CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The Agricultural sector has always been an important component of Nigerian economy

with over 70 percent of the population engaged in agriculture and agricultural related activities

(Pius, 2013). The sector is almost entirely dominated by small scale resource poor farmers living

in rural areas, with farm holdings of 1- 2 hectares, which are usually scattered over a wide area.

Root and tubers crops comprise crop covering several genera. They are staple food crops, being

the source of daily carbohydrate intake for the large populace of the world. Yam (Dioscorea spp)

is a member of this important class of food. Yam is an important food crop especially in the yam

zones of West Africa, comprising Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Nigeria and Cote d’ Ivoire.

This zone produces more than 90% of the total world production which is estimated at about 20

– 25million tons per year (Sanusi and Salimonu, 2006).

Yam production is regarded as a source of food security and employment to a lot of

people in many years where it is cultivated. Yam is among the major cash and most consume

food crops in West Africa countries like Nigeria, Cote D’ Ivoire, Nigeria, Benin and Togo. It

cultivation is very profitable despite high cost of production and price fluctuation in the market

(Izoko and Olumese, 2010), Over 60% percent of people grow yams and a primary source of

livelihood (Anaadumba, 2013). Yam is by far the most important food crop in West Africa excpt

for cereals. Nigeria is by far the world’s largest producer of yams, accounting for over 70–76

percent of the world production (Wikipedia, 2011). FAO (1985) reported that Nigeria produced

18.3 million tonnes of yam from 1.5 million hectares, representing 73.8 percent of total yam

1
production in Africa. According to 2008 figures, yam production in Nigeria has nearly doubled

since 1985, with Nigeria producing 35.017 million metric tonnes with value equivalent of

US$5.654 billion (FAO, 2008). Also in West Africa, average statistics has shown that 95% of the

world’s output of 34 million metric tonnes (mmt) of yam in 2001was produced and Nigeria alone

produced 75% of this total Output.

Yam is in the class of roots and tubers that is a staple of the Nigerian and West African

diet. Babaleye (2003) observed that yam contributes more than 200 dietary calories per capita

daily for more than 150 million people in West Africa while serving as an important source of

income to the people. Interestingly, yam is categorized as chief among the major staple foods of

Nigerians on account of its indispensability. It’s widely produced in all parts of the country and

economically significant in that it moves from North to south and vice versa. Also, national food

security is strengthened due to variability in production in different part of the country. This was

so due to differences in season as a result of different vegetation which characterized farming

system of the nation. Awoniyi (2006) reported that in many yam-producing areas of Nigeria, it is

said that yam is food and food is yam. This shows that, the importance of yam to the existence of

the people cannot be overemphasized. It is therefore worthy of note that yam to an average

Nigerian man is indivisible.

Yam tubers may be eaten with sauce direct after roasting, boiling or frying in oil. The

tubers may also be pounded into a thick paste after boiling and is eaten with soup. It may be

processed into flour or cooked into pottage with added protein sauce and oils. In addition,

cultural values are attached to yam in Nigeria. During weddings and other social and religious

ceremonies, the size of yam tubers presented reflects one’s social status. Even yam festival is

celebrated annually by some communities in West Africa. Over the years, the price of yam has

2
remained generally high, since low production has kept them scarce. According to International

Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA, 2015), yams are produced on 5 million hectares in about

47 countries in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

The States with the highest production (Taraba, Benue and Niger) are not those with the

highest yields (Nassarawa, Osun, Ekiti, Ondo and Imo) (Adamu et al., 2021). High production

States have larger areas under cultivation, suggesting that yam production may be more intensive

in the high yield States. The high yield States – Osun, Ekiti, and Ondo – fall in the rain forest

zone which has higher levels of humidity and rainfall that are more conducive to yam growth. In

most years between 2015 and 2016, the rain forest zone produced the highest yields. The highest

producing States – Taraba, Benue, and Niger States – are found in the open woodland and

savannah zones (Dumet and Ogunsola, 2008). With the current annual yam production of about

50 million tonnes making 70 percent of global production, and valued at 13.6 billion pounds,

yam is central to conversations around food security in Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Yam production in Nigeria has tremendously increased over the past 45 years from 6.7

million tonnes 1961 to 39.3 million in tonnes 2006 and 50 million tonnes in 2022 (FAO, 2023).

Even at this, there has, however, been a general decline in yam production in Nigeria in recent

years due to farmers/herdsmen crises and general insecurity. International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture [IITA] (2015) reported that both area under yam cultivation and total yam output

were declining. In the same vein, world data showed that Nigeria accounts for 65% of the total

world production; about 38 million metric ton which is cultivated on 2.9 million-ha cultivated

area of land in 2012 and valued at $7.75 billion (Odigbo et al., 2015). This increase in output

3
was attributed more to the large area planted with yam than increase in productivity (Musa et al.,

2012).

Yam production is confronted with myriads of problems which include high labour

demand, sources of credit which are not reliable, menace of pests and diseases, declining soil

fertility, haphazard weather conditions as well as inadequacy of planting materials (IITA, 2008).

These problems which had been worsened within the past ten years had been adduced to have led

to increasing cost of yