images without
producing errors in 3D geometry.
The data acquisition phase raises the issue of which
methodology to be used. The variables to consider are With regards to the instrumentation used in the photographic
various: accessibility of the site, type of surface to be acquisition phase. During the 3D photogrammetric survey,
surveyed, how the figures were produced (engraving, a Phantom 3 Professional drone was used to allow a very
painting, etc.), lighting conditions, weather conditions. accurate processing of the 3D model.

Taking into consideration the above-mentioned variables, 5.2.4 Laser Scanner Survey
we identified the survey method which best suited the site
under examination. Advantages: millimetric precision, measurement is not
subject to particular lighting conditions (unless you are
5.2.2 Manual Survey working on a reflective surface); no dimension limit for
the surface to scan.
Advantages: ease of transport, low-cost, and no specific
skills are required. Limits: Poor detection accuracy, Limits: difficulty to transport and installing equipment,
limited detectable dimensions, not all surfaces are suitable specific technical skills are required (both for acquisition
for this methodology, and the generation of new errors in and for graphics rendering).
post-production when digitising the data.
In this specific case a scanner with an acquisition system
The manual or contact survey illustrates, with greater called “time of flight”, produced in Germany by Dr. Clauss
precision, the paintings and the engravings points in Bild- und Datentechnik GmbH, model RODEO smartscan,
the various chronological overlaps, allowing us to give was used. The point cloud acquisition configuration used
an analytical account of the situation. Compared to is shown in table 5.1.
photography and pictorial reproductions, which can alter
the original sense, this technique returns a faithful and life- The high-resolution panoramic photo acquisition was
size example of the entire illustrated panel (Zambianchi carried out with a Nikon 3200 reflex camera and a Samyang
2008, 60). The contact survey is an excellent rapid Fish-Eye CS II lens mounted on a Pixplorer panoramic
intervention system, which at the objective acquisition head by Dr. Clauss Bild. The raw photos were taken with
of figurative data combines the ease of transport and the the parameters f / 3.5 1 / 250s ISO100 8.00mm, and were
low cost of the equipment used, namely: transparent sheet, 6016 x 4000 pixels in size.
indelible markers and adhesive tape. The main limitations
of this methodology emerge in the data digitization phase, Panoramic photos were taken and superimposed on the
because the dimensions of the support on which the cloud of points to increase the relief detail until obtaining
figures were detected do not always allow scanning, and a photographic quality cloud, capable of returning the
if composed of several separate sheets, it isn’t always easy exact measurements of each engraving, with a close to
to merge again without incurring gross errors. A series of millimetric precision.
methodological measures to be carried out in the survey
phase are not always compatible with the need to survey a The 3D model processing made it possible to create an
rock art site (Barberini 2006, 44). accurate two-dimensional vector representation and a
high-resolution ortho photogrammetric image.
5.2.3 3D photogrammetric survey
5.3 Parete Manzi – Montelapiano (Ch) Italy
Advantages: ease of transport, low cost of equipment
(camera, tripod, software), not affected by particular A series of rock carvings, impressed on the rocky ridge
conditions of the surface, applicable to almost all between the municipalities of Montelapiano and Villa
contexts where the light conditions allow, large detectable Santa Maria (province of Chieti), were discovered by
dimensions. Limits: not extremely precise measurement, Prof. Aurelio Manzi in 20101. The representations, falling
consistent and errors (distortions) can be generated. within the municipality of Montelapiano, are located at
445 meters above sea level, on the west side of the ridge
The greatest obstacle is obtaining a good uniformity (Di Fraia 2012, 1).
exposure, which can often be extremely difficult in certain
contexts. It is therefore important to plan the photographic The representations are located on a portion of a vertical
acquisition campaign based on solar exposure, times and wall approximately 90 cm in height and 300 cm in width.
weather conditions. Another fundamental aspect is to
make sure that the entire geometric surface to be detected 1
http://www.fastionline.org/micro_view.php?itemkey=fst _ cd&fst_
has been photographically acquired, with at least a 25% cd=AIAC_3762

54
 New technologies for the survey, documentation and representation of rock art remains

Table 5.1

Points (in Range or. Resolution or. Range ver. Resolution ver. Scan time
millions) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

4 360 0,120 165 0,125 10

The repertoire is entirely engraved, except from a single ortho-photogrammetric image. It is possible to draw the
painted black figure. The only mobile artifact found is a vector directly on the two-dimensional panoramic image
trapezoidal section of a flint blade median fragment, found acquired on the same points cloud station associated with
in the lower part of the ridge. The figures, well preserved it.2 These two examples of data representation are the
(except some executed with more subtle strokes), are in some basis of the documentation produced for a virtual reality
cases covered by a limestone veil that does not compromise visualisation system. It was therefore possible to create a
their legibility. They are juxtaposed and, in some cases, 3D model in 1:1 scale in virtual reality and textured with
overlapping, with different patinas and traits, therefore photographic quality.
probably engraved at different times. Strong stylistic and
dimensional coherence suggests cultural homogeneity and The mesh obtained from the point cloud was texturized with
probable chronological continuity (Di Fraia 2012, 3-5). The a high-resolution photoplan using the Blender 3d modelling
main figurative motifs relate to fishing: fish and harpoons software.3 The resulting product, including textures and lights,
figures are the most common panel elements. Other elements was imported into an integrated multi-platform authoring
represented include stars, leaves (one of these ends with a tool called Unity, which allowed the creation of virtual
small rhomboid shape that could schematically represent an reality navigation tools, measurement and superimposition of
anthropomorph), a butterfly, a group of lozenges, pectin and textures bearing digitised rock engravings.4
stair-forms, groups of lines and squares, and a Solomon’s
knot. The representation of fish is certainly one of the most The final product allows for the possibility of virtually
interesting aspects. The typology is articulated and includes positioning yourself in front of the wall and viewing the
at least 10 certain specimens, doubts remain about other 4 rock engravings, making measurements and viewing the
or 5 illustrations. The most singular figure is a cetacean, texture of the highlighted digitised engravings (Figure 5.2).
possibly a whale.
5.4 Anfratto Palmerini – Pescosansonesco (Pe) Italy
5.3.1 The Parete Manzi Relief
The Anfratto Palmerini (Palmerini Ravine) was discovered
The prohibitive access at the point where the Parete Manzi in 2016 in occasion of explorations aimed at reconstructing
engravings are present, requires digital documentation the oldest settlement processes in the Casauriense area by
containing the greatest amount of information. The the archaeologist Guido Palmerini, from which it takes its
possibility of acquiring high-resolution geometries and name (Palmerini and Furiassi 2017, 48-50). The ravine
images of an engraved wall that is difficult to access, paintings are in red ochre and there are several filiform and
is certainly a scenario that calls for the production of possible anthropomorphic engravings. In the immediate
faithful and definitive documentation. This allows for vicinity of the site several fragments of impasto pottery
an archaeological context to be established and becomes were found scattered on the surface including one with an
an opportunity to deepen the study and research of the impressed cord attributable to the Bronze Age. Following
representations over time. To remedy visibility problems, the discovery of this site a manual contact relief was made
due to the colour and size of the engravings with respect and the site was reported to the local Superintendence
to the entire figurative panel, high-resolution panoramic for Archaeological Heritage.5 The ravine, located in the
photos, subsequently superimposed on the points cloud municipality of Pescosansonesco (PE - Italy) at an altitude
were undertaken so as to appreciate the detail of all the of 560 metres above sea level, looks like a narrow-truncated
engravings without distortion (Di Fraia et al. 2017, 45). cone cavity degrading inwards, for about 2 m depth and
To acquire all the geometries of the wall and obtain in height between 120 cm in the external part and 40 cm
point clouds that would contain all the geometric data in the innermost. Access and manual survey of the rock
useful for the rock representations two scans were made. art, concentrated on the north wall of the ravine, is made
Panoramic photos were taken on the same station points difficult by the conformity of the ravine, the narrow space,
and superimposed on the cloud of points to increase the and the curvature of the surface of the rock art panel. The
detail of the survey and obtain a photographic quality evident state of degradation and the difficulties related to
cloud point, from which it would be possible to return the visibility and manual approach, made it necessary to carry
exact measurements of each engraving with millimetric out an instrumental survey and documentation (Figure 5.3).
precision (Di Fraia et al. 2017, 46) (Figure 5.1).

The processing of the 3D model with the LupoScan software

2
www.lupos3d.com
3
www.blender.org
has enabled us to create an accurate two-dimensional vector 4
unity3d.com
representation and a high-resolution two-dimensional 5
Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio dell’Abruzzo.

55
Gianni Furiassi

Figure 5.1: Laser scanner survey digitization with LupoScan software.

Figure 5.2: Virtual reality representation of the “Parete Manzi”.

From the reliefs obtained it was possible to divide the rock and Furiassi 2017, 48-49). Among the engravings, it was
art into three different types: a small collection of red ochre possible to distinguish four different types of rock art:
figures, a series of rock engravings to overwrite the red horizontal lines, stair-forms, anthropomorphic, stylized
figures (blue lines in the image 3 and 4) and the remains of vulva.
some black pictograms, almost completely faded, made in
charcoal. The paintings are concentrated in a single point The methodology used for the instrumental survey and the
and consist of a series of positive right handprints with five graphic rendering is the same used in the parete Manzi. The
fingers complete, topped by a floral pictogram (Palmerini difference was the need for complete data to be presented

56
 New technologies for the survey, documentation and representation of rock art remains

during the discovery communication phase and technical

documentation. This was expressed through an objective
vector representation of the paintings and rock engravings
and a scale photo-plan, in addition to the cave 3D model
and its representation in a virtual environment. In this
specific case it was created in natural size (Barberini 2006,
43-44) (Figure 5.4).

The conditions were eminently suitable for the laser

survey and allowed us to create a complete technical
documentation that respects both the criteria of
measurability and iconographic reading of paintings and
engravings.

The strong point is undoubtedly the creation of the

straightened photoplan. Using the point cloud as a basis
for the creation of a true to life sized high-quality photo
perfectly projected. This provides a technical reading
tool and allows us to appreciate the figures in a realistic
way. If we compare the digitization extrapolated from the
figure’s laser relief present on the ravine wall with the
contact survey digitised, we can appreciate the manual
detection error level, given by the distortion of the sheet
that occurred in tracing the figures (Figure 5.5).

The projection of the images resulting from the laser

scan returns the exact distance between the figures. The
comparison between technical data and manual data
provides a complete picture of the distribution of the
Figure 5.3: Technical documentation of the “Anfratto
Palmerini” rock figures. illustrated panel.

Figure 5.4: Digitization detail of the “Anfratto Palmerini” rock figures

57
Gianni Furiassi

Figure 5.5: Comparison of the Manual and the instrumental survey of “Anfratto Palmerini”.

5.5 Pietra Della Croci – Lettopalena (Ch) Italy This solution showed substantial limits, not much in
the laser acquisition, but in taking the photograph due
The Pietra delle Croci (Stone of Crosses) of Lettopalena to the tendentially vertical position of the camera. The
(CH) was presented for the first time at the 20th engravings were photographed at the limits of the lens, with
International rock art Congress IFRAO. It is a large the greatest degree of distortion possible. This has caused
boulder located in an area crossed by ancient sheep tracks. the presence of chromatic aberrations and a resolving yield
The boulder is dome-shaped, inclined towards the west that has lost its effectiveness in the rectification phase. The
and largely covered with engraved figures with wide and best data remains the rock morphological information.
deep grooves. The most frequently recorded symbols Subsequently a direct survey (with transparent paper)
are crosses, simple or enhanced, with a crossbar at the and a photogrammetric drone survey were made. At
end of the arms, probably Christian. The latter type is this point all the information for a realistic stone 3D
most numerous and can be attributed to the modern age. reconstruction and technical documentation was gathered.
However, other figures seem prehistoric, most notably the The laser scanning, even without accurate photographic
rhombus shapes and cross engraved on circles, an eight data, allowed us to scale the 3D model generated by the
spoked wheel and a pair of horns. There are also several photographs. An acceptable photographic resolution model
cupules, of various diameters. The largest is connected by that combined with manual relief provides accurate and
a groove to two small cupules, placed a little higher. Other faithful documentation. The boulder size and the context
cupules are also connected by grooves. Finally, there are in which it is inserted should be considered important. The
some cylindrical holes, a few centimetres wide and deep. rich vegetation does not allow one to approach easily, and
All these cavities raise many interpretative issues that will its dimensions do not allow a reading of the engravings,
require further research (Ciabarra et al. 2018, 498) (Figure placed on its horizontal surface, without climbing the
5.6). boulder. These particular conditions, besides hindering the
activities of an instrumental survey, also limit the simple
The large dimensions of the Pietra delle Croci have made visual recognition of the engraved images, preventing
the survey operations difficult. The laser scanning was their study and tourist use (Amoretti and Varani 2016, 66-
carried out by positioning the instrument directly on the 73). In order to allow the reading and usage of the Stone
boulder surface, as dense vegetation and the large size of of Crosses engravings, it was therefore decided to digitise
the stone did not allow it to be undertaken from a distance. the entire figurative repertoire in CAD using the texture

58
 New technologies for the survey, documentation and representation of rock art remains

Figure 5.6: “Pietra delle Croci” Aerial photo. The stone is surrounded by vegetation.

extrapolated from the aerial photogrammetric relief, digitization software such as LupoScan, as the extrapolated
corrected through a straightened photo of the manual point cloud does not always allow it. However, the cloud
relief, creating an augmented reality display system as can be used to create a photoplan that serves as a basis
a final product. The figurative digitization took place for vectorization in CAD.6 The realisation of the contact
by straightening a contact relief orthogonal photo and relief, in the Pietra delle Croci site case, proved to be a
importing it into the CAD environment (Barberini 2006, particularly useful tool, as it made it possible to relocate
48-51). Superimposing the images of the texture on the the photographic texture images, obtained from the
manual relief, made it possible to grasp the photographic aerial photogrammetric survey, on a plane, and therefore
image details and have a more accurate relief (Figure 5.7). create easily readable documentation that can be used
for multimedia processing. The three sites mentioned
5.6 Data Representation which have different stylistic, morphological and logistic
characters, represent a valid example for the different
The experiments carried out so far in the digitization of methodologies definition to be used in the acquisition
rock art sites context have clarified some aspects mainly process and representation archaeological data. It was
related to 3D survey techniques. In classical archaeological possible to identify standardised acquisition geometries
contexts the use of a laser scanner survey is an established methods and to identify the data digital representation
and undisputed method in recording the presence of potential, especially considering the multiple usability
structures, ruins or excavation trenches. We now see how requirements. The 3D survey plays a decisive role for
in particular geographic and morphological contexts, accurate scientific documentation and for the development
prehistoric art shows us some interesting examples, which of graphic representations intended for different levels
may make the laser scanner survey difficult (Campana and of users. The acquisition and digitization procedures
Francovich 2006, 333). If we consider that the digitization were therefore oriented to the production of technical
and graphical representation data phase of the 3D model archaeological documentation, but also to possible
in rock art sites always requires the figurative apparatus
vectorization, when using the photogrammetry, we are
forced to find alternative solutions to the use of direct 6
www.lupos3d.com

59
Gianni Furiassi

Figure 5.7: The “Pietra delle Croci” three-dimensional reconstruction by photogrammetry.

developments in the field of tourism, teaching, e-learning

and shared knowledge.7 The aim is to increase the
intrinsic value of this documentary heritage, linked to the
possibility of being exploited in different fields (Arrighetti
et al. 2013, 31-32) (Figure 5.8).

The different data acquisition and graphic representation

methods, combined according to the practical needs that
we encountered in different contexts, allowed us to always
obtain complete technical documentation. The graphic
representation facilitates the learning and knowledge
of a site, especially if used by a specialised and capable
user. Archaeology has become a multidisciplinary activity
that is aimed at an increasing number of users: museum
operators, tourism and cinema operators, historians,
philosophers, architects, enthusiasts, educators. However,
archaeological graphical representation, without the
possibility of being able to be clearly displayed will always
remain relegated to an elitist and professional world.

7
For an in-depth analysis on e-learning state in Italy expressed
at university level, the contribution of Cantoni and Esposito from
2004 available at the link is interesting: http://www.chersi.it/listing/
dol_06_07/2_02_07_nt_did/second_sett/materiali/newmine_cantoni_ Figure 5.8: Example of rock engravings visualization with
alii_ctu.pdf. augmented reality

60
 New technologies for the survey, documentation and representation of rock art remains

Laser scanning surveys and 3D modelling today contribute Di Fraia, T., Furiassi, G., Palmerini, G. and Ciabarra, C.
to the graphic representation needs that are expressed “Parete Manzi (Montelapiano, CH)”. In Notiziario di
with greatest potential in virtual and augmented reality. Preistoria e Protostoria – 2017, 4.II, Neolitico ed età
The possibility of viewing “as in reality” an otherwise dei Metalli. Italia settentrionale e peninsulare, edited
inaccessible and destined to deteriorate site, is the best by M. Miari and F.R. Borel, 45-47. Firenze: IIPP, 2017.
possible solution. When the realisation of technical
Gopi, T. Advanced Surveying: Total Station, GIS and
drawings fails to express the archaeological site features,
Remote Sensing, Dorling Kindersley (India), 2006.
and its scientific interpretation, can falsify or alter some
characteristic aspects, synthesising contexts too much. Palmerini, G. and Furiassi, G. “Anfratto Palmerini
The technical documentation, drawn up to widely (Pescosansonesco, PE)”. In Notiziario di Preistoria e
approved standards, remains a confidential reading, Protostoria – 2017, 4.II, Neolitico ed età dei Metalli.
accessible only to those who have the same technical Italia settentrionale e peninsulare, edited by M. Miari
knowledge. Consequently, it becomes necessary to use a and F.R. Borel, 48-50. Firenze: IIPP, 2017.
language accessible to all, that always takes into account Zambianchi, C. ““Quasi una vacanza”: Piero Guccione,
training and educational aspects. The latest information Lorenzo Tornabuoni e Giovanni Checchi in Libia”. In
technologies offer a great opportunity for the growth La memoria dell’arte. Le pitture rupestri dell’Acaus
of the archaeological discipline, but only analysing the tra passato e futuro, edited by S. Di Lernia and D.
opportunities and starting a data standardisation and Zampetti, 55-78. Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio, 2008.
language uniformity work.
Websites
Future prospects undoubtedly invite us to open the doors
to research projects oriented to the definition of a standard Lupos3D GbR, Wollankstraße 119, 13187 Berlin,
language. Germany. www.lupos3d.com
The Blender Foundation (2002) is an independent public
Bibliography benefit organisation. Its spin-off corporation Blender
Amoretti, G. and Varani, N. Psicologia e geografia del Institute (2007) hosts the foundation’s offices and
turismo: dai motivi del turista all’elaborazione dell’offerta. currently employs 24 people who work on the Blender
Padova: libreriauniversitaria.it Edizioni, 2016. software and creative projects to validate and test
Blender in production environments. www.blender.org
Arrighetti et al. “Documentazione archeologica e
comunicazione “diversificata”: proposte e riflessioni Official web page of Unity. www.unity3d.com
dall’integrazione di software high-cost e open-source”. Fasti Online. A database of archaeological excavations
In Archeologia Virtuale: comunicare in digitale. Atti since the year 2000 http://www.fastionline.org/.
del III Seminario Roma, 19-20 giugno 2012, edited by
S. Gianolio,1985-1994. Roma: Espera srl, 2013.
Barberini, C. AutoCad e il rilievo archeologico digitale.
Perugia: Morlacchi Editore, 2006.
Campana, S. and Francovich, R. (eds). Laser scanner e
GPS. Paesaggi archeologici e tecnologie digitali. I
Workshop Grosseto, 4 marzo 2005. Firenze: All’Insegna
del Giglio, 2006.
Ciabarra, C., Di Fraia, T., Furiassi, G., Palmerini,
G. and Vianello, A. “The “Pietra delle Croci” di
Lettopalena (Chieti, Abruzzo): first reproductions
and investigations”. In Book of abstracts of 20th
International Rock Art Congress Ifrao 2018 “Standing
on the shoulders of giants / Sulle spalle dei giganti”
Valcamonica – Darfo Boario Terme (BS) 29 Agosto –
2 Settembre 2018, edited by M. Giorgi, 498. Capo di
Ponte (BS): Edizioni del Centro, 2018.
Di Fraia, T. and Manzi, A. “Nuove scoperte di arte rupestre
preistorica in Abruzzo”. Preistoria Alpina, 46 II (2021):
109-117. Museo delle Scienze, Trento.
Di Fraia, T. “Le raffigurazioni rupestri della Parete Manzi
di Montelapiano (Chieti) e quelle del Cavone di
Spinazzola (Bari)”. In XLVII Riunione Scientifica IIPP
in Puglia. Ostuni (BR), 9-13 ottobre, 2012.

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 6

Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and

Ute rock art in the Canyons of the Ancients
National Monument, Colorado (USA)

Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Abstract Our chapter focuses on different techniques of digital documentation, such as

photogrammetry and laser scanning as well as subsequent analysis in a virtual environment
of Native American (Ancestral Pueblo culture and historic Utes) rock art and Euro-American
settlers “historical inscriptions” from the central Mesa Verde region, southwestern Colorado,
USA. Special focus was put on the extracting elements invisible to the “naked-eye” by using
high-resolution photo documentation and 3D digitization – via photogrammetry, Reflectance
Transformation Imaging, and DStretch software. Also, we briefly discuss the potential benefits
and disadvantages of using specific methods in field research, mainly in terms of photogrammetry,
laser scanning, and RTI analysis.

Keywords Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art – image processing – image rectification – Reality
Capture – V-RTI

6.1 Introduction or IFRAO – The International Federation of Rock Art

Organisations, to mention just a few).
This chapter presents some results from our research on
Native American rock art from several canyons in the These techniques allow us to document and analyse
southwestern part of Colorado (USA) focusing on the petroglyphs and paintings (pictographs) and look more
various types of digital documentation that we used – mainly thoroughly at the context of ancient cultures and societies.
photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) – and In our case it also enabled us to capture and visualise some
a subsequent analysis with different software, including details and motifs that are difficult or even impossible to
Agisoft Metashape, RealityCapture (RC), Reflectance document by using traditional methods of documentation
Transformation Imaging (RTI) and others. The use of alone and that could not be seen with the naked eye. We
modern forms of digitisation including different types of investigated this type of visualisation by using DStretch
photogrammetry and laser scanning is now widely applied software (based on the Decorrelation stretch-DS technique,
in various archaeological projects focusing on rock art e.g., Gillespie 1992; Gillespie et al. 1986), which is
documentation (e.g., Fröhlich and Mettenleiter 2004; Historic probably the most commonly used nowadays for the
England 2017; 2018a; MacDonald 2014; Remondino enhancement of rock painting images (e.g., Harman 2008;
and Campana 2014) and has been the subject of various Le Quellec et al. 2013; López et al. 2016) and can also be
conferences and symposia (see, for example, particular combined with other methods and “new” technologies in
proceedings from the CAA-Computer Applications and rock art documentation (e.g., Quesada and Harman 2019,
Quantitative Methods in Archaeology and ISPRS Archives – see there for further literature). To enhance a few rock art
The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote panels (mainly petroglyphs) we also used the Reflectance
Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences proceedings Transformation Imaging technique (RTI), also known as
Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) (CHI 2020; Earl et
al. 2010; Historic England 2018b; MacDonald and Robson
2010; Malzbender et al. 2000; 2001).

The research project is centred around the Lower Sand

Canyon area, in the Montezuma County, southwestern
Colorado in three canyons: Sand Canyon, East Fork of
Rock Creek Canyon and Graveyard Canyon and our
second research area is Sandstone Canyon located roughly
16 kilometres northwest from the Lower Sand Canyon
locality. All are part of the Canyons of the Ancients
National Monument, a legally protected area managed
by the US Bureau of Land Management. The canyons in
the first research area (Lower Sand Canyon-Figure 6.1)

63
Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Figure 6.1: Project research area 1 within the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Mesa Verde region, southwestern Colorado (USA) (drawing by M. Znamirowski on the basis
of USGS/United States Geological Survey data and Project own research).

64
 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

contain the remains of forty small sites including well- details in every picture). For 3D laser scanning research,
preserved cliff dwellings with some sandstone architecture we used the Faro Focus 3D S120 phase scanner and maps
and rock art, as well as one large site or the community of the sites were prepared using the Topcon OS-103 and
centre – Castle Rock Pueblo (Site 5MT1825); all these Topcon GPT 3007N tachymeters, RTK Trimble GPS and
sites probably functioned as a community of allied sites AutoCAD and CorelDRAW Graphic software as well as
during the 13th century CE (e.g., Ortman 2008; Palonka ArcGIS Pro.
2011; 2017; 2019; Palonka et al. 2020; 2021; Varien
1999). The elevation of the study area ranges between With the aim of enhancing some of the less well-preserved
about 1550–2100 m above sea level, with most of the sites rock art panels (both petroglyphs and paintings), we later
located between 1650–1800 m.a.s.l. The second research analysed them in a virtual environment using different
area, Sandstone Canyon is located at an elevation of c. software, including mainly Agisoft Photoscan/Agisoft
1650–1700 m.a.s.l. and includes several sites with huge Metashape, PhoToPlan, Photoshop, CorelDRAW,
rock art panels on the canyon walls and dated to different DStretch and Reflectance Transformation Imaging
periods, from c. 500 BCE until the turn of the twentieth (RTI). The latter (RTI) is “a computational photographic
century CE; they were created by various Native American method that captures a subject’s surface shape and colour
cultures and tribes, mainly Pueblo and Utes (Cole 2005; and enables the interactive re-lighting of the subject
Palonka 2016). from any direction” (http://culturalheritageimaging.org/
Technologies/RTI/). Although perhaps not widely used
Our research has been conducted since 2011 by the Sand (e.g., Duffy 2018a; 2018b; Earl et al. 2010; Mudge et al.
Canyon-Castle Rock Community Archaeological Project 2006; Pires et al. 2015; Solem and Nau 2020, see there
led by the Institute of Archaeology at the Jagiellonian for further literature), it did in fact help us enormously in
University in Kraków (Poland) with the cooperation and terms of enhancing and interpreting some details of the
help of several American institutions, mainly Canyons rock art panels by varying the position of the light in a
of the Ancients National Monument and Crow Canyon virtual environment, especially a technique that we may
Archaeological Centre. Great emphasis has been call V-RTI, what means virtual RTI. This method was
placed on digitisation and different digital techniques developed, probably independently in only a few places
of documentation, including photogrammetry (also in the world, including by one of the authors of this paper,
photogrammetry from a UAV/drone) and terrestrial laser Bolesław Zych).
scanning (TLS), which have allowed us to document
the rock art, especially when located in hard-to-access In the case of rock art, the above-mentioned modern
places like cliff alcoves and shelters. Using non-invasive methods of digitisation brought the most changes in the
techniques, archaeologists from Krakow have partially documentation process and later analysis, providing
or fully surveyed thirty out of around forty of the small and revealing data and details that often could not be
Ancient Puebloan sites in the project research area. observed by the naked eye or obtained by hand drawing
or ordinary photography alone (e.g., Palonka et al.
6.2 Methodology and Equipment 2021). Later, some simulations and visualisations were
run using different software and equipment, including
Rock art as well as murals and examples of “modern animations and movies. We also created virtual models
graffiti” were partly recorded by the field crew and students of some of the rock art panels documented during our
involved in the research via hand drawing as well as, to work. One three-dimensional model of a rock art panel
a great extent, digital photography and photogrammetry. from Site 5MT129 in Sand Canyon can be seen on the
For accurate measurements, recording the location and Sketchfab-website: https://sketchfab.com/radek.palonka;
layout of the sites as well as the relation of the rock art https://e-sandcanyon.org/ the model is shown in colour
panels to the architecture, settlements, and the surrounding and greyscale. Part of this work, including a multimedia
landscape, we used electronic tachymeters/total stations, rock art presentation, was displayed at two museum
GPS RTK and 3D terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), along exhibitions: in 2019 at the Canyons of the Ancients Visitor
with photogrammetry from a UAV/drone. Rock art panels Centre & Museum, Dolores (Colorado) and in 2020
located in inaccessible locations or extremely fragile at the Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum (Utah).
were documented exclusively via digital photography, Appropriate presentation, publication and different forms
photogrammetry, and laser scanning; they were later of virtual reconstructions and visualisations of rock art is
drawn, mostly via CorelDRAW Graphic software. also the focus of our research.

The equipment varied according to season but included few 6.3 Digital Photography, Photogrammetry, and Laser
digital cameras used for photogrammetry and photography Scanning
– mainly NIKON D700 and NIKON D7100 with 24-, 35-,
and 55-mm lenses (photos in jpeg/tiff formats); we also For the documentation of rock art sites, we used at least
initially used the SONY A7RII camera with 35- and 55-mm two different photogrammetric techniques. The first uses
lenses and a 42,4-megapixel CMOS back-illuminated multiple overlapping images (horizontal, vertical as well as
sensor (this sensor enhances light collection efficiency parallel and convergent images to minimise the systematic
while minimising image noise, in order to reveal fine errors) that provide the coverage necessary to reconstruct the

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

entire object (rock art panels in our case). The data can then for creating a 3D model generated along with surface
be analysed via different dedicated software like Bundler, vector maps – normal maps and global lighting maps,
Photomodeler, Pix4D mapper, and Agisoft Photoscan (now similarly to other investigations conducted by different
Agisoft Metashape), and many others (see for example scholars (e.g., Štuhec 2017). In order to emphasise and
Historic England 2017); we use the latter, which is one reveal the characteristic features of the surface, ambient
of the most popular on the market. We have conducted occlusion maps were generated, which showed surface
photogrammetry with this method at several rock art sites irregularities in grey scale.
in the community. The other method is the single image
rectification technique that is discussed later in this chapter. In this way, it was possible to emphasise the shapes
that outline the individual elements of the petroglyph;
6.3.1 Multiple images photogrammetry and 3D however, the surface from the laser scanning and after the
scanning triangulation process was very noisy, and did not provide
a satisfactory result, however, it bore fruit thanks to
We used this technique for the few sites with petroglyphs photogrammetry. Then it was visualised in the RTI viewer
mainly. The example is Site 5MT129, located in a cliff (Figure 6.4) where we obtained a model with a very accurate
alcove (shelter) in a branch along the east side of Sand surface, without much noise, showing elements that had
Canyon (elevation of the site is 1795 m.a.s.l.). It is a cliff previously been barely visible or invisible – the outline of
dwelling settlement with several domestic and religious an unfinished spiral, made as a series of punctures on the
structures (at least two rooms and two kivas–Figure 6.2); surface of the rock as well as other motifs. Also, the ability
the site faces directly south. Rock art at this site involves to change the lighting, its direction, intensity, reflection
a panel with three-spiral petroglyphs along with other from the surface as well as various types of filters, enabled
geometric motifs like lines, dots, and cupules. The left accurate analysis of the petroglyph (for more description
spiral is only barely visible, while the right spiral has of the RTI/V-RTI technique see below).
been interpreted as possibly resembling a snake, also
based on analogies to other sites in Arizona and Utah. The 6.3.2 Single image rectification photogrammetry of
spiral motif can have a variety of meanings to modern large panels in Sandstone Canyon
Pueblo people, and is often interpreted as being related
to migration, or could be connected with water and sun A different photogrammetry method known as image
symbolism, as well as astronomical observations. The rectification1 was used to document huge rock art
rock art panel was documented using digital photography sites or galleries in Sandstone Canyon. Since 2014
and photogrammetry, and with terrestrial laser scanning the documentation of several rock art sites located
(TLS) followed by analysis using Agisoft Photoscan and in Sandstone Canyon, approximately 16 kilometres
RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging) software. northwest of the first/main research area (Sand Canyon
and East Fork of Rock Creek Canyon), was also initiated
To acquire better resolution and further details of the rock on the invitation from the partner Institution that also
art panel, we used photogrammetry and Agisoft Photoscan manages the area, the Canyons of the Ancients National
software. The first model was generated in Agisoft from Monument/US Bureau of Land Management. During the
a series of 175 photos taken from a distance of about course of several years of surveys and documenting the
2.5 m parallel to the surface, with a Nikon D7100 (f/5.6, southwestern part of Sandstone Canyon, we were able to
ISO–400, 35mm), obtaining a Dense Cloud with point make an inventory of rock art panels (mostly petroglyphs)
distances at every 1.2 mm on average. The next stage of of one site previously known and this also led to the
processing the model was to lower the mesh surface from discovery of four previously unknown sites with rock art
a high polygonal to low polygonal model for better post- and their subsequent documentation. The largest site with
processing (Guidi and Remondino 2012), and transferring rock art is Site 5MT13288 (Strawman Panel Site/Painted
surface vector information by normal maps; thanks to Hand Petroglyph Panel) (Figure 6.5); it is a 130-metre-
this we don’t lose detail information about the original long canyon wall almost full-covered with rock art
surface. Next, for the purposes of interpretation in the 3D (mostly petroglyphs) dated to different time periods (Cole
environment, the light source, its intensity, distance and a 2005; Palonka 2016). The highest part of this cliff wall is
series of lighting directions were defined in relation to the 1667,56 m.a.s.l. and the bottom or modern ground surface
analysed model. The next step was the creation of a series is 1641 m.a.s.l. (at its highest point the wall is 26 m), and
of renderings, each with a different panel illumination, the petroglyphs are located up to c. 3 metres above the
and importing them into the RTIbuilder to generate a file modern ground surface. There is a metal fence that runs
that allows us to use a range of available filters and light across the whole length of the wall and at the distance of
movement for interpretation purposes. This virtual post c. 3 m from it to protect the petroglyphs from vandals and
processing method we call V-RTI. animals, mostly cows from the nearby cattle ranch.

The site was documented using a laser scanner (TLS) with

42 scanning positions and the petroglyph with 2 scanning
1
The process of “rectification involves the projective transformation of a
single tilted image to a plane to remove the tilt displacements, optionally
positions (Figure 6.3). The point cloud from the rock art including an estimation of lens distortion parameters” (Historic England
(after filtering with 1.5 mm resolution) provided the base 2017, 10).

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

Figure 6.2: Site 5MT129 in Sand Canyon during documentation with a laser scanner (a) and a map of the site with the
location of particular buildings and the petroglyph panel (b) (photo by M. Znamirowski, drawing by K. Ciomek, B. Zych).

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Figure 6.3: Comparison of: (a) the resolution from the documentation with laser scanning and photogrammetry and later
analysis of the petroglyph panel at Site 5MT129 (by B. Zych); (b) drawing of the petroglyph panel based on photogrammetry,
laser scanning, RTI analysis, traditional photos and direct-field observations (drawing by K. Ciomek).

Rock art at this site was initially dated from around 500 and animals, shamans, and extended scenes that include
BCE, through the first few centuries CE to the end of the fighting and also the hunting of large animals, mostly
thirteenth century CE (the final period of Pueblo culture deer, bison, and bighorn sheep. Of course, almost every
occupation of this area) and later to the historical period panel of rock art features so-called “modern graffiti” or
and the appearance of the ancestors of the historic Ute just vandalism such as initials, names and dates; some of
and Navajo Indians in this area. The petroglyphs depict them were left by early explorers and settlers of the area
mostly single geometric motifs, clan symbols (the bear and Mexican and American cowboys passing through the
paw appears the most often), individual figures of people canyon with cattle at the turn of nineteenth and twentieth

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

Figure 6.4: Petroglyph panel from Site 5MT129 and post processing (after photogrammetry) surface analysis via RTI:
(a) RTI Builder interface and (b–e) post processing with a different light direction in V-RTI (virtual RTI) (by B. Zych).

century (we were even able to identify some of the documentation process due to the fact that the panels are
ranchers’ families that their members left these carvings). so large and contain so many depictions that detailed hand
drawing would last many months; another factor was
For the Strawman Panel site, we chose photogrammetry the limited access to just one road leading to the site and
documentation as the main method for several reasons, managed by a private landowner who run a cattle ranch
but mainly because of the short time we had for the nearby. Photogrammetry was taken using different digital

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Figure 6.5: Examples of the documentation and subsequent drawing of large rock art galleries using single image rectification
photogrammetry at the Strawman Panel site (5MT13288) in Sandstone Canyon (by P. Micyk, drawings by K. Ciomek).

cameras (see Methodology section) and plans of the sites the petroglyph wall (between the fence and the canyon
were prepared using the electronic tachymeter Topcon wall); it included photographs taken in the early afternoon
GPT 3007N, GPS RTK Trimble (geodetic references were (the wall is then in shade and particular depictions are
recorded in the UTM 12 coordinate system), the same much more visible than in full sunlight); in every photo
equipment was used for control points measurements. there were at least 4 markers (mostly more); 2) a second
The information was obtained from single images and series of photos was taken for the control from a distance
by using a process of image rectification, which is one of of c. 6–7 m and due to the high metal fence the photographs
the simplest ways to achieve this type of documentation were taken from the roof of a car; 3) a third series of photos
(e.g., Historic England 2017, 9–11). Besides documenting was taken from a much longer distance, c. 25 m from
the rock art, some geophysics research (mainly GPR the canyon wall for photographic and photogrammetry
and electrical resistivity) and test-pits excavations were documentation of the entire cliff wall.
conducted at the Strawman Panel Site.
The main benefits of the image rectification method are
For the photogrammetry documentation, we first positioned the relatively short time required to gather data, which
control points or markers on the canyon wall between mainly involves setting up the markers, photographing
different rock art depictions and panels; white stickers and recording/measuring all the markers, as well as
with black dots in the middle were control points; later the low fieldwork cost (besides the geodetic works).
we recorded them using an electronic tachymeter/total The photogrammetry took two days of fieldwork in
station Topcon GPT 3000N (we used several positions of 2014 and we returned to the site in 2015 to finish some
the total station because of the presence of the fence). The documentation (one day). Also, we had to check our
total number of markers was 918 and they were placed up drawings from the photogrammetry and compare them
to 2 m above the modern ground surface and in a pattern with the petroglyphs at the site (during this check we were
of 4-5 markers in a “column” at a distance of c. 1 m from able to find an additional c. 40 depictions that were missed
one to the next column and partly randomly between from the photogrammetry).
those locations; every marker was recorded with X, Y, Z
coordinates using the tachymeter and compatible with the The main part of the documentation process is conducted
UTM 12 coordinate system. The upper edge of the cliff in the lab (image processing, preparing orthophoto
wall was also documented using an electronic tachymeter plans and subsequent drawings). For the initial stage of
and control points (around 100 control points/markers were data processing, we used geodetic MikroMap and the
used for recording the upper shape of the canyon wall). rectification was made using software running inside a
AutoCAD package like PhoToPlan (the first release of this
The next step included photographic/photogrammetry software as AutoCAD Plugins, later in Autodesk Revit,
documentation of all of the rock art depictions and panels and now part of the FARO software), although this is quite
and the canyon wall. The photogrammetry documentation expensive software; we used AutoCAD Plugin PhoToPlan
(the measurement of single images and by using a process Ultimate 8. Then we exported the orthophoto plans with
of image rectification) was conducted in three stages or detailed scales as pdf files for further drawing using
series of photos: 1) from a distance of c. 2.5–3 metres from AutoCAD and CorelDraw.

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

The main drawback of this method is that rectified last few years (e.g., Harman 2008; Cerrillo-Cuenca and
photography is most suitable for planar (flat) surfaces. Sepúlveda 2015; Rogerio-Candelera et al. 2011; Ruiz and
In our case, the cliff wall is not ideally flat (it is slightly Pereira 2014), including probably the most well-known and
curved but not three-dimensionally complex at all) and we used in studies of paintings, so-called DStretch. We used this
had to overcome this problem – we placed more markers to technique for the few sites with pictograms (paintings) as
obtain as many measurements as possible in a single image well as coloured murals from the building’s walls; in a few
(more than 900 markers were used in total). The entire cases we also tried to use this technique in connection with
cliff wall is 130 metres long so we decided to divide it into the petroglyphs (for example the Site 5MT22149/Sandal
nine parts (sectors) to obtain relatively flat surfaces for the Panel in Sandstone Canyon). Below there is the example
photogrammetric/image rectification documentation at from Site 5MT264 (The Gallery), located in East Fork of
every sector that allowed us to avoid typical errors. Rock Creek Canyon (Figure 6.6) where DStretch software
helped us a great deal in revealing previously unknown
6.4 Digital Enhancement: Making the Invisible Visible depictions, because they are barely visible or invisible to
the naked eye or by using traditional photography alone; so,
6.4.1. Decorrelation Stretch/DStretch this proved enormously helpful in reading the whole panel.

There are different techniques for digital tracing and The rock art from the Gallery is located in the central
enhancement of rock art that have been in use over the part of the site on the cliff face (facing east/southeast), c.

Figure 6.6: Rock art research at the Gallery site (East Fork of Rock Creek Canyon): (a) documentation of the architecture
and rock art panel (upper right) with a laser scanner (photo by R. Słaboński), (b) drawing of the panel based on DStretch
analysis (drawing by R. Palonka, K. Ciomek), (c–f) different filters used in DStretch: c–ac, d–lab, e–ldk, f–lds (DStretch
enhancement by J. Śliwa).

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

2.5–3 metres above the modern ground surface and also more widely using digital tools. The use of a 3D
above a small natural cave (also with the remnants of a environment creates conditions that cannot be used
masonry wall probably built in the thirteenth century CE in traditional documentation, i.e., apart from flat 2D
phase of this site’s occupation). The rock art panel consists representation – drawing and photography – we obtain
of paintings of several anthropomorphic trapezoidal and/ full surface geometry, which is subjected to colour
or triangular figures viewed frontally and painted in white scale analysis, relief depth, shape analysis using light,
and red. The most prominent and visible anthropomorph is simulation of the sun’s impact, capturing details that
painted in red, with two arms hanging alongside the torso; we would not acquire in traditional documentation. In
another two are painted in white and one has raised hands. addition, rendering in a three-dimensional and V-RTI
This last anthropomorph has a visible, though poorly environment eliminates errors resulting from inadequate
preserved, headdress, which could only be seen after lighting, intensity, lens aberrations. Renderings from 3D
analysing photos using special filters in graphic programs software are always sharp and provide a properly reflected
(we used simply Photoshop in this case). On both sides surface. Using V-RTI allows analysis of different types of
of the panel there are poorly preserved remnants of some surfaces, ranging from small elements through terrain with
depictions in red; the one to the left is only preserved in archaeological sites (e.g., Goskar and Cripps 2011), which
fragments and may possibly be a depiction of a parrot or is impossible with standard RTI due to the surface size.
turkey (these could be a later addition).
In Lower Sand Canyon there are some quite well-preserved
Due to the poorly preserved state of the painting, it is rock art panels exposed to rainfall and sun exposure,
difficult to unequivocally determine what it represents, e.g. the petroglyph panel at the 5MT129 site and some
although we have recently managed to enhance it heavily eroded panels, practically invisible to the naked
significantly using DStretch, which also revealed that eye, such as the petroglyph at the 5MT261 site (Figure
the middle white figure has some decoration (stripes or 6.7). Visualisation of the surface of the three-dimensional
other elements) on its torso. After photo enhancement models generated from a point cloud of laser scanning and
(and zooming the photos on a computer) we could see photogrammetry enabled an interpretation of the shape of
more anthropomorphic figures painted in white: at least the petroglyphs and their accurate documentation. The first
two trapezoidal humans shown in frontally and possibly effects could already be observed at the stage of processing
two other small figures in motion. Furthermore, the red in Metashape using the Model Solid and Occlusion Map
figure probably has a “head” with some kind of elaborated functions. The models, however, are displayed without
headdress (or mask), possibly in the form of petroglyph lighting, so their surface is flat and the shapes of the
and white painting or, more probably, the red trapezoidal petroglyphs are not sufficiently outlined. Therefore, after
anthropomorph superimposes this “mask” (the red figure generating a series of images with different lighting in a
partly superimposes the white figure to the left as well). virtual environment and processing them with RTIbuilder,
we obtained a surface image emphasising the shapes of
All of these depictions from both sites could be perceived the petroglyphs with the help of lighting that changes in
as representing the eastern variants of the Basketmaker real time.
rock art (probably BM II/early BM III style), also called
the San Juan Anthropomorphic style (Cole 2009, 117–43; Thanks to this, it was possible to analyse a heavily
Palonka 2019, 236–40; Schaafsma 1980, 109–21) that damaged petroglyph at the 5MT261 site, which presents
could be roughly dated in this area from 1000/500 BCE to a spiral, a sandal and two feet, invisible to the naked eye
400/500 CE., with an emphasis on the last centuries BCE (Figures 6.7, 6.8). Access to this petroglyph example is
or first centuries CE. The interpretation of these rock art easy because it is located on ground level, but lighting
panels is difficult but some of these depictions can be seen the entire petroglyph panel with the RTI technique is
as representations of chiefs or warriors with plumes or physically difficult due to the nearby rock formation.
headdresses, or they may represent shamans (Cole 2009; Furthermore, in the case of the panel from the 5MT129
Schaafsma 1980, 109). site, documentation is difficult due to its size and location
with difficult access to it. Therefore, the only solution
6.4.2 RTI – Reflectance Transformation Imaging was to use non-invasive digitisation with laser scanning
and photogrammetry to obtain images in orthogonal
Considering the difficulties in applying the RTI process projection. The two-dimensional image analysed in RTI
in the field in this case, we used a virtual environment comes from the rendered surface of the three-dimensional
(Historic England 2018b). That afforded us full light model, and it is a reflection of the surface obtained as a
control – direction, intensity, type. In this way we result of point cloud post processing; it was not generated
eliminated errors that could occur during the capturing directly from photos obtained when photographing the
process using a traditional RTI method in the field, as petroglyph surface with different lighting according to
may be noticed with normal map filtering. We used RTI CHI (Cultural Heritage Imaging – CHI 2020) processes.
technique mostly for the analysis of the petroglyphs. The result is satisfactory, despite the modification of the
process, and depends on the density of the point cloud on
Scanning and photogrammetric data gave the opportunity whose basis the three-dimensional model for analysis was
to reproduce a virtual surface, which could be interpreted created. All edges, abrasions and punctures on the surface

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

Figure 6.7: Rock art at Site 5MT261 in Sand Canyon: (a) view of the site and location of petroglyphs, (b) photo of a rock art
(petroglyph) panel, (c) visualisations based on photogrammetry and RTI revealing some details not visible to the naked eye
(photos by M. Znamirowski; photogrammetry and RTI analysis by B. Zych).

are visible, as well as processes related to the formation of combining individual elements into one complex. Data of
the petroglyph and its erosion. this type allowed us to integrate architecture, rock art and
the selected landscape features with precise locations and
6.5 The Bigger Picture: Laser Scanning, Drone (UAV), geographic coordinates. Combinations of data from laser
and Digital Elevation Models scanning, photogrammetry and UAV photogrammetry
were processed using RealityCapture (RC) software, which
Capturing photogrammetric and scanning data facilitated enabled automatic merging of files in the form of RGB
the documentation of selected sites in a broader context, images, recognising the correlation between overlapping

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Figure 6.8: Details of the rock art panel surface from Site 5MT261 using different software: (a) RealityCaptures, Blender,
Photoshop, RTI Builder; (b,c) RealityCaptures, Blender; (d) Agisoft Metashape, Blender, Photoshop; and (e,f) Agisoft
Metashape, Blender, RTI Builder (prepared by B. Zych).

data and identifying coexisting elements regardless of how – lintels, fingerprints in plaster) using high-resolution
they were obtained, including laser scanning data. photogrammetry, connected with the topography of the
area obtained by registering the closest surroundings with
This type of digitisation of the sites makes it possible to laser scanning and UAV photogrammetry. Data integration
document them at various levels of detail, focusing on was supported by control points measured in the WGS84/
the layout of the architecture itself obtained by scanning, UTM12 coordinate system, as well as by characteristic
supplemented with details (rock art, construction elements points within the architecture, which enabled their precise

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

connection. In addition to orienting the point cloud in the observing changes in light and shade on several examples
geospace, checkpoints allowed clusters – consisting of a at the same time, using a 3D environment such as Blender,
group of photos that were not automatically integrated – to or a game engine of for example Unity or Unreal Engine 4.
be connected manually.
6.6 Conclusions
This is also important for projects with a large amount
of data (5MT135 – 10500 photos and fls files, 5MT261 This chapter presents some results from research conducted
– 7600 photos/fls files), because it allows us to work in the canyons of the southwestern part of Colorado,
with smaller amounts of data divided into groups, thus USA focusing on digital documentation, mainly laser
streamlining data processing. The classification of the scanning and photogrammetry as well as a subsequent
area and the separation of vegetation allowed it to be analysis, using a variety of software, of rock art created
removed, which in some cases disturbs the visibility by several Native American cultures and tribes during
and the correlation between architecture and rock art different periods. The research area mainly encompasses
(5MT261 – trees obscuring the view of alcove with the three canyons located in the so-called Lower Sand Canyon
architectural remains). The geometry (shape and layout locality, with Ancestral Pueblo culture architecture and
of walls, remains of buildings) of some sites (5MT135, rock art along with huge rock art panels and sites in
5MT261) was recorded using three different techniques Sandstone Canyon (located 16 km northwest of the first
to document objects depending on their characteristics, area) containing Ancestral Pueblo, possibly Fremont, and
using scanning and photogrammetry for architecture historic Ute’s rock art. The total chronology of Ancestral
and rock art, and the topography of the surrounding area Pueblo rock art panels runs roughly from 500 BCE to 1300
with UAV photogrammetry. Other sites with a more CE (mostly the thirteenth century CE) in this area and
integrated structure were documented by scanning and more recent Ute Indians petroglyphs have been dated to
photogrammetry exclusively – 5MT129, 5MT1805. the seventeenth –nineteenth century; there are also many
Thanks to this, we have obtained a spatial image of the examples of “modern graffiti” and vandalism at those sites
sites that allows accurate documentation in correlation to left by early explorers, settlers and Mexican-American
other structures in a specific coordinate system. cowboys passing through the canyons at the turn of the
twentieth century.
An example is Site 5MT135 (Sunny Alcove), where inside
the niche, apart from architecture, there are examples of The aim of documenting rock art from this region was to
rock art along with a nearby tower (Site 5MT13446) at a produce a detailed inventory of this cultural heritage (apart
distance of about 120 m to the south, to the south-east. And from our other activities aimed at researching the settlement
on the other side of the canyon, about 200 m away, stands structure). Another goal was to check the efficacy of
the 5MT2796 site (a shrine). The second site, consisting various digitisation methods in the documentation of rock
of interconnected structures and rock art, is Site 5MT261, art and subsequent analysis of the obtained data in a virtual
next to which there is a tower on the west side, and a stone environment in order to better understand paintings and
with a petroglyph was discovered south of the rock shelter. petroglyphs damaged or obliterated by the passage of time
Thanks to accurate documentation, we can observe the and weather conditions. We used various techniques for
mutual relations between them, while it is also possible this: various methods of photogrammetry, laser scanning,
to perform simulations to study the rock art, the influence geodetic measurements and virtual enhancement using
of the sun on the petroglyph as well as the architectural DStretch and RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging)
elements or the edges of the alcove for example using techniques. The data recorded have been used to generate
ArcGIS software (Figure 6.9), creating a model of the accurate 2D documentation together with 3D models with
interaction, which would be not possible without creating special focus, among other things, on extracting elements
three-dimensional models from digitisation data. invisible to the naked eye by using high-resolution
photo documentation and three-dimensional digitisation.
The use of three-dimensional models and the Numerical The 3D models that were generated have been used to
Terrain Model generated on the basis of a point cloud interpret some depictions – for example, petroglyphs –
enables simultaneous real-time tracking of changes in via photogrammetry and RTI software (plus an additional
lighting and correlation between sites and rock art. An method – DStretch) to enhance particular images. We
example here are sites 5MT129, 5MT261, where the used this method to analyse rock art at sites 5MT129 and
discovered petroglyphs are located outside the alcoves 5MT261 from Sand Canyon, for example.
with the architecture and at a certain distance from it. The
virtual environment enables the simultaneous observation Also, virtual data processing may be a solution for other
of various selected elements, creating a lighting documentation techniques, whose application in the
simulation, as well as the observation of this process field may be difficult. Changing some processes like
within the reconstructed elements of architecture. It is also RTI and transferring them to a virtual environment (V-
possible to create a three-dimensional map of the actual RTI) facilitates data capturing in the field, regardless of
examples of rock art from different positions and thanks form and independent of weather conditions. At the same
to the exact knowledge of the geographic location and time, in the virtual environment, we gain full control
the surrounding landscape, we can create a simulation by over the lighting and the quality of the generated images.

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Radosław Palonka, Bolesław Zych

Figure 6.9: Digital Surface Model (DSM) of Site 5MT261 using ArcGis Pro software: (a) showing the location of the rock
art (marked with a square) in relation to the cliff dwelling and terrain; and (b-e) simulations of petroglyphs illuminated by
different light/sunlight positions: (b) light from the east: azimuth 90, angle 45˚; (c) light from the southeast: azimuth 135,
angle 45˚; (d) light from the south: azimuth 180, angle 45˚; (e) light from the southwest: azimuth 225, angle 45˚ (by B. Zych).

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 Digital documentation of Ancestral Pueblo and Ute rock art

Documenting hard-to-reach and large areas of rock art art and macro-scale study of terrain with the relation to
becomes also possible in a relatively short time. The particular rock art panels; Also, it is possible to overlap or
V-RTI technique was developed and adjusted to specific to complement different techniques like V-RTI, DStretch,
field conditions from the project research area by one of otophotoplanes, in our cases.
the authors of this chapter, Bolesław Zych (we know that
development of this method was probably independent in Acknowledgments
only a few places in the world).
Our research on rock art and its digital documentation
Depending on the scale of the object and its context, in the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument,
various digital methods also offer different possibilities Colorado (USA) was made possible thanks to the help
for documentation and analysis of individual objects of many institutions and individuals. We are sincerely
(particular rock art depictions and whole panels) and large thankful to our American partners, the Canyons of the
panels or galleries (such as the 130-metre Strawman Panel Ancients Visitor Centre & Museum/US Bureau of Land
Site in our case) in the wider context of the surrounding Management and Crow Canyon Archaeological Centre.
landscape. Documentation and analysis of archaeological This research was made possible by the financial support of
sites via the use of several different non-invasive methods numerous institutions, mainly the Institute of Archaeology
create new research possibilities by combining data. Fast and the Faculty of History of the Jagiellonian University
and mobile UAV documentation of large spaces allows in Kraków, and especially the National Science Centre,
digitised sites to be combined with rock art and landscape. Poland (grant UMO-2017/26/E/HS3/01174). We also thank
This enables us to obtain an accurate plan of the site along the former Dean of the Faculty of History at JU, Prof. Jan
with various details, e.g., rock art and precise topography Święch and Vice-Rector of the Jagiellonian University,
of the area, which then helps to build a GIS database Prof. Armen Edigarian for the possibility of acquiring
including the exact location of all architectural remains, important hardware and software for gathering digital data
even within large spaces. In addition to documentation, and subsequent analysis. Thanks also to Patryk Muntowski
it is possible to conduct simulations, for example, of sun and Paweł Micyk (from the Galty company) for conducting
lighting of the rock art panels (that could help in terms of and processing part of the photogrammetry documentation.
potential archaeoastronomical analysis), or hydrological
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DOIs for additional online material:

https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image1
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image2
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-video1
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-video2
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-video3
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-video4
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image3
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image4
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-3Dmodel1
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image5
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image6
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image7
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-image8
https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407360119/ch6-video5

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 7

Close encounters of the third dimension: recording the three-

dimensionality of the “topographic representations” in the
prehistoric rock art of Valcamonica and Valtellina (Italy)

Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

Abstract In the figurative repertoire on outcropping rock surfaces of the Central Alpine rock
art, the “topographic representations” – abstract compositions of geometric figures commonly
considered as depictions of landscapes – are one of the most enigmatic subjects. As they appear as
juxtapositions of modular elements often arranged in articulated complexes, these representations
show several solutions for conforming to the morphology and the natural unevenness of the rock
support. This is a peculiarity that the traditional recording method used for rock art, the manual
tracing on transparent sheets, fails to render successfully due to its bi-dimensional setting. This
study proposes the application of the Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetric range
imaging technique to a selected sample of “topographic representations” from Valcamonica and
Valtellina in order to record their three-dimensional features connected to the rock surface and to
analyse the meaning of this relationship.

Keywords Central Alps – Prehistoric Rock Art – Topographic Representations – Three-

dimensional recording – SfM

7.1. Introduction provide an accurate replica of the three-dimensional

morphology of the rock surface conveying carved or
In the field of rock art studies, the last decade attested painted images. The impact of the third dimension is in
a widespread implementation of 3D documentation fact a central aspect of rock art recording which regrettably
procedures based on stereo-photogrammetric techniques. have never been properly addressed by the classic
Despite the limitations of this methodology in terms of methods of documentation (photography, paper rubbing
accessibility and dissemination in traditional printed and especially tracing on transparent plastic sheet) of rock
media, which is still the most widespread means for art, especially in the Valcamonica and Valtellina areas.1
scientific publications, these approaches eventually The traditional tracing on plastic sheets of the underlying
images, a methodology quite efficient and still widespread
in central alpine rock art research, returns a range of two-
dimensional data from the surface.2 This method takes
care chiefly of the recording of the artificial elements (the
carved images), limiting natural features to the essential
(mostly the main fractures, sometimes the glacial streaks)
without taking into account the shape of the overall rock
surface.

However, in Valcamonica and Valtellina the distinctive

morphologic characteristics of the rocks compel the
adoption of complementary documentation techniques
for properly illustrating their elaborate three-dimensional
structure. On the rocks of these two valleys the effects of
the Pleistocenic glacialism have been strikingly preserved,
with outcrops modelled by the intense process of exaration
performed by the massive pressure and movement of the

1
A critical view on digital and traditional methodologies applied in
central alpine rock art is in Arcà et al. 2008 (now outdated). Further,
more recent considerations in Arcà 2016, 273–287. A case study with
application of a 3D SfM technique in Valcamonica in Medici and Rossi
2015. An effective and advanced integrated documentation system,
unfortunately quite difficult to apply over large surfaces, has been
proposed for carved monoliths in Rondini 2018.
2
Arcà et al. 2008, 355–360; Arcà 2016, 273–277; Marretta 2018, 63–70.

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Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

ice sheets during the last glacial stages. Roches moutonnées accompany them, do not represent constituent elements
abound, and the surfaces, often intensely “sculpted” by but juxtaposed additions. Furthermore, these surrounding
nature in smooth and plastically moulded forms (called motifs are often indirectly associated and possibly not in
by geologists ``p-forms’’: Hugget 2011, 263–271), are phase, thus irrelevant or useless to clarify the meaning
punctuated not only by fractures and detachments, but of the whole. To date, nevertheless, the topographic
also by striations, grooves, channels, curvy ridges, crests, hypothesis remains the only valid exegetical proposal in
hollows and bumps. the absence of equally or more convincing alternatives.
The use of modular elements of regular geometric form
It is therefore not infrequent to find a direct relationship has thus favoured the principle that recognizes in the
between the carved motifs and the three-dimensional iconography of the “topographic representations” an
features of the underlying bedrock. The natural idealised translation of the ancient landscape, centred
characteristics of the surfaces were exploited by the on the exclusive artificial components introduced by the
rock art creators as guiding elements to arrange figures, human activity (cultivated fields, enclosures, cattle pens,
organise scenes and distribute figurative groups (Marretta huts: Gavaldo 1995; Turconi 1997).
2018, 96). Such a systematic phenomenon suggests that
the geological and morphological qualities of the rock On the chronological front, there is fortunately
outcrops have in some way inspired the emergence and less speculative data. Rare but significant cases of
subsequent development of a figurative tradition which superimpositions of images datatable with good
lasted from the late Neolithic (about 4000 BCE) until confidence to a central phase of the Chalcolithic (style III
modern times. A1: 3000-2500 BCE: terminus ante quem) recorded on
decorated monoliths and on rocks in Valcamonica assign
In the vast rock art motif repertoire of Valcamonica and an early beginning of the topographic subject falling
Valtellina, there is a specific subject which persistently in an unspecified moment of the 4th millennium, in the
shows significant connections with the features of the lithic late Neolithic-Early Chalcolithic 1 phases (3800-3400
support: it is the so-called “topographic” motif, usually BCE). Some rock palimpsests with topographic images
referred in literature as “map motif” or simply “maps”. produced in different superimposed phases demonstrate
It is obvious, considering the interpretative importance how the timespan of this oldest chapter of the subject
of this figurative class, that the contribution of the stereo- can be divided into two distinct successive moments:
photogrammetric techniques in this particular case does phase II A (ca. 3800-3400 BCE), characterised by the
not only have an innovative and advanced documentary incision of large areas of irregular sub-geometric shape
value, but rather introduces a new parameter with possibly with uncertain contours, called maculae, and phase II
vital implications on the epistemological and exegetical B (ca. 3400-2000 BCE), marked by greater geometric
side. regularity of topographical modules and by more complex
compositions (Figure 7.1a, 7.1b).4 In Valtellina, the long-
7.2 The “Topographic Representations” In Central lasting formal development of a peculiar local compound
Alpine Rock-Art: An Iconographic and Interpretative module, the so called “scutiforme” (Italian for “shield-
Profile shaped figure”: Figure 7.7), suggests also the existence of
a later phase II C, which can be tentatively placed during
With the term “topographic representation” we usually the early and central phases of the Bronze Age (first half of
indicate a category of rock art compositions created the 2nd millennium BCE; Martinotti 2009; 2018, 87–91).
through the association of various regular geometric
figures – mostly rectangles in contour lines or fully After a period of rarefaction – or downright interruption –
pecked, clusters of small cup-marks/dots, connecting corresponding to the late Bronze Age, the “topographic”
lines – repeated in a modular way to form more or less motif reappears in Valcamonica during the early Iron Age in
articulated and extended configurations (Figure 7.1). The new forms, with completely different constituent modules
qualification of “topographic” (or “planimetric”) images and compositional formulas. This is the phase of the most
attributed to these figurative assemblages derives from spectacular and well-known representations, such as the
the shared opinion that they reproduce, in zenithal view famous “Bedolina map” – actually the leader of a group
and in a schematic and abstract form, portions of the of very similar images – expressed with a fascinating and
territory altered by the human activity and thus marked almost “baroque” complexity (Figure 7.1c) (Gavaldo 1995;
by cultivated fields, fences, pastures and buildings.3 It is, Turconi 1997). In this protohistoric group, more varied,
however, an almost conventional interpretation, triggered intricate and spacious patterns dominate. They are centred
more by fascination and contemporary aesthetics than by on large reticular structures or on interconnected sets of
explicit and unambiguous evidence (Marretta 2013). The square modules in a contour line internally filled with neatly
representations are in fact expressed in the most fixed and
abstract geometrism and the few recognizable figures of
real motifs (humans, animals, buildings), which sometimes 4
Arcà 1999; 2007, 47–48 with further bibliography; Gavaldo and
Sansoni 2016; Martinotti 2018, 87–91. In the absence of undisputed
chronological evidence for the beginning of phase II A and its transition
3
Arcà 1999; 2007, 36–41; Gavaldo 1995; Marretta 2013; Martinotti to phase II B, we will adopt here the more cautious dating proposed in
2006; 2009; 2018, 86–100; Priuli 1991, 305–332. Fedele 2011, fig. 7.

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 Close encounters of the third dimension

Figure 7.1: Examples of camunnian and valtellinese “topographic representations”: A. Teglio, Villanuova Rock 7 (Copper
age); B. Capo di Ponte, Coren di Redondo Rock 12 (Copper Age); C. Capo di Ponte, Bedolina Rock 1 (middle Iron Age). The
map on the left shows the position of the two valleys in the Alpine region.

arranged cup-marks/points. Frequent superimpositions with to the 3D rock surface will possibly cast some light on the
stylistically datable human figures place the chronological nature of this peculiar behaviour and will offer some clues
span of this late phase of the subject between the early and for further interpretation.
middle centuries of the Iron Age (8th-4th centuries BCE.
Marretta 2013; Turconi 1997). 7.3 The Third Dimension Challenge: A
Phenomenology of the Three-Dimensionality of the
Beyond the typological and chronological variability, Central Alpine “Topographic Representations”
some basic characteristics of these compositions have
raised doubts about their interpretation in a topographical The relationship of the “topographic representations”
sense (Marretta 2006; 2013). The main argument stresses with the rock surfaces reveal itself on two levels. From
the fact that a strictly abstract and geometric appearance, a macro-morphological point of view, we can observe an
focusing only on the human components of the landscape adjustment to the general shape and the three-dimensional
and excluding the natural ones (rivers, mountains, valleys morphological structure (concave, convex, concave-
etc.), tend to compromise the readability of the map itself, convex, flat) of the panel selected to accommodate the
undermining the correct understanding of the relationship image. The adaptation often concerns the compositional
between the actual landscape and its supposed counterpart syntax in its totality, either adopting an orientation according
represented on the rock surface. Secondly, the close, to the slope of the surface or inscribing itself harmoniously
direct, insistent connection with the morphology of the within the eventual limits of the panel. Moving instead to
rock seems in contrast with the assumed planimetric a micro-morphological point of view we see that these
nature of these images. In fact, conforming the figurative images often follow minute morphological details of the
elements to the forms of the surface would inevitably have rock surface such as fractures, hollows, glacial channels,
altered the spatial values of the reproduced topography etc. The adaptation concerns single modules, groups of
compromising its fidelity and distancing it from reality. modules or minimum sections of the composition. The
number of cases considered here has been selected in
Precisely in relation to this last point, the use of a order to illustrate the main recurring instances, and can be
methodology enabling the accurate documentation and articulated according to the following phenomenological
analysis of the mechanisms of adaptation of the figurations framework.

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Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

7.3.1 Macro-morphological adaptations of this sector. The topographic motif is the result of an
assemblage of rectangles often bisected by a vertical
– on a concave surface: Capo di Ponte (BS), Seradina III segment and organised in a peculiar grid-like syntax.
R. 1. What remains of this representation displays a harmonious
orientation following the axis of the rock and the glacial
Rock 1 of Seradina III is a large outcrop arising at the striations (Martinotti 2006, 32; Pace 1972, plates II–III;
west side of the main path of the Seradina-Bedolina 1982, 46–48) (Figure 7.3a, 7.3b).
Archaeological Park (Capo di Ponte). At the top of the
rock runs a long, broad, horizontal glacial gutter, within – on a flat surface: Capo di Ponte (BS), Redondo R. 3.
which two small “topographic representations” are placed
(Figure 7.2a, 7.2b). They are composed using a subset In the centre of the small plateau of the Redondo
of the characteristic modules of the classic Copper Age area (Ruggiero and Poggiani Keller 2014, 98–99) a
phase (style II B), such as the “underlined” and fully “topographic” figure was carved onto a rectangular and
pecked rectangles and the clusters of small cup-marks quite sloping surface with an evenly flat appearance. The
(Anati 1982, 263 fig. 272, 266 fig. 275). Both images composition, consisting of the classic modules of the
adhere to an elementary scheme of horizontal alignment mature Chalcolithic phase (style II B), organically exploits
conforming to the layout of the glacial grooves, which here the space offered by the smooth natural panel by orienting
were intentionally chosen – considering the large smooth the individual components according to the edges of the
surface available – to accommodate this type of figure. rock (Figure 7.3c, 7.3d) (Gavaldo 2001, 139 fig. 119).

– on a convex surface: Capo di Ponte (BS), Seradina III R. – on a finite panel: Capo di Ponte (BS), Redondo/Dos
28; Grosio (SO), Dosso Giroldo R. 14. Mirichì R. 72.

Rock 28 of Seradina III is a small rock located in a About one hundred metres South-East from the previous
panoramic position at the top of a steep area facing the rock, on an intensely fractured horizontal portion of a
plain of Cemmo-Pian delle Greppe, site of a ceremonial big and morphologically articulated outcrop, a small
centre with decorated monoliths dating to the middle-late “topographic” representation consisting of two subsets
Chalcolithic (3rd millennium BCE). The visual connection of modules aligned with the main axis of the panel has
between the site and this rock seems to justify the presence been neatly inscribed inside the little space spared by
of an unusual iconographic package of Chalcolithic weathering and exfoliation (Anati 1982, 179 fig. 195). The
themes5 including Remedello-type daggers, “topographic northern section is composed of fully pecked rectangles
representations” with rectangles and an intricate flanked by a group of neatly arranged cup-marks, while
meandering pattern which has no other occurrences in the southern section comprises a series of the typical
the rock art of Valcamonica and Valtellina (Anati 1982, “underlined” rectangles (Figure 7.4a, 7.4b).
210–211 fig. 222). The surface is divided into a sub-
horizontal panel and a short ridge placed at the side of a 7.3.2 Micro-morphological adaptations
gully ending in a pit. A small topographical composition is
carved along this ridge and follows perfectly the shape of – on bump/protrusion: Capo di Ponte (BS), Seradina II R.
this specific portion of the rock. It consists of a large but 18 (Marretta 2013, fig. 14–15).
rather weathered elliptical element surrounded by three
rows of cup-marks, a composite geometric motif and a On a large surface richly modelled in soft forms by the
small rectangle overlapping two Remedello-type daggers glacier, near a sinuous channel stands a very prominent small
(Figure 7.2c, 7.2d). ovoid protrusion, on which a very simple “topographic”
composition of an unspecifiable period, most likely
Rock 14 at Dosso Giroldo, in the upper Valtellina, is Chalcolithic, has been engraved. The figure consists of an
a rock long whaleback outcrop with a characteristic elliptical contour line that follows the shape of the surface
tapering at the top resulting in a long, convex crest. The perfectly (Figure 7.4c, 7.4d). Inside the contour, inscribed
surface, modelled and smoothed by the glacial erosion, is on the top of the protrusion, another elliptical contour
located in the centre of a well-known rock art area with line, concentric to the previous one, contains a group
figurative and schematic motifs.6 The apical portion and of small cupmarks, one surrounded by a rectangle. The
the upper part of the southern flank of the rock have been composition was clearly born as a figurative complement
intensely carved with a large “topographic” image only to the protrusion, filling it completely, and is one of the
partly spared by a very dense ensemble of protohistoric most evident examples of an image created within a three-
cup-marks which literally pierced the entire length dimensional morphological element of a rock.

5
Quite rare on rocks, especially in Seradina and neighbouring areas of – on concavity: Capo di Ponte (BS), Dos dell’Arca R.
the western slope of the valley. 7-sector B.
6
About this area, one of the richest in rock art in Valtellina, little
literature is available; for a selective and preliminary overview of the
evidence it is necessary to refer so far to the photographic dossier in Pace The large outcrop emerging on the top of the rocky hill of
1972, plates I-XVI. Dos dell’Arca, seat of a protohistoric site with ritual and

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Figure 7.2: “Topographic representations” showing macromorphological adaptation to the rock surface: A-B. Capo di Ponte,
Seradina III Rock 1; C-D. Capo di Ponte, Seradina III Rock 28 (untextured mesh view and hillshaded DEM in false colours).

Figure 7.3: “Topographic representations” showing macromorphological adaptation to the rock surface: A-B. Grosio, Dosso
Giroldo Rock 14; C-D. Capo di Ponte, Redondo Rock 3 (untextured mesh view and hillshaded DEM in false colours; tracing
after Gavaldo 2001).

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Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

Figure 7.4: “Topographic representations” showing macro- and micromorphological adaptation to the rock surface:
A-B. Capo di Ponte, Redondo/Dos Mirichì Rock 72; C-D. Capo di Ponte, Seradina II Rock 18 (untextured mesh view and
hillshaded DEM in false colours).

productive connotations, is one of the lithic surfaces of Park (Marretta 2006, 34–39; 2013, 345–346). It is mainly
Valcamonica that best illustrates the plasticity of the forms occupied by a large “topographic” representation of the
of glacial erosion.7 In the southern sector, within a short Bedolina type, dating to the full Iron Age (around the middle
and deep, optimally smoothed concavity a small, rather of the 1st millennium BCE. Figure 7.6). In a peripheral sector
incomplete “topographic” composition of the full II B phase of the composition two small groups of satellite modules,
is perfectly inscribed. The petroglyph consists of a pecked connected to each other by a short meandering line, occupy
rectangle with a double base surrounded by a group of small a small depression and a nearby hump in the rock, creating
cupmarks partially surrounded by an arched line (Sluga a micro-composition entirely built according to the natural
1969, 34–37 fig. 13). A straight line extends horizontally features of the surface (Marretta 2013, fig. 6).
from the right side of the rectangle. The entire composition
harmoniously fits the natural concavity, tracing perfectly – alignment along natural fracture: Grosotto (SO), Bedól
part of the inner edge with the arched line (Figure 7.5). sector D.

– on concavity and on convexity: Capo di Ponte (BS), On a long sheep-backed rock, emerging in the middle of
Bedolina R. 7. a small slope plateau, four “topographic” compositions of
II B style are structured within as many sectors. These are
The large rocky surface re-emerged in 2005 during the mainly made up – like many representations in Valtellina –
construction works of the Seradina-Bedolina Archaeo­logical by simple juxtapositions of “shield-shaped” modules of the
Caven type (Martinotti 2007, 47–53; 2018, 88–91). Sector
7
Regarding the rock art of Dos dell’Arca: Sluga 1969. In the summer D, on a short sub-vertical plaque of the eastern section of the
of 1962, the site underwent an extensive excavation campaign (actually rock, consists in a row of six “shield-shaped” figures, five
earthworks conducted without a stratigraphic method) by the Anati of which are tightly aligned and sometimes merged along
Mission. On the history of research in the area: Rondini 2016. Since
2015 the University of Pavia, under the supervision of prof. Maurizio the vertical sides. Four of them lie precisely along a slightly
Harari, started a research project on the hill and in the neighbouring oblique natural fracture deepened by glacial abrasion. The
areas, resuming the stratigraphic investigations in areas spared by the groove not only acts as a guideline for the construction of
Anati excavations: Rondini and Marretta 2019. We are glad to thank Dr.
Paolo Rondini, in charge of the excavation, for having consented to the the sequence, but is part of the figuration, to the point of
publication of preliminary data. forming the base of the “shield-shaped” figures (Figure 7.7).

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Figure 7.5: Capo di Ponte, Dos dell’Arca II Rock 7-sector B: particular of the “topographic representation” inscribed inside a
groove.

7.4 Conclusions: Setting up a question morphology of the support and the image had to converge
on an ideal preconceived model.
This selected dossier of Valcamonica and Valtellina
examples shows for the topographic subject a rather varied It cannot be overlooked how this kind of characteristic
and apparently impromptu phenomenology of adaptation contrasts with the common, modern conception of “map”
to the rocky supports, linked only by the choice of as a graphic representation of a territory that conforms to
adopting each time the expedients required by the specific reality as much as possible (Schiavi 1997, XV, 27–28).
circumstances. However, the frequency of this aspect It seems clear how the adaptation of the figuration to
clearly indicates how this was entirely intentional, and the morphology of the rocky surface – both on a general
how features or particular morphological peculiarities of scale and at the level of particular details –, even though
the rocks were even expressly “sought out” to be exploited the latter might appear evocative of the plastic forms
– applying the appropriate compositional layout and the of the territory, could only entail a deformation of the
graphic solutions – in the construction of the figured representation, a deviation from an analogical, realistic
composition. rendering. A loss of fidelity capable of invalidating any
practical functionality. For these reasons, the Authors
It also seems evident that, although the morphological felt the need to critically rethink the topographical
features could be chosen between the innumerable ones interpretation of these compositions, or at least a strictly
present on so variously sculpted surfaces, the figurations realistic notion of them (Marretta 2013; Martinotti 2018,
must have basically a natural predisposition to fit to them, 86 note 31).
modelling and conforming consequentially. Therefore,
the third dimension had to represent a component In fact the issue was facing several times in the debate
strictly connected to the semantic domain of figuration around the interpretation of the abstract alpine rock
itself, evidence which led some scholars to speak about figures, starting when, in 1897, the Anglican pastor
realistic rock “scale models” rather than “maps” (Priuli Clarence Bicknell first suggested an analogy between
1991, 305; Gavaldo 1995, 167; Casti 2018). In some the ‘molte figure rettangolari intieramente scolpite’
sense, the “topographic representations” are reduced to (‘many rectangular shapes entirely carved’) he found
“figurative complements” of the rock, made according to at high altitude on the rocks of Monte Bego (Maritime
the morphology of the surface. Alps, Italian-French border) and ‘piante di case e terreni’
(‘plans of houses and plots of land’) that ‘se fossero state
It is impossible to say whether the composition assumed scolpite oggi, si potrebbe dire che sono le Margherie colle
a definitive form following the choice of the morphology baracche dove si fabbricano il burro ed i formaggi’ (‘if
of the point chosen to engrave it, or rather an area with they had been carved today, one could say that they are
morphological characteristics suited to a prefigured the mountain huts where butter and cheese were made’;
compositional idea was sought. In both cases the chosen Bicknell 1897, 400).

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Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

Figure 7.6: Capo di Ponte, Bedolina II Rock 7: particular of two topographic modules inserted into some p-forms of the rocky
surface (untextured mesh view and hillshaded DEM in false colours).

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 Close encounters of the third dimension

Figure 7.7: Grosotto (SO), Bedól sector D: photo (up) and tracing (below) of a sequence of topographic shield-shaped figures
aligned on a grooved natural fracture.

A concise but brilliant solution to the question was have been “distorted” to fit the outlines of the rocks
proposed by geography historian Catherine Delano Smith they were carved on and thus could not be “accurate”
in 1987: representations of some real layout. But this is to ignore
the key property of topology, which is the preservation
‘Not all modern archaeologists are willing to accept of contiguity but not shape, and to assess the prehistoric
Bicknell’s interpretation of the “topographic figures”. figures according to the then unformulated principles
A common objection is that many of these appear to of Euclidean geometry (which stress the properties of

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Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

distance, direction and angle that preserve shape and currents against the islands: an essential experiential datum
underlie the modern concept of scale)’ (Delano Smith for orientation in the Polynesian seas and understandable
1987, 67–68). only to those familiar with navigation in the archipelago
(Finney 1998, 475–485).
Delano Smith focused on the characters of “otherness”,
based on topology and on a “non-mimetic” rendering An equally interesting case is that of the map drawn up by
of reality, of primitive mapmaking in contrast with the a chieftain of the Chickasaw nation, an indigenous people
scientific and mathematical principles that characterise settled in the territories of present-day northern Mississippi
modern cartography. Essentially, it is a question of thinking and western Tennessee. The version come down to us,
of primitive maps in terms of schematic representations of copied in 1723 from the original on deer skin by the will of
a topological space as opposed to the commonly intended Francis Nicholson, Governor of South Carolina from 1721
maps, conceived instead as analogical representations of a to 17258, represents, as the caption explains, ‘the Situation
Euclidean space (Delano Smith 1982, 10–12). of the Several Nations of Indians between South Carolina
and the Massisipi’ [sic]. The map reports, as a territorial
That primitive mapmaking was radically “other” from element of reference, a summary and abstract scheme of
Western cartography is demonstrated by the scarce but the hydrographic network of the Mississippi, Ohio and
significant ethnographic examples documented among Arkansas rivers, within which the various Indian nations
modern tribal populations. are located, conventionally indicated with simple circles
whose diameter is proportionate to the populousness and
In Africa among the Luba or Baluba people – an ethno- political importance of the communities (Figure 7.8c).
linguistic group indigenous of the south-central region of The circles are connected to each other with straight lines
Congo that developed, between 1585 and 1889, a unified that symbolise at the same time paths of communication,
state called the Kingdom of Luba –, the elders Mbudye, a trade relations and alliances between the various tribes
sort of secret cultural élite, were custodians of the complex (Malcolm Lewis 1998, 99–101).
historical traditions and religious and cultural knowledge
of the Luba nation. They transmitted their initiatory It is a paradigmatic example of ephemeral mapmaking,
knowledge through the lukasa, carved wooden tablets of consisting of sketches intended to accompany precise
rectangular shape with concave sides whose main face was requests and specific oral descriptions. In the construction
adorned with a complex weave of engraved and embossed of these maps – inspired by a conceptual, mental image
signs enriched by applied beads and buttons of coloured of the territory – references, components and information
glass or other material (Figure 7.8a). These elements conveyed during the verbal exchange between sender and
alluded to specific information relating to traditional receiver came into play. Those informative elements, while
contents, mnemonically learned, notably: events, facts, remaining excluded from the representation, conditioned
places, people linked to genealogies, lists and stories of the figurative setting and representative choices of the
kings, royal protocols and legends of ancestors’ migration. map, constituting the background necessary for its full
Travels of kings and paths of migration, the sacred understanding. The reference grid consisted of a plot of
traditions on springs and seats of protective spirits included morphological elements (landmarks) selected for easy
spatial information related to the territory, encoded in an recognition on the ground and for their common notoriety
abstract and evocative form on these tablets. Some lukasas (mountain ranges, hydrography, coastline), generating the
for certain tales and stories served as “mnemonic maps” represented space and facilitating the placement of the
helping to reconstruct and organise notions about the details of interest. The metrics (distance and proportional
historical and sacred geography of communities into a relationships between elements) were purely indicative,
coherent narration (Bassett 1998, 32–33). the criteria and the representative conventions subjective
and relative, conformed to knowledge, experiences,
A similar example, in making use of an abstract and non- conceptions and traditional uses of its creator and his
figurative graphic language, are the so-called “nautical cultural context.
charts” used until the mid-nineteenth century by the
indigenous inhabitants of the Marshall Islands during Summarising the basic characteristics of primitive, pre-
navigation in the archipelago. In the three types called literate and pre-scientific cartography, the following
mattang, meddo and rebbelib, they appear as complex flat common traits can be identified:
lattices obtained by intersecting wooden strips of various
lengths obtained from coconut fronds that represent the • the use of an empirical topological space, elevated to
directions of ocean currents and flows and above all, a conceptual principle and representative convention of
according to conventional configurations, the modes of schematic, essential and themed spatial representations,
refraction of these against the islands of the archipelago. created to effectively communicate – without the
Some shells were applied to these strips, indicating the constraints of the exact metric-proportional rendering
approximate position of the islands themselves (Figure – qualitative spatial information, relating to spatial
7.8b). In these maps, used by Polynesian fishermen
and sailors, the main information conveyed concerned 8
Preserved in the National Archives of London (the former Public
the modalities of refraction and reflection of waves and Record Office).

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 Close encounters of the third dimension

Figure 7.8: Examples of primitive mapmaking: A. Lukasa memory board, late 19th-early 20th century (photo: Brooklyn
Museum, Creative Commons-BY); B. Marshall Islands nautical chart, Meddo type, 19th-20th century (Courtesy: Library of
Congress, Geography and Map Division, Washington D.C.); C. manuscript copy of a original Chickasaw map on deer skin,
1723 AD. (London: Public Record Office; after Malcolm Lewis 1998).

relationships between selected elements of a territory. intermediary of traditional contents of a narrative,

These representations are made in a representative sapiential and experiential nature.
language that can oscillate, with a variety of intermediate • the message and the interpretative keys are mainly
solutions, from a figurative-based syntax, including entrusted to the oral communication channel, which
conventional but intuitive symbols, to a completely operates in parallel and complementarity with the
abstract structure, similar to a graph or diagram. In graphic-visual one expressed by the topographic
those maps the attention focuses on the accuracy and representation. In a pre-literate cultural dimension, the
completeness of the qualitative spatial information, background of knowledge related to a map – purposes,
expressed visually in terms of order, reciprocal functions, representative conventions, contents, in a
arrangement, sequence of territorial components, context of literate civilization commonly expressed by
according to logics related to the information itself. a textual apparatus (titles, legends, captions) – assume
• primitive and “informal” cartography is not created a capital importance in the construction and decoding
only to contain and transmit information of a spatial of the cartographic tool itself. All those elements
nature, but rather – and in some cases primarily – are drawn from the specific context that inspires the
to evoke, or allude to a multiplicity of contents of mapmaking, and from the experiences and the common
various kinds, linked to places and territory, such as knowledge shared by the author and the user.
facts, events, institutions, traditions, legends, physical • what is depicted and how, the conventions and the
and “metaphysical” characteristics (transcendent representative symbols, the contents, the names, the
presences, sacral connotations, spiritual qualities/ concepts, the stories, the beliefs, the traditions linked
mana), experiential notions, territorial pertinences, to the places reproduced are orally passed on by
hierarchical, political and/or kinship relationships the authors to the users, from the elderly to the new
between communities and social groups. The generations, from the shamans to other members of
representation conforms to this need for expanded the community, from initiates to non-initiates. Those
communication by adapting its form and structure informations are learned mnemonically along with the
in order to act as an ordering tool, an organiser of instructions and techniques for reading those maps –
this heterogeneity of information. Its aim is to be the devices created not to contain or convey information,

91
Angelo Martinotti, Alberto Marretta

given as known, but to recall them according to Delano Smith, C. “The emergence of “maps” in European
orders and logical or narrative connections. The rock art: a prehistoric preoccupation with place”. Imago
contents of these maps, the notions and skills to read Mundi 34 (1982): 9–25.
them, not codified in the visual-iconic channel of the
Delano Smith, C. “Cartography in the prehistoric period
representation, but rather to the associated verbal one,
in the Old World: Europe, the Middle East, and North
therefore constitute a wealth of information external to
Africa”. In The History of Cartography, volume 1.
the cartographic representation in its usual sense. The
Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Mediaeval
interruption of the oral tradition involves the virtually
Europe and the Mediterranean, edited by J.B. Harley
total, irreversible loss of this external informational
and D. Woodward, 54–101. Chicago-London: The
component, essential for the understanding of the map,
University of Chicago Press, 1987.
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consequently its illegibility – when not, at the limit, the Fedele, F.G. “Origini dell’ideologia cerimoniale
unrecognizability of its cartographic nature. centroalpina dell’età del Rame: una “fase zero” di IV
millennio?”. In Il filo del tempo. Studi di preistoria e
Only a systematic and exhaustive investigation of the protostoria in onore di Raffaele Carlo de Marinis,
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stone support, sustained by three-dimensional restitution S. Casini, 77–100. Bergamo: Comune di Bergamo,
techniques, can contribute to understand which of these Assessorato alla Cultura – Civico Museo Archeologico,
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Valcamonica-Valtellina prehistoric rock art. in Oceania”. In The History of Cartography, volume
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New digital insights over the Domus de Janas

with paintings: some case studies

Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

Abstract There are 3,500 funeral hypogea that have been counted so far, called “Domus de
Janas” and ascribed to the Middle Neolithic B, Late Neolithic and Copper Age (end of 5th to
the 3rd millennium BC), around 150 of these still have visible traces of paintings. This chapter
highlights the problems concerning the techniques, pigments and tools used, the figurative motifs
and their typology, the techniques of documentation, their territorial diffusion and their inclusion
in the chrono-cultural sequences of Sardinian Prehistory, and in the wider sphere of Mediterranean
Prehistory. Specific attention is made regarding the most recent techniques used for documenting
the representations: the use of the application ‘open-source DStretch’, with the ‘albedo’ image
(the pure surface colour, without any influence of projected colour shades), drawn from the 3D
processing of the surface’s dataset using the Photometric Stereo technique. Within this frame of
reference is presented the recent research conducted on the Pubusattile IV.

Keywords Domus de Janas – Painting – DStretch – Photometric stereo

8.1 Preface janas were recognised as socially shared funeral models,

perhaps a territorial mark of the communities. Tombs are
There are approximately 3,500 prehistoric chamber tombs often stand-alone or arranged as necropolises (from 6 to
in Sardinia, artificial caves for funerary and collective 39 tombs: Contu 2000, fig. 4); sometimes – but in small
use, commonly known as domus de janas, scattered numbers – they are connected to the adjacent residential
throughout the island, mostly in central-western Sardinia, settlements. Known since the 19th century, Giovanni
with sporadic presence in Gallura. This distribution may Lilliu (1967, 105-125; 2011, 229-254) and Ercole Contu
be explained by the presence of lithotypes suitable for (1997, 115-156; 2000, 313-366) summarised the general
excavation (such as ignimbrites and limestones), that problems of reconstructing their origin, development,
communities settled in the surrounding area from the end chronology and rituals. Recently, these general frameworks
of the 5th to the 3rd millennium BC, and that the domus de have been supplemented, clarified and, at times modified
(Tanda 2015a; 2015b; 2017).

Currently, the domus de janas is considered as the direct

result of the Middle Neolithic funerary hypogeism, due
to the major structural analogies with the hypogea of the
Cuccuru S’Arriu-Cabras necropolis, attributed to the Middle
Neolithic I (5th millennium: 4800 ± 4300 BC). A careful
reflection on the data in the bibliography has allowed new
clarifications of the genetic problems and the development
of the funerary model of the domus de janas, as well as of
its chronology (Tanda 2015a; 2020a, 246-250). Therefore,
plausibly the hypothesis that funerary hypogeism, which
began in the Bonuighinu culture continued uninterrupted in
subsequent cultures, San Ciriaco, Ozieri I and II, through
to the Bronze Age. In parallel with similar trends found
in the general Neolithic lines, from the ancient to the final
phase, as is testified by the diagnostic findings. As for the
chronology, the radiometric analysis carried out on the coal
samples from the domus de janas IV of Molia-Illorai have
expanded the chronological scope of excavation and the use
of the hypogeum (Tanda 2015a, 352). Dated to between
the 4230 ± 3820 BC, thus or the5th millennium BC, or
Middle Neolithic II, the time when the San Ciriaco’s culture
developed and the period in which the figurines and ceramic
finds are dated to (Tanda 2020a, 248-249; 2020b).

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Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

8.2 The painted Domus de Janas presence in the secondary cell is rare. The autopsy
analysis of the characteristics of the pictorial traces leads
Among the 3,500 known domus de janas, 215 of them, to the identification of some paint application trends: 1)
accounting for 6.2%, display artistic motifs, made using the prevailing even, monochrome and red colouring; 2)
different techniques: sculpture in 120 hypogea, painting polychrome, with various shades of red, black/dark grey,
in 112 of them, engravings in as few as 54 tombs (1.5%), white/ivory and yellow. The polychrome is reported in 14
applications of clay laths in 1 domus de janas. Techniques domus de janas, i.e., in Benetutti-Molimentos (red, grey),
are often used in combination, as specified in Table 8.1. Fonni-Gariunele I-II,VIII (red and yellow) and Su Nodu
‘e Serramene (red, yellow), Illorai-Molia I (red, grey) and
Painted tombs are rich and varied, increasing in number VII (various shades of red and grey), Putifigari-S’Incantu
due to the re-examinations of previously surveyed hypogea (red, grey), Villaperuccio-Montessu X, Sedilo-Lochele 1
by archaeologists and / or enthusiasts, and to the use of (red, grey, yellow), Lochele 2 (red, white ) and Ispiluncas
more powerful lighting devices and improved software II (red, grey, yellow), Thiesi-Mandra Antine III (red, grey,
used to identify and document findings. The devices and ivory), Villanova Monteleone-Pubusattile IV (white, grey
software such as DStretch allow the detection of traces of and red): Tanda 1985, 32, 62, figs. 30 a, b; 2015a, 186,
colour or remnants of hardly distinguishable or, in some 189; 1992a; Falconi 2018, 63.
cases, invisible figurative motifs.
In general, or, in at least 8 cases, the colour appears to
8.2.1 Morphological and planimetric typology be applied directly on the rock, on the plaster, e.g., in the
hypogea of Bonorva-Sa Pala Larga VII, Illorai- Molia I
The painted tombs fit into the various lines of the and VII, Nughedu Santa Vittoria-Sas Arzolas de Goi I and
landscape, characterising it historically, and manifesting II, Sedilo, Ispiluncas II and Lochele I and VI. Pigments
themselves according to a morphological typology. are both inorganic and organic, as demonstrated by the
These are divided into eight categories recognized so far analyses performed to date to determine the pictorial
within the decorated domus de janas namely: 1) Sub- components and the methods of painting. In 1981 (Cariati
flat; 2) Outcrop; 3) Light slope; 4) Steep slope; 5) Hill; et al. 1981, 291-300), a sample of red painted plaster from
6) Mountainside; 7) Spike; 8) Boulder Isolate (Tanda the domus de janas I in Molia-Illorai was analysed in order
2015a, 58). In some rare cases, for example in Anela-Sos to identify its composition. The mineralogical investigation
Furrighesos, the reference residential settlement has been carried out on the thin sections of the sample revealed two
identified. Unfortunately, to date, conducting verification mixtures under the red pigment: the first showed a fine
tests in order to establish their functions and chronology matrix; the second showed a coarse matrix, adhering to the
has not been possible. The plans are diverse, from simple rock, classified as rhyolitic or rhyodacitic tuff. The layers
to complex, gradually increasing up to 16 rooms, as the of plaster are likely to be the result of the grinding and
domus de janas VII of Molia, based in Illorai, shows. The transformation of tuffaceous rock similar to the one below.
complexity of the iconographies does not match a pre- Five instrumental techniques were implemented for the
set design, a sort of preordained design idea, but it is the chemical analysis: spectrographic, thermogravimetric
result of renovations and additions having been carried and differential thermal analysis, x-ray diffraction (XRD)
out over the millennia when the hypogea were used. The and infrared spectroscopy. Based on the results obtained,
long period of use of the tombs highlights their identity it was possible to establish that the two layers of plaster
and political value, linked to the social organisation of the were made of the same material and that no lime was
communities and the importance of the elites ruling over used as a binder. Furthermore, the red pigment consists
the territorial system. of iron oxides and silicates, commonly known as “red
ochre”. In 2002 and 2003 (Rampazzi et al. 2002, 237-240;
8.2.2 Pigments and trends Tanda et al. 2003, 61-71), 5 samples from the necropolis
of Anela-Sos Furrighesos were analysed to verify the
The artistic motifs are mostly found within the ante­ nature and origin of the pigments used to as paint, as well
chamber or pavilion and the next or main cell. Their as the pictorial technique and its distribution in Sardinia.

Table 8.1: The artistic motifs of the domus de janas: data by tombs and techniques.

Techniques Sculpture Painting Engraving Plastic application

Sculpture 71 31 18

Painting 31 63 17

Engraving 18 17 18

Plastic application 1 1 1

Total 120 112 54 1

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To determine the nature of colours, different analytical The chessboard can be seen in two tombs only: in Villanova
techniques were implemented: X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Monteleone-Pubusattile IV, painted red on the side walls
and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy of the antechamber and in Bonorva-Sa Pala Larga VII,
Dispersion X-Ray Spectrometry (SEM-EDX), while the in black, on the ceiling (Tanda 1992a; Usai et al. 2011).
nature of organic substances was investigated through Gas The roof appears in three tombs: in Thiesi-Mandra Antine
Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). III, Ardauli-Mandras / Mrangias and Pubusattile IV; the
The red pigment was identified as hematite (SEM-EDX trellis, the cane wall, the open gallery in three hypogea, in
and XRD), while in 3 out of 5 samples (tombs II and XV), Ardauli-Mandras / Mrangias, in Buddusò-Ludurru I and
GC-MS analyses showed the presence of egg. in Nughedu Santa Vittoria-Sas Arzolas de Goi II (Tanda
1992b), respectively. The protome is reported in Anela-
The inorganic substances used include hematite and the Sos Furrighesos VI, Mandra Antine III, in Bessude-Enas
earthy variety of ochre, for red, ivory and yellow; in de Cannuia IV (Tanda 1984, fig 22; 2015 a, 191,1; 199,1;
manganese oxide for dark grey. The only organic substance Contu 1964b, 233-263) and in Pimentel- S’Acqua Salida
identified is the coal from which the grey is obtained. In (Tanda 2015b, Tav. Concl. III); the spiral in Mandra Antine
2007 (Rampazzi et al. 2007, 559-569) the results of the III and Bonorva-Sa Pala Larga VII. The band is present in
analyses on pigment samples from 8 other domus de janas Sos Furrighesos VI and Villanova Monteleone-Pubusattile
were published: the hypogea of Thiesi-Mandra Antine IV. The hourglass is reported in Mandra Antine III, the row
II (red and black / dark grey samples), Illorai-Molia VII of triangles in Busachi-Campumaiore XII.
(red), Bonorva-Sant’Andrea Priu, Tomba del Capo (red
and black / dark grey), Sedilo-Binzales 2 (black / dark The remaining 8 motifs appear only in Mandra Antine III,
grey), Sedilo-Imirmichis (black / dark grey), Sedilo- which, overall, includes 10 figures out of the 17 listed.
Iscannitzu (red), Sedilo-Su Littu 1 (red and black / dark These motifs are also performed with different techniques
grey), Pimentel-Corongiu (red). The analyses confirmed and are sometimes present on the external surface of
the use of hematite for red, carbon for black / dark grey and ceramic containers, presenting a repetitive character and
egg as a binder. The organic substance has been identified therefore assuming a cultural and chronological meaning.
in 6 tombs (Mandra Antine II (red and black), Molia VII For example, the spiral, in the recurrent painted form of
(red), Sant’Andrea Priu SAp37 (red), Binzales 2 (red), Su Sa Pala Larga 7 (Usai 2020, 317-319, no. 344-346), is also
Littu 1 (black) and Corongiu (red). In Corongiu, traces of reported in the engraving in Bonorva – Sa Pala Larga 3
coniferous resin have also been documented, perhaps used (Tanda 2015a, 290); in the simple form of Mandra Antine
for conservation or aesthetic reasons. III, it appears on the ceramic fragments of the San Ciriaco
culture, in Cuccuru S’Arriu-Cabras (Santoni 2012, 118, fig.
8.2.3 How is the colour laid? 4, f) and Fig. 8, h) and the Ozieri culture, e.g. in Mogoro-
Puisteris (Tanda 1983; Atzeni 2005, fig. 6,4, 128); the
Traces of mostly red colour can be observed on the walls, painted hourglass by Mandra Antine III appears, sculpted,
ceiling and floor of 91 hypogea (Tanda 2003). In only one in Ossi-Tomba delle Clessidre (Tanda 2015 a, 178, 2; fig.
case, at present, in Illorai-Molia VII, it is arranged on distinct IX. 1-2), engraved in Bortigiadas-Tisiennari (Tanda 1977b;
horizontal and parallel bands, with different shades, from 2015 a, Fig. I .8: 1) and on pottery from Illorai-Molia I
bright red to pink. The even colour, monochrome and red, is of the Ozieri I culture (I half of the IV millennium BC)
found on protomes or on horns or on bands simulating horns (Tanda 2015 a, Fig. IX.3, 3). The chessboard is present in
and merged with false door, carved in relief or false relief Cagliari-Grotta del Bagno Penale, on an earthenware olla
in 17 tombs, e.g., in Anela-Sos Furrighesos II and VI and pot of Bonuighinu culture (2nd half of the 5th millennium
Bortigiadas-Tisiennari (Tanda 1985, Figs. 31a and b, Fig. BC; Tanda 2015 a, 357.9); the protome of S’Acqua Salida
20; 2015 a, 191 203 and 204), Bonorva-Sa Pala Larga VII can be traced back to the sculpted motif of Mamoiada-
(Usai et al. 2011), Chiaramonti-Su Murrone I and Mandra Istevene (Tanda 2015 a, 299, Fig. VIII. 1, 1).
Antine III-Thiesi (Tanda 1985, 141, 150). In 19 domus de
janas the colouring appears on architectural motifs such In two cases, in Bortigiadas-Tisiennari and in Pimentel-
as architraves or door frames, false doors, double sloping Corongiu (Tanda 1985, 183-187; Lilliu 2011, 248-249), a
ceilings represented with central beam and lateral joists, red thread frames the incisions and, in one case, i.e., in
with single sloping or semicircle as, for example, in the XII Tisiennari, also the carved horn-shaped motif that is found
and XV tombs of Anela-Sos Furrighesos), at Monte Siseri I on top of the carved and painted false door (Tanda 1977b).
or S’Incantu-Putifigari, Nughedu Santa Vittoria-S’Angrone:
Tanda 2015 a, 199, 186, 207). Speaking of techno-morphological typology, in the
sculpted motifs we recognized two styles, the Curvilinear
In 11 tombs, all figurative motifs display a schematic pattern and the Rectilinear styles, already highlighted in 1977
and appear painted in red or, rarely, in black / dark grey (Tanda 1977, 13 et seq.).
and light yellow. They are distinct on the formal level: the
arc, the circle, the semicircle, the hourglass, the rectangle, Furthermore, we can see the figurative evolution process
the spiral, the protome, the row of triangles, the simple or that has been defined for some time (Tanda 2015a, 284,
double oblique band, the zigzag bundle, the chessboard, the Figs. VIII.14,1) which begins with the simple schematic
trellis, the cane wall, the roof, the band, the open gallery. motifs, passes through the transition ones and ends with

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Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

the complex motifs. The simple schemes are those that Methodology
preserve the distinctive anatomical features of the animal
represented (Anela-Sos Furrighesos VI). In the motifs in 8.3.1 Processing and study of paintings with DStretch
which the corniform motif is architecturally fused with the
door (e.g., in Villanova Monteleone-Calarighes II), that is, The painted pictures in the domus de janas are acquired
in the transition motifs, the symbolization of the door itself by shooting pictures using a DSLR, in RAW format, and
is documented, which assumes the place and meaning of analysed by DStretch, a plug-in of the image processing
the animal’s head. The motif, thus changed, is created software “ImageJ” (Harman 2005), that increases the
on the back wall of the next cell, which is the main one contrast of red and yellow hues, to detect the details that are
(Alghero-Tanca Calvia I: Tanda 2015a, 199), assuming the invisibles with the naked eye plainly. This script processes
name of the complex scheme. a colour space decorrelation with a 3x3 covariance matrix,
which multiplies the original image colour to create a new
The colour emphasises the sculpted motif, and, at the same false-colour picture. The most suitable colour spaces for
time, it increases its value and effect because it is red, that the domus de janas rock art paintings analysis is the LDS
is, the colour of blood and regeneration. and LRE filters. In wider terms, the LRE is more suitable to
highlight red colour shades. LDS works better with yellows,
Likewise, the presence of colour on architectural motifs but in a few cases, it also works well with reds. The output
refer to two values: aesthetics and cult. The architectural is a false colour image where the traces of paintings are
motifs are the imitation of the details of a house, sometimes highlighted, including the kind of traces which are clearly
also represented in the plan. invisibles. However, ImageJ underlines any red element in
the picture, both paintings and rock oxidation.
Unfortunately, the huts used by the living communities is
unknown, except for the houses of the settlement of Serra The DStretch plug-in was used for the first time in
Linta in Sedilo (Tanda 1998a, 86-90; 2015a, 158-160) Sardinia on domus de janas by Deligia, Fernández Ruiz
where there is a planimetric scheme consisting of a semi- and Spanedda (Deligia, Fernández Ruiz, Spanedda 2014,
circular space followed by a rectangular one, reported in 157-174), and then by other researchers. Even now it is
several domus de janas that show traces of paint such as, used in some other hypogea on the island.
the hypogea of Alghero -Santu Pedru I or Tomba dei Vasi
Tetrapodi (Contu 1964a) and Cuglieri-Sa Spelunca de 8.3.2 Case studies
Nonna (Santoni 1976, 45, fig. 7). Unfortunately, the village
has not yet been excavated, so there is a lack of essential In this work, the ImageJ software is used on the Tomba IV,
information to reconstruct its elevation and roofs and to Pubusattile necropolis, Villanova Monteleone, and on the
unequivocally identify its functions, meaning and absolute Tomba di Mrandas, Ardauli.
chronology. The lack of data is partly overcome by the
results of the study on hypogeal architecture, which allowed Tomba IV, Pubusattile necropolis, Villanova Monteleone
not only to make a hypothesis of hut reconstruction (Tanda
2015a, 158-160) and to identify another eight modules The domus de janas IV of Pubusattile belongs to a
corresponding to as many houses, of which, however, we necropolis excavated in a trachyte crag, currently
have no archaeological evidence, but also to point out the surrounded by woods. This tomb has an entry panel 2
characteristics of the ceiling representations, framed in a metres above ground level, accessed by stairs carved in
typology divided into six types (Tanda 2015a, 126-163) and the rock, which are currently mostly not visible, possibly
other architectural details such as pillars, columns , pilasters, destroyed. The entrance opens onto an antechamber and is
counters, tables. In this regard it is noted that significant followed by a main chamber, divided into three parts by
examples of extraordinary architectural value are known, a balcony in the east area and a partition in the west area.
for example, in addition to those mentioned above, the Both of the chambers contain a large number of red and
tombs of Putifigari-Monte Siseri and Sassari-Li Curuneddi white paintings (Figure 8.1).
VI (Tanda 2015a, 322-323). In Nughedu Santa Vittoria-Sas
Arzolas de goi II, an open gallery is painted on the wall. The The DStretch processing applied to the pictures taken in
walls were built using canes, as suggested by the vertical the antechamber allowed us to confirm already published
and parallel motifs painted on the back wall of Buddusò- materials and to have a clearer idea about the painting
Ludurru I and in some cases, using half-timbering, as in subject found on the west wall. Despite being mostly
Ardauli-Mrangias, one of the case studies described below. deteriorated by atmospheric agents, that latter affecting
this wall more than the opposite one, the wall displays
8.3 Case Studies red zigzag vertical bands on the left and a red and white
chessboard on the right. This representation is symmetrical
In this text we have declared that traces of colour or remains to the one painted on the opposite wall (Figure 8.2), as
of paintings, even if they are not visible, are found in many already published (Tanda 1992a, 479-493).
domus de janas (even 91 hypogea). It was an opportunity
for testing the usefulness of the ImageJ software to detect From an accurate analysis of the chamber, a unique motif
and check these kinds of traces. was reported on the ceiling (Figure 8.3), yet to be interpreted.

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 New digital insights over the Domus de Janas with paintings

a.

Figure 8.1: Planimetry of Pubusattile IV, Villanova

Monteleone (SS) (from Tanda, 1992).

Tomba di Mrandas, Ardauli

b.
The Mrandas domus de janas was excavated on a trachyte
outcrop, currently surrounded by Mediterranean maquis. Figure 8.2: A: Survey of the west wall of the antechamber.
The same outcrop also showed an excavation attempt of B: Survey of the east wall.
another domus de janas. Mrandas is a tomb consisting
of multiple chambers (Figure 8.4) with a complex
longitudinal planimetry, including a small atrium, which connecting the main cell and the antechamber (Figure 8.6).
shows clear red ochre painted representations of village’s Additional similar trellis has now been discovered, using
huts. These village huts were never found, because of the DStretch, on the walls of the secondary cells (Figure 8.7).
perishability of the materials used to build them, such as
timber or canes, but they have largely been studied based 8.4 Discussion
on other rock art representations (Tanda 2015c, 119-208).
8.4.1 Why are the homes of the living fully or partially
The new techniques allowed new discoveries about represented in hundreds of domus de janas?
the painted motifs. In addition to the red colour of the
antechamber floor that was likely to be plastered and An answer comes from the funerary ideology of the
portrayed a hearth in the centre, and the ceiling with the Neolithic and Copper Age communities of the late 5th to
motif of a circular band with three red beams on each 3rd millennium BC, based on the belief in an otherworldly
side something new was found painted in the main and world, the final destination of the dead. After death, the
secondary chambers, but not yet recognizable. deceased, who in life were part of the elites, were placed in
a tomb that mimicked the living quarters. The bodies were
As already documented (Loi 2006, 153-160), the main surrounded by everyday objects, in the belief that they
cell ceiling has a roof representation. To the naked eye, a could also be useful in the afterlife, including furnishings,
preliminary analysis demonstrated “a one-sloped or saddle such as carpets, represented at Pubusattile IV. The ritual
roof with short rounded sides portrayed with four red actions performed during and after the burial aimed at
bands, three of which stem from a semi-circular element”. favouring and accelerating the passage into the afterworld.
A more accurate analysis performed using DStretch, However, the house might represent a special house,
despite the poor conditions of the paintings, suggests purposely built to host the deceased. While the rituals
the existence of a saddle roof with a central beam and at were performed, as documented on an ethnological level
least five or six beams symmetrically arranged around it, in Indonesian populations also consisted of the sacrifice of
reminiscent of the lateral beams of a roof (Figure 8.5). bovine animals, the heads of which were then displayed
on the façade, to show the high rank they held and the
Another analysis of the domus de janas shows a trellis economic power exercised by the family. This hypothesis,
on the walls of the main chamber, as already published however, has had no reliable archaeological evidence
and another geometrical trellis-like motif over the panel to date (Tanda 2000, 405-406; 2015a, 274, 349; 2015b,

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Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

Figure 8.3: Survey of the ceiling of the antechamber.

Figure 8.5: A: False color image after d-stretch processing of

Figure 8.4: Planimetry of Mrandas, Ardauli (OR) (from Loi, the south-east part of the main chamber ceiling of Mrandas.
2016). B: Survey.

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 New digital insights over the Domus de Janas with paintings

Figure 8.6: False color image, with desaturation, of the main chamber wall over the opening.

323). In eight hypogea, the colour is applied to the plaster. and, in some cases (Sos Furrighesos XV), showed finds
The presence of the plaster is explained primarily by the from the Ozieri culture. The same culture is witnessed in
need to reinforce rocky surfaces, mostly ignimbrite, very other hypogea, such as Alghero-Anghelu Ruju XIX and
degraded, such as the tuff where the domus de janas of XXVIII, Anela-Sos Furrighesos XII, Ossi-Littoslongos
Illorai-Molia were excavated in. However, the need to and Ossi-Tomba delle finestrelle.
decorate rough surfaces is not excluded. In many cases red
has a religious value, being the colour of the blood and a The similarities between magical-ritual figurations present
symbol of life. on the wall surfaces of the hypogea and figurative motifs
made on ceramic finds lead to a similar chronological
8.4.2 When were the figurative motifs painted? framework (Tanda 2015a, 357, Fig. IX.4. N. 9; Santoni
2012, 121 -134; Atzeni 1978, 128, fig. 6, 4): the simple
There are a number of different diagnostic supporting spiral is attributable to the culture of San Ciriaco
elements (Tanda 2015a, 351-361), which primarily refer to (Cabras-Cuccuru S’Arriu) and to Ozieri I (for example
the painting tomb morphologies. Type 5, is an imitation of to Mogoro-Puisteris); the recurrent spiral, documented
the houses of Serra Linta, reported at the domus de janas I in the hypogeum VII of Bonorva-SaPala Larga shows
and IV of Molia, was dated by radiometric analyses obtained analogies with motifs engraved in Malta in the temple
on samples taken during the stratigraphic excavation: the of Tarxien, and painted in the hypogeum of Hal Saflieni,
oldest was compatible with the San Ciriaco culture (4230 - but the Sardinian chronology differs slightly from the
3820 BC); the most recent was compatible with the Ozieri Maltese one. Hal Saflieni, dating back to the second half
I (1st half of the 4th millennium: for example, 3970 - 3700 of the 4th millennium BC (BCE 3300-3000) is therefore
BC) and Ozieri II (between the 1st and 2nd half of the 4th compatible with Ozieri II; Tarxien dates back to the mid-
millennium: for example, 3640 - 3370 BC) culture. As for 3rd millennium BC (BCE 3000-2500), the Copper Age
the materials found during the excavations, the in-depth (Evans 1982; Bonanno 2020, 46). Even the domus de
and on-going study of the two archaeological contexts janas of Sa Pala Larga 7 showed materials from the Ozieri
will hopefully lead to the clarification of the chronological culture still under study.
classifications of all the finds. The Tomb of the Tetrapod
Vessels, Santu Pedru I-Alghero, refers to Type 5, where As for the sculpted and painted protomes, they are all
materials from the Ozieri I culture were discovered. Type expressions of Bucranium 1 (horns upwards), dating back
4, including “T” tombs, as reported in the painted tombs to the same period, at the current state of research, that is,

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Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

final results: Tanda 2015a, 360), bearing in mind its

peculiarities, including the variety of techniques of
execution, but within the cultural context of which
hypogean art appears to be a significant expression. The
results of the studies highlighted so far have revealed
some characterising factors: tendency to repeat motifs,
to modify them, to disaggregate them, and sometimes
developing figurative schemes such as complex motifs
which, in some cases, would be unintelligible individually
without keeping in mind their entirety. Therefore,
exploring a diverse set of lines “would fail to explain the
full phenomenon and the cultural reference framework –
in time and space – resulting in partial and idiosyncratic
perceptions, devoid of the ideological connective tissue,
therefore quite irrelevant and useless to identifying their
meaning” (Tanda 2015a, 360).

Consequently, it seems essential to briefly describe the

reference cultural framework and, more specifically, some
components thereof, such as the economy and social
organisation.

The few, heterogeneous and incomplete data available

on the economy, coming from paleo-ethnological and
ecological sources, suggest a subsistence economy based
on agriculture and livestock (Zedda 2015; Ucchesu 2015),
integrated by crafts with the production of tools and
containers of daily use and textile articles (clothes and
carpets) and, integrated by fishing, hunting, gathering,
procurement, processing and exchange of obsidian and,
perhaps, flint. The analysis of the paleo-ethnological data
reveals signs of a structured social articulation, which
can be classified, moreover, as signs of social inequality.
These signs are made up of the plans of the domus
de janas which, at times, develop in a complex way,
enriching themselves gradually, up to 16 rooms over the
long period of restructuring and use of the hypogea, as for
instance the domus de janas VII of Illorai-Molia shows.
Other signs can be recognized in the sculpted, engraved
Figure 8.7: A: Picture of the front wall of the secondary or painted figures on the walls of a small number of tombs,
chamber. B: False color image after d-stretch processing. just 112 out of the 3,500 registered and in the represen­
C: Survey. tations of architectural elements, documented throughout
Sardinia. The presence of figurative signs highlighted in
only a few hundred domus de janas, the absence in the
Ozieri culture 1 (1st half of the 4th millennium) and 2 (2nd others could be the expression of a hierarchical society
half of the 4th millennium) for simple schemes (8 motifs); (Tanda 2015b, 322-323). However, this society is not
end IV-Beginning of III the transition schemes (3 motifs); proved by the archaeological materials of its funerary
end IV-Beginning of the III complex schemes (3 cases of assemblage, at the current state of research. As well
study). Of great importance are the painted protomes of as, the overall reconstruction of the social structure is
Pimentel-S’Acqua Salida which are part of Bucranium 2 described as tribal, showing an organisation and
(horns downwards). differentiation of activities, as already stated, where
elites, groups/classes suggest the identification of either
8.4.3 Why did the Neolithic and Copper Age exclusive or prevalent patrons commissioning tombs with
communities mainly paint their tombs red, in the the expressions of art (Tanda 2015a, 359-360; 2015b, 318-
variety of expressions described above? What was the 325).
underlying meaning?
Regarding the function of the representations, the following
In addressing the topic of meaning, it appears fundamental hypotheses are likely to be true: 1) they could be signs
to conduct the analysis on the entire hypogean artistic performed on the occasion of the celebration of events
phenomenon in its development (origin, development, such as death/funeral, the rearrangement of the hypogeum,

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 New digital insights over the Domus de Janas with paintings

Figure 8.8: Survey of back of the cell of Pubusattile IV, Villanova Monteleone.

the foundation rite, repetitive ceremonies/anniversaries, of the passage rituals (Tanda 2000, 405-406; 2015a, 274;
etc.; 2) they could be representations of furniture elements 2015b, 324).
of a particular hut, perhaps built specifically as a place
for funerary ritual ceremonies, imitated in the domus One problem remains unsolved: the ideological relationship
de janas. between the painted motifs and ritual animal sacrifices
depicted on the walls of the domus de janas. The killing
8.4.4 What are the reasons? of oxen as ritual sacrifices does not invalidate this
interpretation but confirms what is already present in
From a semiotic point of view, figurative signs/motifs are literature. The fundamental element of a ritual is the choice
the signifiers, which lead to the meanings and, therefore, to sacrifice specific animal species and not others, because
to the contents. The signifier identified in the Bucranium it is functional to the system. The representation in the rock
1 (prevailing sign) is the ox that meets various needs, would fix the events of the elites for future reference and as
relevant on the existential level (e.g., nutrition, transport, a sign of identity carved on a tomb where the members of
fertilisation), and functions as an integral part of the the group, the ancestors, are buried, with whom the living
funeral ritual underlying the domus de janas. Therefore, communicate through flower or food offerings. Regardless
the meanings of the symbol, which has multifunctional of the details of the interpretative problem, however, it is
contours are wealth, strength, fertility and transport. Its emphasised that the overall picture of the art of the domus
representation in the domus de janas acquires a ritual de janas has revealed some characterising factors, including
value, also becoming propitiatory: the symbol ensures repetition. Repetitiveness is the fundamental element of the
the wealth, strength and fecundity, that is, the continuity ritual, that is expressed within the funerary ideology of the
of the group, threatened by death. With the execution of recent Neolithic Age and the Copper Age, and it relates to
the symbol, therefore, the existential system crisis caused the relative aspects of spirituality and religiosity.
by death is resolved. At the same time, the transport
is concluded, i.e., the passage of the deceased into the In the case under study, this occurs within the life-death-
afterlife. The ox is also a means of transport. When a man rebirth cycle, that is based on the mythical prefiguration of
is still alive, the animal can carry men, animals and goods; a male principle and a female principle, modelled on the
when a man dies, the animal symbol executed on the walls cycle of nature, rooted in the food producing classes, that
of the tomb facilitates or marks the passage of the deceased is, the farmers and the herders, perhaps “the patrons of the
to another dimension. It is, therefore, a tangible display decorated domus de janas” (Tanda 2015b, 325).

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Giuseppa Tanda, Carla Mannu

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 9

More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing

strategies: the case of the Assa Valley rock art (Vicenza, Italy)

Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura

Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

Abstract This chapter presents a pilot study aimed at investigating the morphological and
morphometric characteristics of a selection of engravings located on the vertical walls of the Assa
Valley (Asiago Plateau, Vicenza, Italy). 3D data acquired via Structured-Light Scanner was used
to create textured 3D models with micrometric resolution. Morphometric data were converted
and processed with LiDAR-derived enhancing techniques including multiple Hillshading,
Openness, Sky-View Factor, and slope gradient. These visualisations improved the identification
of the iconographic motifs, but also helped in reconstructing the tools and the techniques used for
engraving. Finally, we compared and discussed a set of (semi) automated classification procedures
in order to distinguish the different representations on the rock surfaces.

Keywords Assa Valley (Vicenza, Italy) – Structured Light Scanning – production technology –
DEM processing – (semi)automatic rock art classification

9.1 Introduction represent the physical object “as-is”. Therefore, they can
greatly increase the comprehension and the fruition of
Archaeology represents an aspect of our historical memory archaeological contexts and materials.
that in the last decades has suffered transformations,
violations or destructions for different human or natural Manual tracing, frottages and photographs have
factors. In this situation, the introduction of 3D technologies represented an essential instrument of knowledge for
and virtual methods has been perceived as mandatory as it the pioneering rock art studies, which allowed massive
permits to preserve and explain the information embedded campaigns of recording and subsequent study of the
in cultural heritage through the application of different engravings. These traditional methods could freeze
representation instruments. 3D acquisition and modelling the actual condition of a panel, becoming an essential
technologies offer an important aid, as they allow us to document for its interpretation and preservation. The use
of portable digital microscopes brought a first important
innovation in recording and interpreting rock art panels
(Marretta et al. 2011). However, with the introduction
of digital survey systems and 3D models, the means of
comprehension and communication of rock art sites
have radically changed with 3D models representing a
repository of information from which different kinds of
representations can be extracted.

The evolution of 3D modelling techniques and the

development of more efficient systems for the visualisation
of digital data highlight the added value given by the use
of these methods in the archaeological field. The virtual
model is a valid cognitive tool and is a fundamental
medium through which the user can virtually interact with
the object of interest. This technology can be applied to the
world of cultural heritage for preservation, reconstruction,
virtual restoration, research and promotion. Specifically,
for this research, we employed structured-light acquisitions
that have been only marginally explored in the study of
archaeological rock engravings (Ruiz et al. 2022).

This project focused on the documentation and study of the

Assa Valley rock art, which is located in the municipality

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

of Roana - Asiago Plateau (Vicenza), northern Italy. The in the areas of Tunkelbald and Sant’Antönle, which
local rock art is characterised by incised engravings, are characterised by the highest number and variety
executed on vertical surfaces using both the filiform of engravings. Other significant concentrations can be
and the polissoir techniques. However, the visibility of found in the areas known as Romita, “Testa di Cavallo’’,
the figures is very low. This is mainly due to the rough ‘’Diga ``,’’Cava `` or’’Ponte di Roana” (Rigoni 2001).
surfaces of the rocks, that are patinated with secondary The first note on this rock art complex was published in
minerals and rich in mosses and lichens. Another issue 1982 (Leonardi et al. 1982), but it was only in 1983 that
is related to the superimpositions of the figures that can a complete catalogue of the representations was released
alter the readability of some panels. The result is that the (Priuli 1983). Further reflections on the area were also
general public can recognize just a very small quantity collected in the proceedings of the 1996 conference “Le
of the effective representations. Moreover, most of the incisioni rupestri della Val d’Assa: ipotesi a confronto”,
panels are located at a significant height with respect to published in 2001 (Arcà 2001; De Guio 2001; Leonardi
the eyesight of the visitors, again preventing a complete 2001; Priuli 2001; Rigoni 2001, and others).
realisation of the images.
The overall chronology is still very debated. While some
These are the main reasons that lead us to consider 3D authors suggest a pre-protohistoric date for some – or even
acquisitions and data processing as a means for the objective the majority – of the images (Priuli 1983; Priuli 2001),
documentation and subsequent virtual restitution of the others tend to attribute most part of the representations to the
engraved representations for preservation, virtual restoration, Middle Ages and the Modern period, with a dubious early
research and dissemination purposes. Currently, the beginning during the Second Iron Age for hut-barns and a
acquisition of 3D point clouds can be very cheap and also few geometric representations (Arcà 2001). Considering the
very easy: structure from motion, laser scanning, stereoscopy, whole corpus of the engravings, most of the representations
confocal laser scanning microscopes or even structured light seem to be connected to the Christian worship or the civil
acquisition are becoming more and more common for the sphere. Troletti (2015) is right in suggesting that images
documentation of archaeological sites and single materials that used to be associated with solar fertility idols dating
(Lerma et al. 2010; Papageorgopoulou et al. 2010; Avanzini to the Bronze Age – such as in Romita, sector 3 or in
et al. 2015; Jalandoni et al. 2018; Magnini et al. 2019, and Gelpach Valley – (Priuli 1983), should be better interpreted
others). However, it is now time to think about a way to treat as monstrances, as unquestionably demonstrated for some
the 3D data in order to really enhance the microtopography Valcamonica occurrences (Troletti 2013). Possibly, the
of the surface and obtain an improved picture of the objects same can be said for the so-called vulvar signs that may
and contexts investigated. In this chapter, we propose a represent the holy host itself (e.g., Tunkelbald, sector 12)
preliminary discussion on how landscape-level visualisation and for some “complex signs’’ of dubious interpretation in
techniques coupled with structured-light acquisitions can the Sant’Antönle area (Rigoni 2001), that can perhaps be
really help in offering a novel perspective for the interpretation associated with goblets for the celebration of the Eucharist.
of the engraved representations. On the contrary, some engravings were unanimously
recognised as modern: there are for example various
9.2 The archaeological context dates (the earliest being made in 1506), names, words and
sentences, crosses, churches, and devotional offerings.
The earliest known human presence in the Asiago Plateau
can be traced back to the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic age, Suspending the judgement on the Remedello-like knives
when nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers frequented the (Priuli 1983), which are too schematic for an explicit
area on a seasonal basis (Broglio 1994; Broglio et al. identification, a pre-protohistoric chronology seems very
2006). A few sites were also occupied during the Neolithic, doubtful or eventually limited to geometric signs that are
the Copper Age, and up to the Early Bronze Age. The essentially timeless and can only be attributed to a pre-
best-known settlements within this time span are Covolo, roman dating on the basis of other well-dated contextual
Coldinechele di Velo, and Monte Corgnon, all in Lusiana elements, which, are currently lacking in this area.
(Vicenza) municipality, together with Erta and Piazzette
sites, both in Marostica (Bianchin Citton 2001; De Guio The Tunkelbald rock was chosen as the first focus of this
2019). The sites of Longalaita (Rotzo municipality) and project because it is one of the few sites in the Valley
Monte Corgnon yielded a huge quantity of materials that was subject to a restoration campaign and an open-
related to the Middle and Recent Bronze Age. The air musealization. During the previous works of manual
Longalita hillfort was soon abandoned, probably in favour tracing, frottage and photographic acquisitions, the surface
of the nearby Bostel promontory, whose earliest materials was divided in thirteen sectors for ease of referencing (Priuli
date back to the Recent Bronze Age. On the contrary, 1983), that we will be also using throughout this chapter.
Monte Corgnon and Bostel show multiple frequentation The typology of the engravings comprises numerous
cycles up to the Romanization of the area (De Guio 2001; anthropomorphic and anthropo-zoomorphic figures, but also
Leonardi 2001; Magnini et al. 2020). weapons, crosses of various shapes and sizes, inscriptions,
buildings, cup marks, a few animals, different kinds of
The Assa Valley rock art is generally concentrated on the geometric representations, from circles to asterisks, lines
vertical walls on the left side of the Valley and especially and polygons often of ambiguous attribution.

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

9.3 Materials and Methods The process of range map alignment consists of two
steps: the first one is the manual choice of couples of
9.3.1 Structured-light scanning homologous points on two contiguous sets of scans;
the second one, is the automatic alignment aimed to
A 3D model is a faithful and measurable digital minimise the mean distance and perfectly align the two
representation of the object through the representation of acquisitions.
its morphological and morphometric characteristics. • Range map merger (or fusion), to build a single
triangulated mesh. This is a completely automatic
We used a structured light system with a resolution of operation and it is necessary to verify that the resulting
± 0.1 – 0.4 mm (Figure 9.1). This method is based on model maintains the morphological and morphometric
triangulation and works by projecting a specific predefined characteristics of the original: holes and anomalous
light pattern that covers the whole (or part of the) surface. connections between polygons may be present, easily
This scene is then captured by a typical digital image recognizable as topological inaccuracies.
detector and processed in order to deduce the geometry • Mesh editing, to improve the quality of the reconstructed
from the deformations of the pattern in the digital image. mesh. The acquisition process may have incomplete or
This method is accompanied by texture acquisition (Zhang uncorrected areas. This step requires the use of holes
2018). filling algorithms and the editing of the topological
mistakes (for example cross section triangles or
The data collected by the scans are X, Y, Z coordinate anomalous vertices). The aim of this step is to obtain
triplets of each single point analysed. Data acquisition and a final 3D model topologically correct without un-
data processing with Optical RevEng software followed sampled or uncorrected areas (Faresin and Salemi in
the standard steps of the 3D scanning pipeline (Laga et press).
al. 2018).
9.3.2 From structured light to GIS
The post processing phases are:
To enhance the visibility of the engravings, the 3D point
• Range map alignment, in order to put all the single cloud was transformed into a grid Digital Elevation
range maps into a common coordinate system where Model (DEM). In this way, we were able to use a series
all the scans lie aligned on their mutual overlapping of classic topographic image-enhancing techniques
region. The pairwise ICP (Interactive Closest Point) developed for landscape-level LiDAR data (as already
alignment algorithm, followed by a global registration, proposed for the “coinscapes” in De Guio and Magnini
was used. An automatic pre-alignment technique was 2019). The effectiveness and consistency of this protocol
used during the acquisition phase to improve this task is granted by the analogy between the data acquired by
and to verify in real time the quality of the acquisition. the two sensors: both, in fact, produce a point cloud as

Figure 9.1: Left: 3D acquisition with Cronos Dual (Open Technologies), a structured light system. Right: Preview of the range
map acquired.

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

output of the acquisition from which information about the sometimes V-shaped. Considering the dimension of the
morphology/ topography of the object/ landscape can be grooves and their section, the instruments used must have
derived (Opitz 2012). possessed tiny, hard and regular edges, most probably
metallic. The profiles suggest a discreet (U-shaped) or
The first step of the protocol is to export the point cloud in high (V-shaped) sharpness, and either a conical shape
easily manageable formats for the widest range of software (perhaps connected to the use of awls or burins) or a flat
(including GIS software). In our experience, text files that and small surface (possibly knives). The regularity of the
report the coordinates of points in three dimensions (for engravings implies that the original tracing was performed
example .asc or. xyz) offer excellent versatility of use, if with speed, spontaneity and confidence, even if there
compared to complete 3D models both TIN and raster. are examples of errors or afterthoughts. Cup marks are
generally characterised by a conic section, produced by
The second step is to convert the point cloud to a Digital pointing a blade and drilling with rotary movements; due
Elevation Model. This procedure can be implemented, for to the softness of the rock, this method could sometimes
example, by converting ASCII files to 3D raster surfaces cause flaking and detachments, which explain the irregular
and finally processing them as a Digital Elevation Model. contour of many occurrences.

The conversion and enhancing procedure can be This type of analysis is particularly valuable as it can
summarised in the following steps: assist in understanding if more tools were used for a single
representation or if there is a technical trend in the figures
1. Exporting the point cloud in easily readable format of a scene that may suggest the presence of one or more
(.xyz or .asc files). authors for the composition.
2. Importing the model of the study area into a GIS
environment. 9.4.2 3D enhancing strategies
3. Creating a raster DEM from the point cloud.
4. Applying the selected DEM enhancing procedures on The image data achieved with the described procedure
the raster file. were then treated with some of the best known and most
frequently used (in the archaeological field) visualisation
9.4 Results and Discussion algorithms, in order to take advantage as much as possible
of the acquired images and their information potential1.
9.4.1 Notes on the engraving technology Hillshade, positive and negative Openness, slope gradient
and Sky-View Factor algorithm were implemented on
The incised rock art of the Assa Valley is characterised our 3D data. The most basic of the image treatments
by a combination of thin lines (called filiform or graffiti) presented here, Slope gradient computation (or more
and thick lines (known as polissoir), that constitute the simply Slope), conveys the slope distribution of an
most common occurrences. Simple, thick polissoir lines observed area by converting a map of elevation values in a
are usually associated in the literature to sharpeners: i.e., gradient map. It calculates the maximum rate of elevation
rocks which were traditionally used for sharpening stone change (expressed in degrees or in percentile) between
axes, metal blades or working tools. Both these techniques, each image cell and its neighbours (Challis et al. 2011).
graffito and polissoir, are common in the Alpine region, Hillshade (Marsik 1971; Horn 1982) (also called shaded
and have been in use from prehistory to modern and even relief) is, on the other hand, probably the best known of the
contemporary times (Bianchi 2016; Sansoni et al. 2016 and mentioned algorithms: it operates in a very intuitive way,
cited bibliography). Incisions were obtained by scratching as it replicates the natural effect of the illumination on a
multiple times the rock surface with different kinds of tools surface. The analysed map is illuminated by an artificial
(lithic or metallic), and producing grooves ranging from source of light, of which the user can set two basic
approximately 500 µm to a few mm. Given the low hardness parameters: the altitude (vertical angle) and the azimuth
of the Assa Valley rock outcrops, sometimes the walls could (horizontal angle). This is a common, but very effective
even be prepared beforehand by flattening or carving the technique that can highlight efficiently even small details
surface in order to limit its irregularities (Arcà 2001). by casting their shadow thanks to the lateral illumination.
The downside is that some surface discontinuities parallel
3D models can also help in the technological investigation to the light orientation may this way not be visible, hence
of the tools and the engraving practices, potentially the light source position must be chosen attentively and,
helping to identify figures produced using the same tool in some cases, it is advisable to illuminate the studied
and/ or similar technical solutions. Moreover, they offer surface from different angles. This is not much different
an unparalleled help for recognizing and studying the to what is commonly done on 3D models, for example
superimpositions among the figures, which is fundamental using Meshlab or other dedicated software, by manually
for an Harrisian seriation of the signs and, ultimately, for moving the light source to better visualise the details of
proposing a relative chronology of the representations.
1
Slope gradient, hillshade, and Principal Component Analysis of 16
Figure 9.2 shows that the engravings could be made of hillshades were computed using ArcGIS, while Positive/ Negative
a single or from multiple lines, sometimes rounded, Openness and Sky-View Factor were calculated with SagaGIS.

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

Figure 9.2: DEM-derived engraving sections visualized with the software Global Mapper 15.0 exemplifying the technologies identified in the Assa Valley rock art.

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

the morphology. The use of hillshade helped to improve the squared frame (see figure 9.4, right). We also attained
the graffiti visibility, as in the case of the Diavoletto (“little some significant results on sector 12 where, thanks to
devil”) in sector 12 (see figure 9.3), this is especially the digital acquisition, some differences and additional
noticeable observing the tiny lines of the objects the details were spotted in the comparison with the previous
demonic figure is holding in hands, the shape of his right interpretation of the inscription (see figure 9.4, left).
arm or the cup marks in proximity. Many more small cup
marks were also detected with the aid of the Sky-View 9.4.3 Classification and (semi)automatic recognition
Factor algorithm (Kokalj et al. 2011). In many cases,
in our image processing experience, Sky-View Factor 9.4.3.1 A semi-supervised classification analysis for 3D
proved to be one of the most informative visualisation data processing
techniques, being especially useful in exposing narrow
depressions. The method consists in quantifying the visible Both supervised and unsupervised classification were
portion of the sky sphere cap from each data spatial unit adopted to attempt a quantitative evaluation of the
(corresponding to a pixel in the digital image). The Sky- mentioned visualisation techniques on three test subjects:
View Factor is calculated according to three set values: a the Diavoletto, a representation of a hut (Capanna) and a
vertical angle with which the user determines the horizon palimpsest in the area called P10. The images processed
line, a given number (from 8 to 32) of search directions through hillshade (Marsik 1971; Horn 1982), positive and
according to which the artificial “illumination” is oriented, negative Openness (Yokoyama et al. 2002), slope gradient
and a maximum search radius directly proportional to the and Sky-View Factor (Kokalj et al 2011) algorithm were
size of the investigated features (in other words, a large projected on a GIS platform2 and analysed in order to
radius exposes better larger relief features whereas a small assess their efficiency on Val d’Assa rock art visualisation.
radius exposes tiniest and more complex features). The analysis process (see figure 9.5) was programmed
taking into account four evaluation criteria:
Another visualisation technique that is rapidly gaining
popularity in the archaeological field is Openness • size of the area related to the incision (an auto-optically
(Yokoyama et al. 2002), that can delineate successfully determined feature here simplified as trace feature), in
both concave and convex features in a raised-relief other words, the pixels useful for identification;
digital map. Openness value is computed using the mean • consistency of spectral values within the trace feature,
zenith angle (positive Openness) or nadir angle (negative assessed by measuring the extent of its internal spectral
Openness) in at least eight directions from each image range;
spatial unit. Positive and negative Openness algorithms • prominence of the trace feature tone, measured by
worked successfully in combination to differentiate comparing its mean spectral values to the values of the
the bottom of the engraving (hence the lowest, thin line whole sample area;
reached by the knife-edge), the inflection points and the • the trace features texture prominence, meaning the
whole trace caused by the repeated scratching on the rock. distinctiveness of its texture compared to the whole
sample area.
One of the most enigmatic panels we examined is located
in sector 10, part of which at some point likely served As a first step, the visible parts of the inscriptions were
as a sharpening surface for the knife blades. Given its drawn as polyline vectors on a new GIS layer; a first
complexity, we choose in this case to further aid our set of samples (Sample 1) was cut out from each image
investigation by means of Principal Component Analysis with a mask obtained from a 2 inches buffer from the
or PCA, which also allowed us to overcome the static polyline. The new images histograms were then manually
light source issue related to the hillshade algorithm. PCA manipulated to determine the visibility threshold of the
is one of the most common and widespread procedures incision in each observed treatment. Both the quantity of
in remote sensing studies of landscapes. It is a method pixels (useful pixels, UP) and the spectral range (inner
of multivariate statistics that merges the information of a coherence, IC) in the resulting trace features were then
given group of images in a new set of data, the so-called measured. A second set of larger samples (Sample 2) was
principal components (Lillesand et al. 2011, 536). The first then extracted after adding to each trace feature area an
elements of the generated series, which can be combined arbitrary buffer of 5 inches. Within each new sample, the
as RGB bands for a more complete visualisation, contain first information came from the comparison of the trace
the features more frequently present in the original set feature mean spectral value with its surroundings. A
and therefore are the most useful for the investigation; quantity of the trace feature spectral prominence (SP) was
the result of their combination is in fact a false colour thus calculated:
composite image of the first three components. Although
the thus processed data may be less easy to interpret, |trace feature mean spectral value – sample 2 mean
the simultaneous visualisation of features in the entire spectral value|
scene, emphasised by multi-directional illumination,
grants a sensible increment of information compared to
the traditional mono-directional hillshade. In the case of 2
All classification operations were performed using Esri ArcGIS 10.2
sector 10, the PCA helped to better define the tiny lines in (ArcMap Classification toolbox).

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

Figure 9.3: Image processing of Diavoletto (detail of sector 12): hillshade (a); Sky-View Factor (b); slope gradient (c); positive
Openness (d); negative Openness (e); graphic rendering of the visible trace (modified from Priuli 1983) (f).

Figure 9.4: Principal Component Analysis applied on an inscription in sector 12 (left) and on a portion of sector 10 (right).

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

Figure 9.5: Sector 10: Hillshade visualization analysis (a), tresholding of Sample 1 area (b), trace feature extraction (c),
Sample 2 (d), ISODATA clustering (e) and trace cluster/ trace feature intersection (f).

For the last evaluation (pattern prominence, PP) we took In all three objects of study the slope gradient had the worst
once more into account the second set of samples, on which results and the Openness algorithm got the highest score,
we run the ISODATA clustering algorithm (Ball and Hall the latter therefore proving itself as the most effective
1975) that reiteratively assigns each raster cell to a given 3D visualisation processing among those examined. This
cluster by computing the minimum Euclidean distance. We looks particularly evident in the case of P10 test area,
carried on the classification dictating a number of only 2 where the incision is deeper, whereas in the Capanna case,
clusters, since we aimed at a pattern macro-differentiation where the rock is scratched less profoundly, the treatments
between the trace and its close surroundings. The cluster scores are more closely matched (Figure 9.6).
compatible with the incision area (trace cluster) was then
superimposed to the trace feature; the intersection areas in The trace features (to which had been assigned a unique
all samples were subsequently compared to the respective value of 1) extracted from all processed images were also
trace clusters, with the goal of finding the one with a better combined through an overlay operation of map algebra
correspondence: (sum), in order to produce overall visibility maps (Figure
9.7). This simple procedure helped us to get an idea of
intersection pixels * 100 / trace cluster pixels which parts of the inspected subjects are less evident and
therefore whose legibility may be put more at risk by
The results (UPs, inner coherence, spectral prominence natural or anthropic agents.
and pattern prominence) were finally all converted in
percentage values and put together as means: 9.4.3.2 Object-based image analysis

(UP% + IC% + SP% + PP%) / n of treatments Object-based image analysis is a classification process
based on image-objects instead of pixels. Image-objects
thus, obtaining comparable overall ratings for each tested are homogeneous portions of an image derived from a
area. segmentation process that divide the scene according to

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

Figure 9.6: Graphic display of results through Kivat diagrams: Diavoletto/ little devil (a), Capanna/ hut (b), P10 (c) test areas;
overall comparison histogram.

different, user-selected algorithms (Baatz and Schäpe to the real archaeological objects. The scale parameters
2004). were determined through a trial-and-error approach.
We tested two different methods of classification: a
According to the types of engraving technology recognized Nearest Neighbour (NN) classification and a rule-based
in the rock art of the Assa Valley (see section 4.1), it is classification (Figure 9.8). Although both techniques
possible to distinguish the traces into two main classes: the automatically differentiate between intact and fractured
graffiti (thin lines) and the polissoir (thick lines). Both of rock, the classification between anthropic and natural
them are characterised by specific technological features engravings required more attention.
that allow a general distinction and classification. As noted
above, a third class of signs is represented by cup marks. Four classes have been implemented in the nearest
In addition to the engravings, the rocks are also subject neighbour classification of sector 11: Natural Rock,
to detachments of natural or undetermined origin that Rock Detachments, Graffiti and Polissoir. For each class,
can be sometimes hardly distinguishable from intentional between 20 and 30 image-objects were carefully selected
representations, both by the software performing a (semi) as samples. The result of the classification shows a high
automatic recognition and by the expert human operator. quality in the distinction between the class Natural
Rock and the other three classes but a lower value in the
In order to evaluate the potential of object-based image discrimination between the anthropic (Graffiti and Polissoir
analysis (OBIA or ArchaeOBIA) for the classification of classes) and natural (Rock Detachment class) traces. Thus,
rock art engravings, sector 11 has been selected as a test- while the two crosses have been correctly ascribed in the
area because it contains examples of all the three engraving class to which they belong, the same cannot be said for the
technologies listed above. On this sector, one can easily squared frame and the hut. The numerous image-objects
identify: two polissoir (the cross at the right and a square), that constitute the square engraving have been classified
two graffiti (the hut in the centre and the cross in the right equally among the classes Graffiti, Polissoir and Rock
bottom) and a few cup-marks scattered around the panel. Detachment. The hut, instead, has mostly been classified
correctly (Graffiti class), but some anthropic engravings
According to Monna et al. (2018) and to our own internal have been recognized as natural rock detachments.
validation protocol (see section 4.3.1), positive Openness
is the most suitable DEM enhancement to highlight For the rule-based classification, we decided to implement
engravings in a rather planar surface. So, we decided to one more class, the Cup-marks, in addition to the previous
test the OBIA approach on sector 11 using this specific ones. The rule set was realized in subsequent steps
visualisation technique. First of all, a multiresolution according to the complexity of the archaeological objects
segmentation was applied to the positive Openness of the to be classified. First of all, two classes of recognition
3D model. This type of segmentation is the most common have been applied (Natural Rock and Rock Detachments)
for the analysis of archaeological contexts (Magnini based on the spectral value of the positive Openness. As
and Bettineschi 2019; 2021), because it allows the for the Nearest Neighbour analysis, the classification
operator to create image-objects which are more similar was able to discriminate with a good level of precision

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

Figure 9.7: Capanna/ hut incision visibility in hillshade (a), slope (b), negative Openness (c), positive Openness (d), and Sky-
View Factor (e) processed images; synthesis overlay (f).

and accuracy between the two classes. After that, we those of natural rock detachments. Spectral features
isolated the thick Polissoir lines from the general class alone do not provide an adequate number of variables
Rock Detachments using their textural homogeneity and to unequivocally discriminate between the two classes,
their lowest spectral values in the positive Openness. so geometric/ dimensional features have also been used.
These two features, however, do not define univocally In general, graffiti is composed of a thin and elongated
the Polissoir class, because Cup-marks share similar engraving that is rather limited in space; so, it was decided
values. In order to distinguish between Polissoir and to classify all image-objects that had these characteristics
Cup-marks, the roundness values were considered in addition to a concave profile. Another point to be
discriminatory; cup-marks, indeed, have a very rounded considered in the classification of complex archaeological
geometry. The most problematic part in the rule set objects (as defined in Magnini and Bettineschi 2019), is
creation was the recognition of the Graffiti class, because the presence of interruptions that determine an absence
the characteristics of these incisions tend to overlap with of continuity in the representation. This, in the digital

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

Figure 9.8: Sector 11: final, segmented NN classification (above) and final, segmented rule-based classification (below). Blue:
natural rock; green: rock detachments; yellow: polissoir; pink: cup-marks (only rule-based); red: graffiti.

domain, is concretized in the presence of several image- of the natural rock detachments. To overcome this issue,
objects that compose a single archaeological object. This we applied a set of rules which are tailored for this
issue can be partially overcome by considering relational specific case study, and should not be employed during
features among the image-objects of the same class (or an eventual automatic re-application of the same rule set
between different classes) in hierarchical perspective. In in a new engraved panel. In general terms, using tailor-
the specific case study, the segments representing the hut made rules limits the re-applicability in other contexts, but
are generally very close to one another. significantly boosts the performance on the specific case
study.
Despite classifying with a high degree of accuracy all of
the anthropic engravings, the results of the image analysis For example, the graffiti of sector 11 have a well-defined
still showed several commission errors in the recognition orientation with respect to the random distribution of the

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

natural cracks. This object-feature was thus used to refine The application of remote sensing techniques and
the classification of the Graffiti class and delete some image enhancing algorithms proved further important
noise. to emphasise micro-morphology, increasing both
qualitatively and quantitatively the information about
The comparison between the results obtained with the two the real objects. Moreover, the enhanced images show
classification techniques (NN and rule-based) highlights much more than what is visible today without the need of
advantages and disadvantages of each methodology. Both aggressive cleaning of the surfaces, which may put at risk
methods offer an objective and quantitative approach the preservation of the engraving themselves. Coupling
to data analysis; however, while the nearest neighbour the various enhancing strategies, it is possible to obtain
classification is considerably more inaccurate (especially a clearer picture of the overall representations, adding a
in terms of commission errors), it has the advantage of few more details to the manual tracing currently available
being much less time-consuming with respect to the (Priuli 1983). The potential of Object-Pattern-Scenery
rule-based classification. On the other hand, the rule- Recognition (OPSR), and in particular of object-based
based classification offers better accuracy, both in terms image analysis, opens further scenarios for the near future
of omission errors (only some cup-marks were wrongly of rupestrian archaeology.
classified) and commission errors, but the rule-set creation
is more time-consuming and requires a significant Our hope is that manual tracings and 3D acquisitions will
fine-tuning that may lead to problems during future re- be more and more integrated into the operational routine
applications. Then again, the two methods have proved to of rock art studies according to the specific context,
be particularly useful both in speeding up the analysis of especially in the case of problematic superimpositions,
data and in contributing to the interpretation phase. or visibility issues, in order to combine the different
types of information that can be derived from the two
9.5 Conclusions and Perspectives complementary approaches.

In conclusion, it is important to underline that this Finally, the opportunities offered by 3D models transcend
contribution is not intended to say that digital acquisitions the idea of a passive preservation and foster innovative
perform better than manual tracings. That would be very approaches for the dissemination of the results, for public
far from the truth. Manual tracing are interpretative studies involvement and eco-cultural resource management. In
in themselves, because the knowledge and the ability of the the case of the Assa Valley rock art, designing a dedicated
human operator offer a fundamental help for example in app for tablets, smartphones or even smart glasses
the differentiation between fractures and incised lines that including GPS-guided tours and mixed / augmented
can speed up the whole post-processing and classification reality experiences could truly boost the interactivity and
procedure. Despite the differences between the tracing immersivity of on-site visits, appealing to new audiences
of the same panel made by different field operators3, the at local and national level. All engravings – even those
importance of manual recording goes beyond the issue of which are too faint or corroded to be perceived with
the precision and accuracy of the documentation per se: in naked eyes – could be highlighted with different colours,
fact, this method remains fundamental because it creates a magnified, manipulated and described with short notes and
connection between the operator and the contexts, offering capitations, adding bonus features regarding connections
a window on how the engravings were possibly made, by to other rock art contexts and comparisons among specific
facing all the challenges of the strange positions that one panels. This would also imply lower maintenance costs,
needs to assume to be able to trace them, which are often as there would be no need of a constant cleaning of the
similar to those that were used when first producing them. surfaces (except when required for preservation issues),
and could also encompass the possibility to virtually
Digital acquisition, however, is a reproducible and restore images and signs that were previously damaged.
objective method for recording and preserving the rock
art panels and scenes. It offers a powerful tool to quantify Digital acquisitions are also the founding core for
the iconographic and morphometric characteristics of the creating virtual visits to the archaeological sites. In time
engravings and produce a single, accurate and repeatable of pandemic, the potential of this approach is apparent
description. The very high-resolution models obtained (Brogiolo and Chavarria 2020): experiencing digital tours
form the basis for further specialised studies for example or walkthroughs from the couch is not only a way to reach
on the manufacturing techniques or on the iconographic new audiences all around the globe, but may become the
characteristics of the artefacts, as it was presented only possible solution for granting a continuity of the
throughout this chapter. cultural offer in periods of crisis.

Author contributions
3
See for example the huge differences in the tracing of the “diavoletto”
(little devil) in Tunkelbald, sector 12, published in Leonardi et al.1982 The introduction is due to CB, EF, and GS; the
and in Priuli 1983: not only the facial expression is different, but various archaeological context to CB and ADG; the section on
details (e.g., the elbows) and cup marks do not correspond between the
two manual restitutions. In this sense, 3D models offer an unbiased structured-light to EF, and GS; section 3.2 from structured
representation of the actual engraving “as-is”. light to GIS was written by LM; CB wrote the notes on

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 More than meets the eye. Structured light and 3D enhancing strategies

Table 9.1: Synthesis of the processed image values collected during the visibility analysis.

Pixels in Visibility Inner UP % Pixels in Mean Mean MV Spectral ISO- Intersection Pattern OVER­
Sample 1 treshold* coherence (Useful UP in Sample 2 value value (Sample Promin­ cluster (pixels) Promin­ ALL
(manual) - IC (%) Pixels) Sample (Sample (trace 2) - MV ence - SP (TF ence -
1 2) feature) (UP) (%) pixels) PP (%)

Diavolo

HILL 623356 106 41.73 251399 40.33 1935572 127.65 57.10 70.55 27.78 861989 251399 29.16 34.75

SVF 623356 100 39.37 203214 32.60 1836926 153.25 55.53 97.72 38.47 544126 203214 37.35 36.95

N OP 623356 92 36.22 188962 30.31 1793659 158.02 27.64 130.38 51.33 932146 188962 20.27 34.53

P OP 623356 101 39.76 296240 47.52 1904020 171.90 17.10 154.80 60.94 685905 296240 43.19 47.86

SLOPE 623356 48 18.90 125480 20.13 1710800 31.45 55.94 -24.49 9.64 769793 125480 16.30 16.24

Capanna

HILL 970357 179 70.47 218781 22.55 2,142,852 205.67 119.21 86.46 34.04 539355 218781 40.56 41.91

SVF 970357 114 44.88 288322 29.71 2,161,855 158.40 63.16 95.24 37.50 588703 288322 48.98 40.27

N OP 970357 154 60.63 375033 38.65 2,255,500 156.10 71.06 85.04 33.48 1286539 348540 27.09 39.96

P OP 970357 103 40.55 276582 28.50 2,142,728 193.42 20.93 172.49 67.91 844539 276582 32.75 42.43

SLOPE 970357 42 49.41 330538 34.06 2,229,167 32.97 50.93 -17.95 7.07 1075951 330538 30.72 30.32

P10

HILL 1952429 190 74.80 944846 48.39 4,020,211 181.38 106.37 75.01 58.76 1289177 746171 57.88 59.96

SVF 1952429 112 44.09 902599 46.23 3,904,469 138.09 47.43 90.66 71.03 1412006 902599 63.92 56.32

N OP 1952429 114 44.88 410340 21.02 3,707,236 179.65 36.90 142.75 111.84 2123132 410340 19.33 49.27

P OP 1952429 127 50.00 1082790 55.46 3,983,695 153.23 20.39 132.84 104.07 1600277 1082732 67.66 69.30

SLOPE 1952429 43 16.93 693018 35.50 3,990,343 35.48 54.62 -19.14 7.54 1907702 693018 36.33 24.07

*All values are expressed in a 0-255 value range, with the exception of slope gradient, with a range of 0-85

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Cinzia Bettineschi, Luigi Magnini, Emanuela Faresin, Laura Burigana, Armando De Guio, Giuseppe Salemi

the engraving technology; the section on 3D enhancing Challis, K., Forlin, P. and Kincey, M. “A generic toolkit for
strategies is due to LM and LB; LB also wrote the section the visualisation of archaeological features on airborne
on semi-supervised classification, while LM the one Lidar elevation data”. Archaeological Prospection 18
related to object-based image analysis. The conclusions (2011): 279 –289.
are by CB. All authors read and approved the final draft
De Guio, A. “Lusiana, Rotzo e dintorni: percorsi della
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3D data and ground observation, edited by R.S. Opitz
and D.C. Cowley, 13–31. Oxford: Oxford Books, 2012.
Papageorgopoulou, C., Kuhn, G., Ziegler, U. and Rühli,
F.J. “Diagnostic morphometric applicability of confocal
laser scanning microscopy in Osteoarchaeology ‘’.
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 20 (6)
(2010): 708–718.
Priuli, A. “Le incisioni rupestri dell’Altopiano dei Sette
Comuni”. In, Quaderni di Cultura Alpina, 7. Ivrea:
Priuli & Verlucca editori, 1983.
Priuli, A. “Tecniche di incisione e contenuti delle incisioni
della Val d’Assa”. In Le incisioni rupestri della Val
d’Assa: ipotesi a confronto, 171–180. Padova: Grafica
Faggian, 2001.
Rigoni, G. “Distribuzione delle incisioni rupestri
sull’Altopiano”. In Le incisioni rupestri della Val
d’Assa: ipotesi a confronto, 95–128. Padova: Grafica
Faggian, 2001.
Ruiz, J., Royo-Lasarte, J., Royo-Guillén, J., and Rivero,
O. “Filling the Void: Rock-art Continuity Over the
Pleistocene–Holocene Boundary in Eastern Iberia”.
Cambridge Archaeological Journal (2022): 1–27.

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 10

Rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1 (Santa Cruz,

Argentina): unravelling the sequence using digital technologies

Agustina Papú

Abstract This chapter aims to study rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1, in order
to evaluate changes in the way groups interacted with pre-existing representations. CI1 was
recurrently occupied by hunter-gatherers during the last c. 4000 years BP, and has an important
concentration of rock art involved in superimpositions. The application of digital technologies
for processing photographs and tracing rock art, enabled the identification of a larger number and
diversity of motifs as well as the sequencing of tonal series. The research also exposed a change
around c. 2500 years BP in the interaction with pre-existing rock art.

Keywords Relative chronology – hunter-gatherers – Patagonia – digital processing – image

enhancement

10.1 Introduction of the things that stands out about CI1’s art, is that most
of its motifs are concentrated in a specific sector of the
This chapter is focused on the study of rock art site and, within it, the majority of the representations are
superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1 (CI1), an involved in sequences of superpositions (Aschero et al.
archaeological site located in the Province of Santa Cruz 1999; Aschero and Guráieb 1995).
in the Argentinean Patagonia. During the past c.4000
years, CI1 was recurrently occupied by highly mobile The study of rock art superimpositions can enable
hunter-gatherer groups, and throughout time these groups a better understanding of the decisions involved in
have imprinted their presence at the site with rock art. One pictorial practices. Aside from the fact that they allow
the establishment of diachronic relationships between
motifs, they also expose different attitudes taken towards
the pre-existing rock art (Aschero 1988; Re 2016).
Typically, panels with complex superpositions behave as
cumulative palimpsests and the information available is
hard to access (Carden and Miotti 2020; Keyser 2001).
In cumulative palimpsests there is no actual loss of
evidence, but the deposited elements are intermixed in
such a way that discerning separate episodes becomes
very difficult (Bailey 2007). This chapter will discuss the
advantages in the application of certain digital tools in
the process of unravelling a complex sequence of super­
positions at CI1.

10.2 Cerro de los Indios 1

CI1 is a rock shelter in the locality of Lago Posadas, in the

northwestern area of the Santa Cruz Province (47° 35’ 43’’
S, 71° 43’ W). The site is located along the northern front
of the hill known as Cerro del Indio or Cerro de los Indios,
a dioritic-dacitic outcrop in the basin of the Posadas,
Puerredón, and Salitroso lakes (see figure 10.1).

Systematic research in the site began during the 1970s and

since then a vast amount of archaeological remains have
been recovered from excavations. Radiocarbon dating of
these remains have suggested an occupation of the site
in the course of two temporal segments: An Initial Block
approximately dated to between 3900 and 3100 years BP
and a Recent Block dated from around 1800 to 1000 years

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Agustina Papú

Figure 10.1: (A) Location of the archaeological site CI1 within Patagonia (B) Outcrop known as Cerro de los Indios (C) Layout
of Sector B in CI1, with location of the “main niche” and the excavated areas (based on the one presented in Guráieb 2012).

BP, with a chronological hiatus in between (De Nigris et Studies suggest that CI1 held a prominent role in the
al. 2004). It is important to note however that this hiatus mobility and settlement patterns of the hunter-gatherer
does not correspond with a generalised abandonment of groups that occupied the region. This site has been
the region, it seems to be a particularity of the occupations proposed as a convergence point recurrently visited by
in CI1, possibly related with changes in the role of the humans in the past since c. 3900 years BP. It would have
site in mobility dynamics within the basin (Aschero et al. been a part of the seasonal migration dynamics between
1999; De Nigris et al. 2004; Goñi and Barrientos 2004; the Andes Mountain range area, the Pinturas river basin
Mengoni Goñalons and Yacobaccio 2000). and the western border of the Central High-Plateau
(Altiplanicie Central) (Aschero et al. 1999; Figuerero
CI1 has a large habitable surface area of about 240 m2, and Torres 2000; Mengoni Goñalons and Yacobaccio 2000;
is set in close proximity to permanent water supplies and Aschero 2020).
diverse ecological environments, which made it a strategic
location. The basin in which the site is located has a The rock art present at the site has contributed to the notion
relatively low altitude that ranges between 100 and 300 of CI1 as a convergence or nodal point. This is mainly
m.a.s.l., providing more benign and protected conditions for three reasons: the first, CI1 has a significantly larger
than neighbouring regions (Aschero et al. 1999; De Nigris number of motifs in comparison to other contemporary
et al. 2004; Mengoni Goñalons and Yacobaccio 2000; sites in the vicinity; secondly, many of these motifs are
Guráieb 2012). These features made the basin even more involved in superimpositions; and thirdly, there are certain
appealing during the past c. 2500 years BP, when a series motifs present that share stylistic traits and hold strong
of climatic changes took place characterised by a decrease similarities with rock art in neighbouring areas (Aschero
in the level of humidity in the area (Goñi and Barrientos et al. 1999; Gradin et al. 1979; Mengoni Goñalons and
2004; Stine and Stine 1990). It has been proposed that Yacobaccio 2000). The particularity of the site and its
these changes might have led to a reduction in the mobility relevance was also suggested by the presence of a very
of the groups that inhabited the region, and would have unique motif that has no similar representations in the area
concentrated the population in areas where water was (Aschero and Guráieb 1995; Guráieb 2012). This painting,
permanently available (Goñi et al. 2000). often referred to as the “laberintiforme” (labyrinth-
shaped), is an umber spiral within two concentric circles
This site is also characterised by a high visibility from with a total diameter of around 60 cm, located over 4 m
a distance of over 25 km, reinforced by the weathered above the ground.
surface of the rock which reflects sunlight all throughout
the day and makes the outcrop glimmer and stand out in CI1’s art includes painted and engraved representations
the landscape (Mengoni Goñalons 1999). CI1 also works of both abstract and figurative motifs, in a diverse range
as a great vantage point, with a visibility of almost all the of tonalities and techniques. The majority of the motifs
basin, reaching features 55 km away (Mengoni Goñalons are painted, and can be found in red, black, ochre, white,
and Yacobaccio 2000). and umber hues. There is also a wide range of identifiable

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techniques for the application of pigment preparations, rock art using various techniques, colours, and designs
including use of intermediaries, stencils, fingers, and the (Gradin et al. 1979; Aschero and Isasmendi 2018).
so called ‘impacts’. The latter is a term used to describe
a specific kind of motif that appears as circular splotches 10.2.1 Chronological models for CI1 rock art
located along the upper section of the available walls and
under the ceiling of the rock shelters. It has been suggested The first systematic study of CI1’s art in articulation
that these representations were done using projectiles with the regional scenario enabled the delineation of a
covered with leather or wool imbued with pigment chronological model for the site’s rock art episodes. In the
(Aschero and Guráieb 1995). late 1990s C. Aschero proposed four phases of execution
for the sites’ rock art history, and defined these phases
Though there are motifs spread along the whole front of as periods of time during which one or more tonal series
the site, these are unevenly distributed. When the first could have been executed (Aschero et al. 1999). In order
systematic recordings of the CI1’s rock art took place, to estimate these chronological intervals, a series of factors
the site was divided into two sectors separated by a were considered. These included the association between
concentration of boulders from past rockfall episodes: rockfall boulders (with and without paintings) and dated
Sector A to the East, and Sector B to the West. The episodes of occupations within CI1, as well as information
latter has a much more abundant assortment of rock provided by other contemporary sites in the region with
art representations than sector A, as well as a larger pigments in stratigraphy (Aschero et al. 1999; Aschero
concentration of other archaeological vestiges. Sector B and Guráieb 1995).
also offers various sheltered areas along its 72 m front,
and it is in this part of the site that the archaeological The phases proposed are: An Initial phase (c. 3800 – 3200
excavations have been focused on (Aschero et al. 1999). years BP), an Early-Intermediate phase (c. 3200 – 3000
years BP), a Late-Intermediate phase (c. 3000 – 1400
Around one third of CI1’s rock art representations are years BP) and a Late phase (c.1400 – 900 years BP).
concentrated in a natural entrance in the rock referred
to as the ‘main niche’, which is located in Sector B (see According to this model, the Initial phase (c. 3800 – 3200
figure 10.1b). The base rock holds similar characteristics years BP) was composed of three tonal series: Red I,
all throughout the site, yet there is a clear recurrent choice Black I and Umber I. These three series present strong
made by these groups regarding the placement of the relationships between each other, as well as certain
representations. Within this niche over half of the motifs similarities in the depiction of guanacos. This phase is
were identified in one single topographic unit (TU)1, most of also associated with the presence of labyrinth-type motifs,
them involved in a complex sequence of superimpositions, and the aforementioned impacts.
out of arm’s reach. It is in this TU that the aforementioned
laberintiforme is found. Because there were no visible The second phase, the Early-Intermediate (c. 3200 – 3000
representations superimposed to it, previous studies have years BP), consists of a second black tonal series. It is
suggested that it had been intentionally maintained over characterised by the presence of small headless guanacos
time (Aschero and Guráieb 1995; Aschero et al. 1999). (both isolated and in herds), schematic anthropomorphic
figures, and painted animal tracks.
Up until recently, the main focus of rock art studies in
CI1 has been centred around the identification of stylistic The Late-Intermediate phase (c. 3000 – 1400 years BP)
traits and the development of a regional chronological encompasses five tonal series: Red II, Brown/Umber II,
model for rock art representations in the area (Aschero Green, White, Yellow-ochre. The red and brown series
and Guráieb 1995; Aschero and Isasmendi 2018; Aschero include abstract motifs such as lines, concentric circles,
2017). Paintings are earlier forms of representation in and assembled dots. Red II also has some representations
north-western Santa Cruz, while engravings appear as a of guanacos. The other tonal series in the phase consist
regional phenomenon around 2500 years BP (Gradin et exclusively of negative handprints (hand stencils). A
al. 1979; Gradin 1983); a moment that coincides with significant portion of this time interval coincides with the
the aforementioned climatic and environmental changes. identified chronological hiatus. However, considering that
During the identification of regional rock art styles, an the hiatus does not coincide with a regional abandonment,
important focus was placed on the different ways in which it is possible to think that during this period CI1 could
guanacos were represented. The guanaco (Lama guanicoe) have been visited more sporadically or by a reduced
is an autochthonous camelid that has been identified as the number of individuals, which would have resulted in an
main source of sustenance for the hunter-gatherer groups inconspicuous datatable record in stratigraphy.
during the whole sequence of occupation in the area. And
throughout the region this animal has been represented in The Late Phase (c.1400 – 900 years BP), consists in two
engraved series and a third red painted episode. Engravings
in both series are pecked, but the different degree of
1
Topographic unit is defined as a delimited area of the base rock upon patina has helped discern between them. The so-called
which rock art representations have been executed. The limits of the unit
are defined by features in the rock such as fractures or changes in its Engravings I includes curved geometric motifs, as well as
inclination/orientation (Re 2010). human footprints and feline tracks. Engravings II on the

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other hand is mainly composed of bird tracks, very likely analysis of the superimposition relationships within CI1
corresponding to choiques (Pterocnemia pennata), and can contribute greatly to the process.
guanacos. According to this model, this final red painted
series consists mainly in the presence of simple geometric 10.3 Methods and Techniques
designs regionally associated with stylistic tendency
known as ‘grecas’ (originally identified and proposed by 10.3.1 Research potential of superimpositions
Menghin in the 1950s).
The high concentration of superimposed rock art motifs in
However later revisions on both the local and regional a site like CI1, holds an enormous information potential,
information, have started to provide a slightly different waiting to be decoded. Studying superimpositions presents
chronological scenario. The most recent developments in a series of opportunities. The first and most frequently
this line of investigation led by C. Aschero has proposed used is its potential to identify diachronic episodes of rock
the identification of six Cerro de los Indios styles with art execution. They inherently imply that one motif was
associated chronologies: Cerro de los Indios A, B, C, D, done prior to another and thereby serve as an indicator
E, and F (Aschero 2017; Aschero and Isasmendi 2018). of relative chronologies (Breuil 1952; Chippindale et al.
Though this is still under revision and development, the 2000; Keyser 2001; among others). In this regard, the study
information so far reads as follows: of the superimpositions in CI1 can provide more detailed
information on the (relative) chronological relationship
• Cerro de los Indios A (CIA) would have developed between certain types of motifs and tonal series. This
between c.5000 to 3800 years BP. Certain stylistic in turn can contribute to the existing regional model of
traits present in CI1 suggest an earlier occupation of stylistic traits through time.
the site than what the dated materials in stratigraphy
have shown so far (Aschero and Isasmendi 2018). Superimpositions also enable the possibility of identifying
From around 5000 years ago the site would have specific choices made in the past. Before the actual
been available for human occupation (Horta et al. execution of rock art representations, a series of decisions
2015), and certain sectors in which this earlier rock took place, including the selection of the site and the desired
art depictions are found have yet to be excavated. CIA placement of the motifs within it. These decisions would
includes a number of labyrinth-shaped motifs and have been articulated with others regarding, for instance,
guanacos corresponding to a design known as canon the accessibility and visibility of each representation in
B. This particular representation, with a wide regional the eyes of future observers. Features such as size, colour,
presence, is characterised by “amygdaloid-shaped” and location, condition how someone else can or might
bodies, to which the hind and fore quarters have been interact with them later on in time. Superimpositions are
added (Aschero and Isasmendi 2018). one way in which these interactions are visibly manifested
• Cerro de los Indios B (CIB) is dated to between c.3800 (Aschero 1988; Aschero 1997; Re 2016).
and 3500 years BP, and consists of the first black series.
This style would correspond to the latest moments of The choice of painting or engraving a motif over another
the Initial Phase in the previous chronological model, could be motivated by very different reasons, such as
and is characterised by oval-bodied representations of sacred locations, interactions between groups, or the
guanacos. recurrence of specific themes (Hernández Llosas 1985).
• Cerro de los Indios C (CIC), dated to between c.3500 to In some cases, superimpositions can completely obliterate
3000 years BP, corresponds to a second black series that the underlying representations, while in other occasions
is composed of small figures, and guanacos organised the overlap of the new motif can be minimal, or might be
in herds. recycling a pre-existing representation into a new design
• Cerro de los Indios D (CID), dating from c.3000 to 2500 (Aschero 1988; Nash 2012; Re 2016). Each one of these
years BP, presents the first red tonal series consisting in decisions has its inherent implications, and though without
small figurative representations. ethnographic records, it’s not possible to truly identify
• Cerro de los Indios E (CIE), is dated to between c.2500 set motivation, it is possible to observe different ways of
to 1000 years BP, and corresponds to the initial presence interacting with the pre-existing rock art.
of engravings in the site, coinciding with the previously
described Engravings I and II from the Late Phase of The attitudes regarding previous pictorial representations
representations in CI1. There are different degrees of can also be subjected to change throughout time. The
patina in the grooves suggesting at least two segregated study of ethnographic and historic records of South
episodes of engraving in time. African hunter-gatherer groups, have suggested that
• Cerro de los Indios F (CIF), dated to between c.1000 by means of analysing rock art superimpositions, it is
and 600 years BP, is based on another red series that is possible to discern changes throughout time in the way
composed primarily of geometric designs, bird tracks groups interact with pre-existing pictorial representations.
and hand stencils. The interaction between different rock art traditions can
vary in accordance to changes in the relationship between
The development of this last chronological model is still groups, and / or between the groups and their environment
being revised. The information provided by a detailed (Louw 2016).

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 Rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1

The way people interacted with CI1 varied throughout photographs with Adobe Photoshop and DStretch. This
time. Factors such as the intensity of occupation and the helped identify motifs that were not visible in the field
increasing levels of familiarity with local resources, suggest as well as resolve certain ambiguities. Adobe Photoshop
that the relationship with the site and its surrounding area was mainly used to alter lighting and contrast settings in
developed and changed between chronological blocks. the digital photographs. The modification of these values
The so-called hiatus, that holds no correspondence with can later result in sharper and clearer distinctions when
a regional abandonment, also presents a moment in time inputted into DStretch. This second software, designed by
in which the role of the site within the groups’ mobility Dr Harman as a plugin of ImageJ, enables the application
patterns differed (De Nigris et al. 2004; Guráieb 2012). This of predetermined filters which generate contrasts that can
holds a particular importance because the chronological highlight the presence of pigments that are either too worn
model based on the styles present, suggest that there are out or have been obliterated by another motif, and are
representations that would have been executed during the unidentifiable with a naked eye in the field (Harman 2008).
course of the hiatus (Aschero and Guráieb 1995; Aschero
2017). This newly processed information was then articulated
with records from the field (particularly regarding tones
It is thereby possible to suggest as an initial hypothesis, that and superimposition relationships), in order to create a
as the relationship between CI1 and its occupants varied, digital trace of the rock art present. Tracing is a practice
so would the way in which these groups interacted with that predates the digital era, but informatic technology
the pre-existing rock art. In order to assess this proposal, provides the opportunity of doing so without any risk of
a thorough analysis of the site’s superimpositions must be harming the rock art. For this part of the process, a vector
carried out. graphics editing and design software was used. There are
a few advantages of tracing with vector graphic software
10.3.2 Fieldwork instead of a raster imaging-based one. Vector-based
images are not subjected to distortion or loss of resolution
Fieldwork was needed in order to carry out a systematic when varying the scales, and the size of the final file is
recording of the rock art motifs present in the site. The significantly smaller than raster-based tracings. For this
documented information included the type of motif, particular investigation, Adobe Illustrator was used.
technique, colour, and – if present – details on evident
superimpositions. This was accompanied with a thorough This last software also has a feature that enables the
photographic record. Photography remains the most construction of various digital layers in the tracing process.
practical means for recording rock art, and has the Each motif was therefore traced in a different layer which
advantage of exerting the least impact possible over the made the organisation of the sequence of superimpositions
representations (McDonald 2006, 63). more versatile.

In this particular case, the detailed photographic record Once the individual tracing of motifs was concluded the
was also instrumental in the subsequent definition of tonal next stage consisted in the identification of tonal series. The
groups. Though this might sound controversial, and onsite information recorded on site was articulated with the one
recording with Munsell soil colour charts is a much more processed in the lab in order to identify groups of motifs that
faithful tool, the configuration of CI1’s representations would correspond to a similar moment in time within the
presented a dilemma. Like it has been previously stated, sequence of superimpositions. Tonal assemblages or tonal
an important part of the site’s art is located out of arm’s groups defined by similarities in hue, level of preservation,
reach. Consequently, this made it very hard to gain close and technique were identified and organised in a sequence
access to certain painted sectors in order to define specific based on the order observed during the superimposition
hues using the Munsell chart. In the cases in which it was analysis. Motifs that shared these characteristics, even if
not possible to use the Munsell chart, further detailed they were not directly involved in superimpositions, were
descriptions were noted down regarding observable still considered part of the same series.
similarities and contrasts in tonality between motifs.
10.4 Results
Given the uneven distribution of motifs in CI1, the research
focused on the main niche. The limits of this feature were Based on these new recordings, 539 motifs have so
delimited on the sides by changes in the direction of the far been identified in CI1, 181 of them located within
rock. Because there were boulders with rock art within this the delimited niche. Around 91% of the motifs present
area, the cavity’s drip line was used as an outer limit to in the site are paintings (n=490), and 9% correspond
determine which boulders were to be considered as part of to engravings (n=49). Over a thousand impacts were
the niche, and which were not. identified but an operational decision was made to
consider groups of impacts within a same TU with similar
10.3.3. Application of digital tools hue, level of conservation and placing in the sequence of
superimpositions, as a single complex motif with several
The recorded information was later processed in the constituting elements. The reason for this is that impacts
lab. The first step consisted in the optimization of the are found in clusters, some made up of over fifty elements,

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Agustina Papú

and it is not possible to discern whether each individual tonal series such as the white and yellow ones from the
impact belonged to a unique episode, or if these were Late-Intermediate Phase, were believed to be exclusively
made in groups at a time. Though they are a very particular hand stencils. However, the image processing has helped
form of representation, the decision was made to apply the identify a series of abstract motifs in both tonalities, such
same criteria used throughout the investigation to classify as concentric circles in yellow-ochre, an assemblage of
abstract complex motifs: Groups of elements arranged white dots, and an articulation of white painted strokes.
together in a composition that portrays visual unity
(Aschero 1988), generally based on shared morphology The digital alterations on the photographs also helped
and hue, and taking into consideration similar degrees identify individual motifs that, because they had been
of deterioration as well as a shared location within the painted in similar hues superimposed to each other, were
sequence of superimpositions. originally classified as single undetermined ones. This
particularly concerned representations in red and black
The degree of conservation of the paintings in the site is hues.
very uneven. The areas outside the niche are more exposed
to natural agents such as wind and sun, and thereby the Inside the niche, 24 topographic units were identified,
paintings along these walls are more deteriorated than yet of the 181 motifs within this sector, almost 60% are
those sheltered in the niche. The level of exposure is also concentrated in a single one: TU 7, and within this TU,
variable within this natural entrance in the rock. This almost 75% of the motifs present are involved in sequences
had to be strongly considered at the time of organising of superimposition.
in tonal series motifs of similar tonalities. Variances in
hues in some occasions could be accounted as differential Because of this, the analysis began with the identification
conservation problems. of tonal series within this TU. The process was done by
articulating the information on superimpositions already
Before processing the images one of the first things to stand identified in the digital tracings, with some stylistic traits
out about the distribution of the motifs within the niche of the existing chronological models.
is that the representations along the walls of this cavity
correspond almost exclusively to paintings (most of which During the tracing process, each motif was drawn in a
are found outside the manual range of execution), while separate digital layer. In order to assemble individual
most of the representations on the boulders are engraved. motifs of a similar colour hue into a same tonal series
the main requisite was that they shared the same relative
The processing of images using the aforementioned chronological relationship with other tonalities in the
digital tools enabled the identification of various new sequence of superimpositions. For those motifs that
motifs that were not visible on site, and thereby had not were not involved in superimpositions, the incorporation
yet been recorded. This was particularly significant in the into the sequence presented a problem. The only ones
processing of TU 7 (TU with the largest concentration that were incorporated were those that fell upon the
of motifs), where the number nearly doubled after being following stipulations: a) the outlying motif held a clear
digitally processed (59 new motifs were found) (see figure correspondence in hue with other motifs of a certain
10.2). series, or b) a clear stylistic trait could associate it with
others of an already identified series. If neither one of
Not only the quantity of motifs changed with the application these requisites were covered, they were not included.
of these techniques, but also the amplitude of the repertoire This was particularly true for representations painted in
in terms of types of motifs. Prior to this analysis, certain black. The reasons for this are: a) there is a differential

Figure 10.2: (A) TU 7- TU with the largest concentration of motifs in the site (B) Tracing of paintings in TU 7 done with
vector graphics design software. There are some distortions in the tracing as a result of the transformation from 3D to 2D.

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 Rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1

degree of conservation throughout the panel, b) there are hues, but the digital processing placed this sequencing
several identified episodes of black paintings, and c) dark under discussion. In order to completely cover a dark
brown and black pigments do not contrast as much with representation with a lighter colour it is necessary to
the DStretch filters, making ambiguities harder to resolve. either add a very dense layer of the pigment preparation
or significantly reduce the contrast of the darker figure
The greatest advantage that the configuration of motifs and the background before painting over it. Either way,
in TU 7 posed for this process was that in various parts it is likely that if a motif in yellow, white, or a light
of the panel, direct superimpositions linked together up red hue was painted over a black figure, the underlying
to five different tonalities. This helped establish an initial representation would be identifiable for future observers.
diagram of the chronological sequence, to which the rest Specifically, if the density of the superimposed pigment
of the shorter overlapping episodes contributed. preparation is more fluid, and / or if its rate of deterioration
is faster than the underlying one. This has to be taken into
This first approach into the superimposition analysis account at the time of disentangling superimpositions.
enabled the identification of at least six tonal series. Series A dark tonality can be observable through the veil of a
1 corresponds to the earliest representations in the panel, lighter hue, and give a strong impression of being above
the motifs-among which the laberintiforme is found. it. This, however, does not work the other way around; if a
Series 2 is actually comprised by at least three episodes of painting in a lighter tonality can be seen above the darker
black paintings (a, b, and c) but the variations in level of one, even if slightly so, that light motif would have more
preservation along the TU and the fact that there are black likely been painted on top. The problem is that without
motifs with very slight differences in hue superimposed digitally processing the rock art record these subtleties
to each other, makes it hard to discern which motifs are frequently lost. During this investigation, the contrasts
correspond exactly with which one of these episodes. generated with DStretch filters (particularly LDS, LAB,
Series 3 consists of the representations painted in a dark and LRE) enabled the observation of strokes of painting in
red hue. Series 4 corresponds to the yellow-ochre motifs, lighter hues clearly overlapping the black motifs that had
Series 5 to those in bright red, and Series 6, the most been originally described as being on top. This resulted in
recent in the sequence of motifs in TU 7, corresponds to the re-evaluation of the order of several superimposition
an assemblage of paintings in white (see figure 10.3). relationships throughout the panel. Some ambiguities
however, were not as easy to solve, and remain under
One of the biggest challenges in this process was again revision.
associated with dark brown / black paintings. Field records
and initial observations of TU 7, described certain black A particular aspect of the superimposition sequence that
motifs as being painted above others in yellow and red stood out throughout this process has to do with the

Figure 10.3: Sequence of tonal series traced and organized in separate layers.

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Agustina Papú

labyrinth-shaped motif. Previous descriptions of this presence of the aligned white dots that have been painted
peculiar motif emphasised the idea that there had been an respecting the spacing in between the lines in the umber
intention of not painting anything over it. Some white and labyrinth.
ochre hues had been observed in between the lines, but
nothing strictly overlapping it. However, the processing The observation of the proposed tonal series enabled the
of the photographs with these digital tools exposed a identification of a particularly strong relationship between
very different scenario. Not only were superimpositions Series 4 and 5 (yellow-ochre and bright red). Two yellow-
present, there were motifs of all the identified tonal series ochre concentric circles are completely covered by motifs
painted over it. Some of these superimposed motifs in red. The morphology of the overlapping motifs coincides
include an assemblage of black circles, a guanaco in dark almost exactly with the dimension of the underlying ochre
red, a group of ochre concentric circles, an undetermined representations. Another example of this interaction is the
figure in bright red, and an assemblage of white dots. This group of red lines painted surrounding a yellow-ochre
motif was not maintained over time, but instead recycled circle. It is important to note that none of these motifs
and reappropriated (see figure 10.4). (the concentric circles with overlapping red figures, nor
the ochre circle with surrounding red lines) were visible
Generally, there seems to be a constant interaction between on site; they were only identified after processing the
the series present in this TU. This is suggested by the mere photographs with DStretch.
presence of these “multiple” superimposition sequences
directly joining various tonalities with each other. This The rock art representations along the other walls of the
interaction articulates the earliest umber depictions, niche were painted in red and black tonalities. The fact
through to the most recent white ones, as can be seen in the that the relative timeline of tonal series proposed for

Figure 10.4: Sequence of execution of motifs in articulation with the laberintiforme. (A) Labyrinth-shaped motif, oldest
representation in the niche corresponding to Series 1 (B) Series 2: comprised by several episodes of black paintings. (C) Series
3: Earliest red paintings (D) Series 4: yellow-ochre paintings (E) Series 5: bright red representations-in strong relationship
with Series 4 (F) Series 6: white paintings.

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 Rock art superimpositions in Cerro de los Indios 1

TU 7 identified two different hues of red and at several This sharp change shows a clear break in the way the groups
episodes of black paintings, makes it hard to integrate the interacted with the pre-existing art. Up until this point,
representations in these other walls into the sequence. This there had been a continuous articulation between the rock
is also made harder by the fact that paintings on the other art representations, and a clear intention of overlapping
walls in the niche show a poorer level of conservation than new series of motifs over this already densely covered
TU 7, which alters the observable tonalities. area of the site. But with this first engraved series comes
a big change. These new representations broke away from
The boulders within the niche have both painted and an existing dynamic, stopped interacting directly with
engraved representations. But it is important to note that the pre-existing rock art and started using other available
the engravings are not superimposed over any previous sectors. Once this change was made, the subsequent series
painting. However, over some of these pecked motifs remained in the more accessible areas.
in TU 22, there is a later series of red paintings (a third
red series, in a dark red hue) that is directly overlapping It is interesting to note that this moment of change occurs
them. In some cases, the painting was added “filling” during the time lapse identified as a chronological hiatus
the grooves. These two series do not hold direct physical in CI1. During this period in which a certain distance was
interaction with any of the ones painted along the walls of installed between these groups and the site, and in which
the niche. climatic changes started restructuring the environment,
there is an observable transformation in the attitude taken
10.5 Conclusion towards the pre-existing rock art.

According to the existing regional chronological model During this investigation, the application of digital tools
based on stylistic traits, the motifs present in TU 7 to process photography has increased significantly the
were probably painted in the period between the initial number of motifs identified in the site (even doubled the
occupations up until around 2500 years BP. This would field records in some cases). This level of image processing
also apply for most of the representation in the other walls must therefore be applied for the rest of the site, which will
of the niche. The majority of the motifs corresponding to very likely increase the total amount of motifs; particularly
this time frame were painted out of arm’s reach, which in considering the aforementioned differential conservation.
itself poses a new set of questions regarding this activity.
The next step in the analysis of superimpositions which is
Around 2500 years ago a shift happened. Motifs that had currently in place, is the use of a Harris Matrix to identify and
been associated in the site with chronologies after 2500 structure the classification of the different types of superimpo­
BP, can be found in more accessible placings such as the sitions. This will enable a more detailed understanding of the
boulders within the niche. Not only is there a significant interactions throughout time between overlapping motifs.
change regarding the emplacement of motifs, but also
in terms of techniques. It is around this time that the As a final remark, in order to strengthen the chronological
first engravings would have been done in the site (see models, future investigations should contemplate the
figure 10.5). possibility of resuming excavations in the site.

Figure 10.5: Distribution of representation in the niche. (A) Overall view of the ‘main niche’ (B) Areas along the walls of the
niche where representations were likely painted before c. 2500 years BP; location of TU 7 (C) location of representations after
c. 2500 years BP; location of TU 22.

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Agustina Papú

Acknowledgements Bailey, J. “Time perspectives, palimpsests and the

archaeology of the time”. Journal of Anthropological
To Damián Bozzuto, Carlos Aschero, María Teresa Archaeology. 26 (1) (2007): 198–223.
Civalero, and the rest of our team. To María Pía Falchi,
Breuil, H. Quatre cents siècles d’art pariétal. Les cavernes
Anahí Re, Gabriela Guráieb and all the colleagues at
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the Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento
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Perito Moreno and Lago Posadas. To the organizers of the Carden N. and Miotti, L. “Unravelling rock art palimpsests
IFRAO 2018 Congress: Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici through superimpositions: The definition of painting
and the Cooperativa Archeologica “Le Orme dell’Uomo”. episodes in Los Toldos (southern Patagonia) as a
And finally, to the session coordinators at the IFRAO baseline for chronology.” Journal of Archaeological
Congress where this work was originally presented: Julian Science Reports 30 (2020): 1-16.
Jansen van Rensburg, Bernadette Drabsch, and Rebecca
Chippindale, C., de Jongh, J., Flood, J, and Rufolo, S.
Döhl, and all those who helped organise this publication.
“Stratigraphy, Harris matrices and relative dating of
Australian rock-art”. Antiquity 74 (2000): 285–286.
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 11

The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°: an alternative

way to experience a story from the past

Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

Abstract The digital era in the field of cultural heritage, including archaeology, has finally
reached a mature stage, with better identified research questions, and the capacity to address and
fulfil the needs and goals of the various sub-disciplines. Technological achievements, together
with preservation issues and the need to disseminate results, have driven the development of
exciting new systems for sharing knowledge with people all over the world. At the same time,
this trend is producing an increasingly large amount of data that present ongoing challenges for
effective management and storage, especially for the growing volume of 3D contents. Nowadays
it is quite simple to produce graphically appealing layouts that are geometrically accurate and
photorealistic, but remain difficult to keep them organised and graphically connected with all the
related types of information. In this article we present our experience, with the Aswan – Kom
Ombo Archaeological Project, in turning an important rock art site, Nag el-Hamdulab, into a
complete and accessible interactive Virtual Reality Tour based on 360° photography (VRT360).
This work mostly carried out using Virtual Tour Pro (VTP), a software by 3D Vista, provides an
excellent case study in how to integrate 3D spatial data with a range of other types of site data, in
a way that makes it easily and efficiently reachable to many stakeholders.

Keywords Virtual Reality – Rock Art – Digital Archaeology – Egyptology – 360° Tours

sites and disciplines, using appropriate study methods and

the contribution of several specialists in archaeology but
the introduction of digital technologies for the recording,
documentation, analysis, and publication of most research
results has featured prominently (Curci et al. 2012). Since
2009, the project has experimented with several tools
and techniques to support fieldwork and data analysis.
The large number of rock art sites required to potentiate
the standard recording methods. The availability of
increasingly powerful digital recording devices and
software helped AKAP to move to a non-invasive and
fully digital recording strategy aimed at increasing quality
and efficiency (Urcia and Curci 2016; Urcia et al. 2018).
Although the new technological approach is positively
influencing the work of the entire project, this chapter will
focus on the rock art that is a central feature within the
AKAP areas archaeological records (Figure 11.1). For a
long time, until the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
in Cairo proclaimed a ban in 2011, the most common
and well-known technique to document petroglyphs was
‘contact tracing’: using transparent plastic foils placed
11.1 Introduction directly on the rock surface along with permanents
markers (sharpies), carved figures or signs were recorded,
The Aswan – Kom Ombo Archaeological Project mainly detecting outlines, infilled patterns, and damage
(AKAP),1 has worked since 2005 to help preserve and (Anati 1976; Priuli 1984). After this ban, researchers in
enhance knowledge about the archaeological heritage of Egypt had to rapidly devise alternative ways to record
the area between the cities of Aswan and Kom Ombo in rock art. Thanks to collaborations between several experts
Upper Egypt. AKAP research includes a wide range of on our team, along with several interesting pilot projects,
also AKAP had a chance to draft and test a new functional
and rigorous recording methodology. Sharing experiences
1
The Aswan – Kom Ombo Archaeological Project, directed by M.
C. Gatto and A. Curci, is now available to be visited online at www. among colleagues and working simultaneously with
akapegypt.org. specialists in epigraphy was important to improve and

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Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

customise the workflow according to research needs the physical taxation and incorporation of what at the time
and technical requirements (i.e., resolution, lighting, would have been a still somewhat loosely defined border
metrical accuracy etc.). One of the most challenging area between pharaonic Egypt and A-Group Nubia. In the
goals was to keep petroglyphs and landscapes graphically Nag el-Hamdulab cycle, the king appears prominently for
connected. The strict relationship between rock art and the first time as both overseer and object of a celebration
its environment must be preserved in the digital copy to incorporating ritual, administrative, and fiscal elements.
preserve the original messages and meanings (Lippiello The entire assemblage forms the largest iconographic
2012). 3D imaging and 3D modelling offer interesting cycle surviving from the Protodynastic Period. Besides
solutions to this problem, especially since Structure from the Dynasty 0 / First Dynasty cycle, a few other rock
Motion (SfM) has become so popular and accessible for art scenes have been found at Nag el-Hamdulab; some
archaeologists (Medici and Rossi 2015; Domingo et al. likely date to the Early Dynastic/Old Kingdom period,
2013; Domingo 2014; Urcia et al. 2018). while others seem to be modern creations (the latter were
found in a shelter labelled Locality 8, which for now is not
The ability to display and interact with an object in included in the virtual tour). During the New Kingdom,
three-dimensional space significantly expands the an inscription was centrally positioned within the early
possibilities for scientific enquiry, especially if the quality drawings of Locality 7 – Panel B.
of reproduction is high enough to minimise the risks of
misinterpretation due to subjectivity (Biagi 2018, 26-35). From the tops of the inscribed hills, modern visitors,
like the ancient participants in the activities depicted,
Despite the advantages of 3D modelling, there is an have spectacular views of the Nile, the cultivated land,
important aspect of rock art that cannot be reproduced and the surrounding deserts. The first record of the Nag
without involving additional technologies: the visceral el-Hamdulab rock art site, pertaining only to its main
perception of distance and dimensions between depiction, tableau (current Location 7 – Panel A), dates already to
landscape, and the observer. the end of the nineteenth century (De Morgan et al. 1894,
203). The site was then visited again sometime between
Petroglyphs are quite common in Egypt and can be found 1962 and 1969 by the Egyptologist Labib Habachi, who
in many different contexts, ranging from ancient quarries discovered the other clusters of the scenes, took a detailed
or isolated boulders to entire khors and wadis. At a first photographic documentation (currently part of the Labib
glance, the relation between inscribed rock surfaces may Habachi Archive preserved at Chicago House in Luxor),
appear random and inconsistent, but studies2 demonstrate but never published the finding (Figure 11.2). About a
that this is often not true and that subtle spatial relationships decade ago, the late Nabil Swelim noticed a scene with a
often underlie the selection and placement of individual king wearing the White Crown (Location 7 – Panel A), in
petroglyphs. This is well illustrated by the site of Nag el- the Habachi’s photographs and inquired to colleagues for
Hamdulab, the main subject of our Virtual Tour experience more information on the possible location of the unknown
(Hendrickx et al. 2012). drawing. In the same year, the rock art locales within NH1
were relocated by two archaeological projects working in
11.2 The site of Nag-el Hamdulab the area: the QuarryScapes Project and the Aswan – Kom
Ombo Archaeological Project (Storemyr 2009; Hendrickx
Nag el-Hamdulab (NH1 in our records) is situated on and Gatto 2009). It is only with this rediscovery that the
the west bank of the Nile, about 6 km north of Aswan, full scope and significance of the Nag el-Hamdulab cycle
in a sandy bay that opens to the Nile Valley west of the became apparent. The AKAP has taken charge of the
homonymous village (see figure 11.1). The bay is at all systematic investigation and final publication of the site,
other sides surrounded by rocky cliffs. Two small saddles which are still ongoing. In 2019, a previously unknown
to the north and the west of the semi-closed basin give large panel representing a unique hunting scene was
way to the large valley Wadi el-Faras, while a third small discovered by looters and it is currently under study.
saddle connects the basin with the area to the south. Fieldwork is still ongoing at NH1 and more drawings
A series of important rock art scenes, arranged in eight could be found.
discrete groups of images and ranging in size from a few
small figures to large and complex tableaux, represent an Of course, having the opportunity to be in front of the
extended festival scene dating from the cusp of Dynasty 0 original rock surface, immersed in stunning landscapes
to the First Dynasty (c. 3100 BCE). An early hieroglyphic and connected to local cultures would be the best way to
annotation accompanies the main panel (Location 7 – experience the site, its dimensions, the atmosphere and all
Panel A) of the ensemble, and supports, along with the the related sensations and emotions. As archaeologists, we
iconography, a possible date during the reign of Narmer. feel privileged to have chances to physically access such
The four signs making up the early text appear to describe wonders and this is also what motivates us to help preserve
a ritual, apparently the ‘Following of Horus’, which them and develop ideas to put them in touch with the rest
involved both the confirmation of royal ritual power and of the world. Considering the technological advances
that archaeology has made over the past 20 years and the
2
See, for instance, our work in the Aswan region: Gatto et al. 2009; importance of NH1, a series of questions arose: what are
Lippiello and Gatto 2012; Gatto and Curci forthcoming. the best means to communicate our archaeological sites?

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 The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°

Figure 11.1: Map displaying AKAP’s concession areas and Nag el-Hamdulab (NH1) location.

What are the available solutions to connect people to rock (NH1 in this case) and its history.
art sites if they cannot physically reach them? Is there a
way to reproduce at least part of our on-site emotional/ Panoramic, flat, bidimensional image files serve as
sensorial experience in a digital copy? backgrounds for the tour, on which additional data is
linked using external contents and navigation/interaction
11.3 ‘Virtual’ what? commands. These backgrounds photographically
reproduce the visible landscape that surrounded the camera
Nowadays, terms like ‘virtual tour’, ‘virtual reality’, and tripod during shooting (Figure 11.3). The images were
‘story telling’ or ‘emotional engagement’ are certainly not recorded following a specific acquisition procedure and
unknown, especially in the field of Cultural Heritage. The processed using software that stitched them into a single
literature is quite rich and in the last few years the use of larger file (see chapter 5.2 – 5.3). Sometimes, it is enough
virtual platforms had a sort of positive explosion due to to have a partial view-range of the surrounding space, if
the social and travel restrictions imposed by the COVID- the focus goes, for example, on one or two vertical walls
19 pandemic (El-Said and Aziz 2021). However, it is still of a room or a rocky outcrop. However, in our case we
easy to confuse or misuse terminology, so we will briefly wanted a full range of coverage, including the sky and
describe the parameters of our VR project. the ground, reproducing the perspective of a real person
standing where the tripod and camera are located. Virtual
First, our tour is a product of Computer Graphics, the Tour Pro, the software that is described in this article (see
discipline that digitally synthesises and manipulates chapter 7), wraps the panoramas around a virtual spherical
visual contents (Hughes et al. 2013) and it is based on shape, placing the user’s point of view therein. Whatever
the interpolation between panoramic images that can the eyes of the ‘invisible user’ are framing corresponds to
be displayed in 360 degrees and navigated by users via what the real user sees in the computer browser or through
computer browsers or headsets. The tour is intended to his headset.4 But if all this must fit into a panoramic image,
be an Interactive Digital Storytelling (IDS)3 tool, able to which is basically a rectangular bidimensional file, how
teach and spread information about the archaeological site can sky and ground be included? This is made possible

3
This term is borrowed by Škola et al. 2020, 3. For a specific meaning 4
NH1 Virtual Tour is compatible to run with the most common headsets
of these terms see also Bertrand et al. 2020. available on the marketplace, including the Oculus and HTC Vive.

137
Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

Figure 11.2: The most important scene of Location 7 before it got damaged (Photographed by Labib Habachi).

using applications commonly called ‘stitchers’ (in our angle’, ‘photo-mosaicking’ and so ‘panorama’, quickly
case Stitcher V4) able to calculate the distortions, as when grew into a new field which has continued developing to this
we unwrap the terrestrial globe onto a map and obtain a day (Jacobs 2004, 1-2; Thompson 2015). Many methods of
planisphere (Emery and Camps 2017). panorama have been invented so far: cylindrical, spherical,
cubic, ‘reversed’, stereo, macro, video/sound, and finally
If we open these panoramas as they are with a simple image ‘virtual’ (Jacobs 2004, 3-5). The term Virtual Reality (VR),
viewer, we will notice that what we see makes no sense. although similar, should not be confused with Augmented
In fact, it is necessary for a specific viewer to re-project Reality (AR), Mixed Reality (MxR), Augmented Virtuality
what appears flattened back onto a spherical shape (this (AV) or Simulated Reality (SR) that have substantial
module is also included into VTP). These new re-shaped differences (Bekele and Champion 2019, 1-3). Using
versions of the panoramas represent what we have called Tepe et al. 2018, 1 «Virtual Reality is a three-dimensional
“viewpoints” in our tour. Each viewpoint is connected to simulation environment where users can feel close to real life
a relational network of commands and information that experiences in an artificial world developed with different
guides the user to navigate the virtual site and interact devices and visualisation equipment, as well as interacting
(display, move, read, select) with the available contents. with other objects». After photography met the invention
of computers, but especially from the 1970s onwards, the
This short description and the following chapter should concept of ‘virtuality’ saw a fast growth, mainly to solve
give a sense of how our tour works for those who are not military and aerospace engineering problems (Mazuryk
familiar with this technique. and Gervautz 1999; Cipresso et al. 2018). The significant
developmental phase of VR happened during the 1980s and
11.4 A brief background on VR (Photography) 1990s, when big companies began investing in affordable
devices and software for recreational purposes, opening the
The attraction of having a wider view that can better present era of video games. Gaming consoles became higher and
objects and the space in which they are represented, has its higher performing overtime and the beginning of the twenty-
roots in the artistic panorama of the late 18th century. Once first century brought a substantial change in the market
photography was invented in 1839, concepts such as ‘wide with the entry of the internet into daily life. The massive

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 The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°

Figure 11.3: Shooting photos for the panoramas at Nag el-Hamdulab in 2013.

technological improvements that involved networks and the data in company servers, preventing the client from
hardware during this period, helped VR to expand toward accessing the RAW files and making changes. This was
new fields of interest, including new sensorial achievements incompatible with one of our core goals, namely keeping
and new ways to interact with the experience based on social the tour updated overtime. Lastly, the Matterport was
networking (Cipresso et al. 2018, Poetker 20195). more expensive than the AKAP could afford.

Before explaining our rationale in choosing 3D Vista, it 11.5 Where is the data coming from?
is worth presenting one viable alternative. This system
is Matterport, a combined hardware/software solution The Aswan – Kom Ombo Archaeological Project
able to record 360 photos and 3D scans simultaneously. has developed its own system to record and process
Together with an online service that offers data storage archaeological data. Since 2009 it has used digital
and processing, the Matterport creates attractive, technologies to integrate and improve the documentation
functional, and ready-to-go tours and provides helpful of archaeological sites and artefacts (Curci et al. 2012).
graphic features, such as navigable 3D space that enables When the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities banned the
a very realistic walk-through effect (Chang et al. 2017). use of plastic sheets in 2011, it increased the focus on the
However, a few features did not meet the requirements practices to record rock art. Most of the data that we used
of our project. Firstly, the Matterport device can only in our tour was not created specifically for that purpose, but
work indoors6 and Hamdulab is a very wide outdoor area. for several other reasons over the multiple field seasons.
Secondly, the Matterport system stores and processes all This is significant not only to understand the potential of
VR as a mediatic product but also as a means to combine,
organise, store, and use heterogeneous datasets.
5
We found interesting the overview/summary published online by
Bridget Poetker for G2, the world’s largest tech marketplace, where she
also highlights the commonly accepted but maybe not proper expression
Overtime AKAP, as most of other projects, has collected
that VR is an ‘emerging technology’. a substantial amount of information in many formats,
https://www.g2.com/articles/history-of-virtual-reality. manual and electronic, published and unpublished,
6
The Matterport 3D capture system Pro2 can also be replaced by
the Leica BLK360 3D scanner, a more expensive device that must be
graphic and textual, etc. The NH1 folder itself is more than
purchased from a third-party company 90 gigabytes large, and the data was produced in about

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Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

ten years of research. If we look at the AKAP archive in medium format cameras) could increase the resolution of
general, we notice a notable change in folder size and final layouts.
file typology, starting in 2010. After 3D imaging (mainly
stereo-photogrammetry and Structure from Motion) began We had to answer a series of questions to pick the best
to replace our older recording methods, the number of shooting procedure: what is the scene’s lighting conditions?
pictures drastically increased, as well the number of heavy Do we have to record the sky and ground floor? What are
files, such as 3D models and videos. This, of course, the limits of our equipment? Will scenes require switching
motivated the consideration of new systems to manage our between automatic and manual focus (as in the case of
data. clean sky or homogeneous coloured surfaces)? Will the
scene have possible moving subjects? Will the scene
11.5.1 Planning the tour be impacted by high contrast areas that could require
advanced exposure settings? These questions are just the
The good satellite imagery coverage available for this most standard, but they present a sense of the technical
geographic region helped to preliminarily plan the scenario confronting any researcher approaching a 360°-
fieldwork and optimise timing and efforts. Being onsite shooting project.9
during this phase of work made it easier to design a
possible trajectory on which to record the viewpoints To reduce as much lens distortion as possible, optical
and to organise the “walk-through” effect in the tour (see deformation (i.e., bulge of straight linear elements) and
chapter 7.3). Considering the equipment available, time, errors in the stitching phase, it was important to determine
and other logistic matters, we established a total of 15 the optical centre of our lens. This must be positioned
locations that offered sufficient graphic continuity while on the projection of the (vertical) axes passing from the
virtually transitioning between them (see the Floorplan in rotation centre of the head once mounted on the tripod.
figure 11.4b). The Panosaurus 2.0 allows the operator to shift the position
of the camera forward or backward along its horizontal
11.5.2 Recording the panoramas arm until the two centres match perfectly (Johnson 2008;
See also Panosaurus 2.0 user manual).
As we mentioned, the acquisition of the panoramas was
made during the 2013 campaign, five years prior to the At this point we calculated the best rotation angle on
idea to build this virtual tour. At that time, the project was which to turn the camera each time to ensure an overlap
still mainly focused on 3D and topographic recording of at least 40 per cent between the consecutive shots. We
of the sites and the 360° panoramas were thought just have done this for both vertical and horizontal rotations.
to provide additional documentation of the landscape.7 For the 18 mm lens, 20 degrees horizontally (for a total of
Jacobs (2004) clearly shows that 360° photography and 18 shots per row) and 30 degrees vertically (repeated four
related displayers were already quite developed in 2004 times to obtain four inclinations = rows) worked well. This
when, after a successful period in Real Estate and Interior way each panorama was composed of 72 photos. Using an
Design, they finally started making their first steps into IR shutter to reduce unnecessary contacts with the camera,
archaeology. Considering how much the site suffered we took all the photos following the aforementioned
in terms of preservation and the risk of new threats, we schema for all the 15 Viewpoints. For each viewpoint we
thought it was a good idea to record and save NH1 rock also recorded its topographic coordinate using a handheld
art in relationship with the landscape using additional GPS device, to position the relative Hotspot properly on
techniques. Although more advanced devices and software the Floorplan (see chapter 7.2). It took about 15 minutes
were already available, in 2013 we accomplished our goal with our equipment to complete each photographic session
using a simple but accurate manually operated panoramic and about the entire working day to complete the entire
head called Panosaurus 2.0,8 combined with a Benro site.
aluminium tripod and a Canon EOS 500D with an 18
mm lens. This was a cheap but very effective setup that 11.5.3 Stitching the panoramas and preparing the
worked well in that situation (see figure 11.3). The biggest contents
differences that we noticed after recent experiences using
newer cutting-edge automatic/motorised gears are photo To stitch the photos together and create the panoramas we
acquisition/stitching time and costs. In terms of quality used the Stitcher V4 software, produced by 3D Vista,10 a
and accuracy the results are quite the same, although RAW powerful solution that offers a solid automatised process
photos taken with larger sensors (i.e., 36 mm full frame or to create good quality panoramas. The interface includes
tools to manually control and modify parameters in case
the result from the automatic process is not as expected.
7
The 3D recording of the landscape was done during the 2010-2011
campaigns. Unfortunately, UAVs were not yet available and the device
we had on board (a Topcon Imaging Station) was not suitable to create
high resolution and realistic 3D models of such extended areas. 9
For a more complete overview on Panorama acquisition and processing,
8
Unfortunately, the production of Panosaurus products is discontinued. see Highton 2010 and Jacob 2004.
Some models can still be found on the used market, but people are already 10
https://www.3dvista.com/en/products/stitcher. This software is
opting for similar alternatives such the Nodal Ninja products produced by included without additional costs when purchasing a Virtual Tour Pro
Fanotec https://www.fanotec.com/. licence.

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 The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°

We experienced several cases where the software was 1a) The tour tutorial; 1b) The project; 1c) The site, 1d)
unable to layout the panoramas properly, requiring manual The floorplan and 1d) The acknowledgments and credits.
retouching with additional software (Adobe Photoshop). All these are always accessible from the Dashboard.
These problems were mostly caused by the user, the The second section instead includes all the information
software or by something that happened in the scene pertaining to the rock art. This is subdivided into nine
during the acquisition: main containers called ‘Locations’ (delimited areas of the
wadi with at least one panel with glyphs) and 18 Panels
• overexposed or burned areas that failed to be properly (delimited areas of rock surface with at least one glyph
blended incised) both connected to various sub-containers with
• mismatches between linear elements passing from media, text and links (Contents).
areas with higher distortion
• software misinterpretation of similar or repeating To identify Locations and Panels in the background, we
subjects (patterned surfaces) created other Hotspots, icons and polygons (see figure
• too much or insufficient redundancy in the upper and 11.4), and we positioned them exactly where the subject
lower areas (sky and ground level) they represent appears on the Panorama. Similarly, we
• holes left by the area occupied by the tripod created customised icons for all the contents, differentiated
by category: a) Modern photos, b) Historic photos, c)
Overtime, working on other similar projects, we noticed Videos, d) Drawings, e) 3D models, f) Extra documentation
that these stitching failures are common when low- and g) Published material.
cost equipment is involved or when users skip technical
caution to speed up the recording process. Such conditions All NH1 tour contents correspond to what we call ‘Dataset’
produce acceptable results but with a lack of accuracy that and are organised by typology of files as summarised in
requires extra time in post processing.11 These problems Table 11.1.
could be avoided, for example, by using one-shot 360°
cameras or motorised heads.12 Although Virtual Tour Pro offers a rich library of default
customization items, we opted to create our own set of
Another important phase of the workflow, fundamental graphic contents to be consistent with the style of our
and often time consuming, is retrieving and editing the project. Using external applications (Adobe Photoshop
data that is coming from external sources that must be and Illustrator) we drew a series of hotspots (buttons,
imported into the tour and connected to the panoramas. symbols, icons, logo, shapes) that, once loaded (mostly
as .PNG format), will enable users to interact with the
11.6 Nag el-Hamdulab Virtual Tour and its tour. By clicking on them, the user can run pre-assigned
architecture scripts that prompt commands and other actions useful to
properly interact with the tour and the interface. In some
We decided to design NH1’s tour as a sort of very cases, it was necessary to draw custom shapes directly on
simple web page. All the information can be accessed by the panoramas to delimitate areas or subjects and have them
interacting in two ways (Figure 11.4): The Hotspots linked work as hotspots. Each graphic entity, summarised in a Key
to the panoramas and the Dashboard, that always overlays list (Figure 11.6), indicates a specific typology of content in
the panoramas in the lower part of the screen. the tour. Beside hotspots, we also designed our own swabs
(orange circles indicating the name of the viewpoint and the
By loading the tour URL, a cover page will prompt first, North direction) to patch the floor gaps left by the tripod.
showing a welcome message together with two buttons
that direct respectively into the tour or to AKAP’s official 11.7 The engine of NH1 experience: 3D Vista and
website. Once inside the tour, the first panorama starts Virtual Tour Pro (VTP)
facing East, toward the village and the Nile. This should
facilitate the user orienting himself according to the local The tour was built using third-party software produced by
topography. 3D Vista (https://www.3dvista.com/). 3D Vista products
became more popular from 2018, launching the new
The information is organised in two main sections: 1) versions of Stitcher V4 (see the previous paragraph) and
General information and 2) Rock art data. Everything is Virtual Tour Pro,13 which have become, in our opinion,
connected using a simple hierarchical relational network the best alternatives currently available. These are not
(Figure 11.5) based on ‘type of content’. The first section designed for developers: user-friendly interfaces enable
includes five subsections (also called ‘containers’) any user with basic computer knowledge to start working
dedicated to what is not directly related to the rock art: and create a tour (Figure 11.7).

11
For an overview of the most common problems due to distortions and In this section we will focus on Virtual Tour Pro, the ‘engine’
basic methods to solve them see Jacobs 2004, 37-52. of our VR tour. Its interface includes a series of tabs to navigate
12
A good One-Shot Camera solution currently available on the market
is the Ricoh Teta series (https://theta360.com/en/). A motorised head
instead that could be suggested is the Gigapan Epic Pro (https://gigapan. 13
https://www.3dvista.com/en/products/virtualtour. 3D Vista offers
com/cms/shop/epic-pro). discounted plans for Educational and Non-Profitable institutions.

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Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

Figure 11.4: NH1 main user interface. A) Container for the Rock Art contents; B) The Floorplan.

Figure 11.5: NH1 tour architecture.

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 The site of Nag el-Hamdulab in 360°

Table 11.1: Types of data managed into or through 3D Vista

Text Images Video Maps Links 3D models Vectors

Instructional Old photos Tutorials Floorplans Linked text Linked 3D Buttons

Documentary models
Archaeological New photos Renderings Satellite Linked buttons Commands
(E-link)
Bibliography Drawings Youtube
Interviews GIS (E-link)
Annotations Maps

Captions Aerial

Figure 11.6: The tutorial and Key section.

Figure 11.7: Virtual Tour Pro working interface.

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Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

between eight main sections (Main Menu) that basically Table 11.2: File format management into Virtual Tour Pro
correspond to the application’s operational workflow: My
Tour, Skin, Panoramas, Photo Albums, Videos, 360 Videos, CONTENT FORMAT ENGINE
Floorplans and Publish. Within each section, a sub-menu of Images .jpg; .png; .tiff VTP+HTML5
options to manage and edit contents, graphics, and actions,
appears under the main menu. The column on the right is an Video .mp4 VTP
additional space dedicated to control parameters and operate Audio .mp3 VTP
advanced options and tools. The software allows the user to
operate using macro functions through specific toolbars, but 3D Models .obj; .dae; .stl; Sketchfab
it also enables more advanced tasks by running java-scripts Maps .jpg; .png; .tiff VTP
into the Skin panel. VTP is able to read and manage the most
common file formats that must be imported or linked in Text .txt VTP
order to create ‘contents’ (Table 11.2).
Linked media URL; Embedded Third-party software
codes
11.7.1 Managing the panoramas

Loading at least one panorama is a minimum requirement

to be able to create a ‘New Project’. A wizard procedure 11.7.3 Interacting with the tour: The Skin section
helps select and customise the Skin (foreground graphic)
with available default templates and create a background It was very helpful, before setting up the Skin section, to
graphic (static or dynamic) with the following options: have a good plan for arranging the various graphic layouts
Create Panorama (it creates a panorama from scratch), that compose the interface and their functional hierarchy.
Import Panorama (previously stitched photo), Import This is important to avoid malfunctions or misbehaviours
Video 360 (option available from the 2020 release). Once while interacting with the interface.
loaded, they can all be displayed and customised within
the Panorama’s tab. Common parameters that can be The central area of this section has a window that simulates
modified include, for instance, the display quality (the the tour, as a sort of preview. There are many items available
image resolution), the spherical deformation (to be selected from the Skin’s submenu to add and customise14. All their
according to the used stitching algorithm), zoom limit (in options and parameters can be edited and controlled from
and out) and the vertical/horizontal angles of visualisation the Properties column on the right.
(in other words the horizon and orientation of the spheric
space). If we think about ‘number of panoramas’, we A very interesting option available in the Skin section, is
can say that what makes a difference is not how many the possibility to preset the tour layout for different size
Viewpoints are loaded but rather, the distance between devices, such smartphones, tablets, or laptops. For each
them that will visibly improve the walking-through visualisation selected and loaded, the software creates an
transition and so the immersivity of the tour. independent copy of the General visualisation so that all
the modifications made in one will not affect the other.
Once all the panoramic images are uploaded and calibrated We suggest waiting until the Skin is fully completed in
it is possible to upload all the files that will fill this nicely the General visualisation before starting working on other
decorated but still ‘empty container’. layout formats, to avoid repeating work or needing to redo
the changes for each visualisation created (three in our
11.7.2 Floorplan settings example).

A powerful section of 3D Vista VTP is the Floorplan, a The Skin that we created for the NH1 tour is quite minimal,
term borrowed from the real estate industry that could be on purpose, in order to offer a more realistic/natural way to
translated, in our case study, simply as ‘Map’. Floorplans display the landscape. In the foreground, the user will only
are used in VR to navigate in the digital space without see a few buttons that are part of the dashboard, located in
getting lost. Any image can be turned into an interactive the lower part of the screen and always visible. By clicking
map and used to navigate within the tour. This is possible on them, popup windows will enable the following items
by placing hotspots on the Floorplan and by clicking them (see figure 11.4): from the left side, Full screen mode; the
to be ‘teleported’ onto that specific location. In our case, Tutorial and Key page; the general information page on
the hotspots that we created on the NH1 plan, correspond AKAP; the general information page on Nag el-Hamdulab
to our Viewpoints. At the same time, while moving the site; the button that activates the gyroscope; the Floor Plan;
panorama (or the head if the user is wearing headsets), a the credits and acknowledgment page and the Navigation
small radar symbol can be enabled to indicate on the map board.
which direction we are looking in that moment. The result
of all these settings can be previewed into the Skin panel
or in the final layout. We created our Floorplan using a 14
The ones available so far are: Viewer, Floor Plan, Container, Web
simple black-and-white satellite image taken from Google Frame, Label, Text, Image, Button, Icon Button, Close button, Progress
Earth and edited in Photoshop (see figure 11.4). bar, Tab, Dropdown, Thumb list, Misc.

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On the background (the panoramas), we placed several 11.8 Is VR an advantageous tool for rock art studies?
different icons according to the function they have and
what they represent. All these icons work as buttons that To explain why, in our opinion, VR can provide a significant
can be used to move around the virtual site (walk through positive impact on epigraphic studies and, in particular,
and teleport options) or to open and display contents (media rock art sites, we must focus on the relationship between
and info) loaded into sub-containers that function as popup three aspects of this technology. First, it is important to
windows (i.e., a panel of rock art). The sub-containers may recognise VRs potential as a means to communicate
include additional buttons to open sub-contents that will knowledge from specialists to the public at large. An
appear into a sub-window that will display whatever info increasing demand for Virtual Reality systems has driven
or media is available for that panel (see figure 11.4). their rapid uptake by museums in order to facilitate access
to collections. This trend has expanded even more rapidly
11.7.4 Managing external contents: 3D models and Web over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ren and
URLs Chen 2020; El-Said and Aziz 2021) and has expanded
rapidly beyond museums. Virtual tours that use Cultural
3D Vista Pro does not offer, so far, to embed certain types Heritage content are growing fast in the field of education
of media directly into the project file. The developers along with so-called “Serious Games’’ that are specifically
opted for a web-based external archiviation of certain made for teaching purposes (Mortara et al. 2014; Buscemi
content that would increase too much the weight of the et al. 2020). Other uses of Virtual Reality have also
project, enhancing risks of malfunctions and costs. The developed simultaneously, with commercial games such
way to solve this is by embedding only the links to the as, e.g., Assassin’s Creed: Origins, Call of Duty, Age of
contents that will be displayed in the tour using windows Mythology, etc increasingly driving development and
that can translate HTML5 code into graphics as a web relying on this technology as a main selling point. It would
portal. The advantages in terms of browsing performances be interesting to have an updated study on the impact of
and workload optimization are enough to justify having a VR in the field of education and see how much this has
tour that cannot be fully accessed offline. changed since 2009, when the effects were still uncertain
(Tost and Economou 2009), alongside this increasing
In our case study we used Sketchfab to connect our 3D commercialization.
models (https://sketchfab.com). Sketchfab is a well-known
third-party online platform that offers several ways to The second aspect is related to how useful and effective VR
store, manage, display, and share 3D contents. What is is becoming as an innovative tool for research. Working
important for us here is the possibility to create links to the on the NH1 tour we personally noticed the advantages
3D models that can be embedded into VTP (Figure 11.8). of having a system that keeps data combined and allows
It is worth noting that, with this system, whatever needs to users to graphically interact with the data in a flexible
be changed in the linked model can only be done either on manner. Checking what was missing and often desired by
Sketchfab or on the source file. researchers, especially when digital technologies started
increasingly replacing older recording methods, we kept
11.7.5 Testing and Publishing getting the same answer: smart and effective systems
able to keep large numbers and types of data connected
Virtual Tour Pro offers a low-resolution preview tool without losing relationships and visibility between them
to display the result of what has been programmed in a and their spatial context. If we look at the quantity of
browser window. This helps to enable a preliminary check information that a typical archaeological project now
of the tour, after which the designer can change or correct produces for each site, it is quite impressive: hundreds
parts before exporting the result in the sharable formats. of gigabytes of data that includes text, maps, drawings,
This is important because the exportation process can images, field notes, databases, 3D models, audio/video
be time consuming. Once everything works well in the recordings, and websites. So, what can we do to make all
preview, it is time to step into the Publish section and this stored data look like ‘one site’? In our opinion this is
produce the “Built” file. This file or group of files can be pretty much solved by NH1. A VR tour based either on
uploaded in servers or domain for online publication15 360 photography or on 3D modelled environments, can be
(i.e., HTML5) or saved into local drives to be run offline seen as a ‘magic sphere’ able to contain, at the same time,
(i.e. .exe). Furthermore, VTP offers to convert the tour in all those files and documents that we commonly archive in
a video or in a Google Street View file. All these options different locations, such as drawers, hard drives, software,
work on desktop and laptop computers, as well as on servers, books, etc. But the single location is not the only
mobile devices equipped with gyroscopic sensors, such wonder. The sphere is in fact able to graphically translate
as smartphones, tablets and headsets. Wearing a headset and display all the contents therein, relationally connected
also adds the possibility of experiencing the tour in an between them and topographically linked to their original
immersive manner. location. Additionally, it is offering an easy way to interact
with all of the data in real time and in a safe controlled
manner.
15
3DVista offers its own hosting cloud service if needed (https://
www.3dvista.com/en/products/hosting/). This is an exciting step forward, especially for disciplines

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Alberto Urcia, Alessia Brucato, Maria C. Gatto, Antonio Curci

Figure 11.8: Embedded 3D model run from Sketchfab into VTP.

such as epigraphy, characterised by large quantities of not prevent data from being re-edited, updated, queried,
qualitative data. Unfortunately, a Virtual Reality Tour and shared as needed. VR tours can also be a great support
360 (VRT360) cannot be produced automatically (yet!), to educational and teaching purposes, even though, in our
and it still requires quite a lot of programming work and opinion VR technologies should not be intended to replace
coordination between the team members involved in the standard methods but rather support them.
study of the site and project development.
For the public, and consumers of cultural heritage research,
This last part is important and necessary to build the VR is an important alternative way to be a visitor to a site.
section aimed at helping the user to navigate the tour Regardless of the conditions of the original, in the present,
independently, as if the visitor was walking into a real site. having the opportunity to get a VR experience can offer a
While planning we had to consider, of course, what the base of preserved knowledge that can be easily accessed
goal of our tour is, and this determines the way to curate and completed quickly.
the contents according to the needs of the recipient.
The NH1 tour already includes many features that are
Having part of the team who worked on NH1 tour that positively impacting the site and its preservation. This is
have never been on site before showed us how powerful a starting point for future developments of the tour itself
VR could be also for remote learning. Alessia Brucato, one and of the role of VR within a wider perspective of its
of the authors of this chapter, said «The first time at Nag application in a larger scale and systematic manner. An
el-Hamdulab felt like I knew the place and I was able to upcoming option that will be available in the NH1 tour
orient myself as if I had already been there several times. is an increase in the ways that visitors can access the
By navigating into the virtual tour, the image of the site experience. First, we will enable the possibility to select
and its rock art was built involuntarily into my brain and it multiple languages, including Arabic and Italian as the first
was easy to recall that once in front of the original». two options. Then, we will customise the tour for different
types of visitors, for example experts, amateurs, children,
11.9 Conclusions and future development and students. Upon signing up to the AKAP website,
these different categories of users will be provided with
The development of Virtual Reality Tour 360, like the selective access privileges to better control and protect the
example provided here from Nag el- Hamdulab, provides data, and guide learning and interaction16. Another goal
two critical benefits to researchers and the public. For
those who are working in cultural heritage, VRT360 is a
new and effective system to keep all the information from
a site together, logically connected, and graphically visible 16
Especially if third-party, copy-righted, or unpublished data will be
and accessible. At the same time, this type of dataset will included

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is to define various stages of experiences17 to consider a Introduction to Satellite Remote Sensing. Atmosphere,
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Gatto, M.C., Hendrickx, S., Roma, S. and Zampetti, D.
“Rock art in West Bank Aswan and Wadi Abu Subeira.”
The benefits are already visible to us and we are quite sure
Archéo-Nil 19 (2009): 149-66.
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 A R C HA E O L O G Y O F P R E H I S T O R I C A RT VO LU M E 5

BA R I N T E RNATIONAL SERIES 3098

‘The wide geographic scope of the proposed volume is particularly

interesting, as well as the application of the diverse range of technologies
to a great diversity of rock art and context types.’
Dr Joana Valdez-Tullett, Wessex Archaeology

‘This is a very worthwhile approach to the digital recording of rock art.

This topic has been addressed by a number of publications, but none
cover such a wide scope as this book.’
Professor Ramón Fábregas Valcarce, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela

Rock Art Research in the Digital Era covers the research presented at the 20th International Rock Art
Congress (IFRAO) held in Darfo Boario Terme, Valcamonica (Italy), from 29 August - 2 September
2018. With a broad understanding of digital archaeology, a diverse range of specialists demonstrate
how digital technologies can benefit the study of rock art in a variety of contexts. Digital methods and
3D modelling are significantly changing the field of rock art documentation and interpretation, with
new approaches that allow us to make eroded rock art panels more visible, especially in cases where
the human eye or a raking light is ineffective. Using numerous case studies, this book illustrates
how cutting-edge methodologies are integrated within 3D modelling workflows, and how these can
manage and disseminate the results to the public in an interactive way.

Miguel Carrero-Pazos is a Lecturer in prehistory at the University of Oviedo. He is a specialist in

computationally informed landscape archaeology, and his research focuses on the application of GIS
and spatial statistics to model monumental landscapes.
Rebecca Döhl is a Lecturer at the Institute of Archaeology who specialises in rock art research,
landscape archaeology, GIS, 3D photogrammetry, and Digital Humanities. Since 2016, she has been
the project coordinator for Corpus of Ancient Egyptian Multimodal Communication (Humboldt
University of Berlin).
Julian Jansen van Rensburg, who works for the Centre for Middle Eastern Plants, is the world’s
leading expert on the cultural heritage of Soqotra, and over the last 20 years he has been involved
in numerous research projects and expeditions on the island.
Paolo Medici is the Excavation Director at the Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici. In the 2020,
he founded ArchExperience, which focuses on experimental archaeology.
Alia Vázquez Martínez is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Santiago de Compostela
and the University of Alcalá. She is a specialist in the application of computer techniques for the
documentation and study of rock art in Northwest Iberia.

Contributors: Márcio Amaral, Rogério Andrade, Xavier Barros Pereira, Cinzia Bettineschi,
Marcos Eugênio Brito de Castro, Alessia Brucato, Laura Burigana, Marta Sara Cavallini,
Antonio Curci, Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos, Armando De Guio, Claide de Paula Moraes,
Steve Dickinson, Miguel Espino Villarreal, Emanuela Faresin, Gianni Furiassi, Maria C. Gatto,
Luigi Magnini, Carla Mannu, Vanesa Mariño Calvo, Alberto Marretta, Eloy Martínez Soto,
Angelo Martinotti, Levemilson Mendonça “Lei’’ da Silva, Paula Morgado, Alexandre Paz-
Camaño, Carlos Augusto Palheta Barbosa, Radosław Palonka, Agustina Papú, Leonor Rocha,
Giuseppe Salemi, Filippo Stampanoni Bassi, Giuseppa Tanda, Alberto Urcia, Raoni BM Valle,
Jaime Xamen Wai Wai, Bolesław Zych

Printed in England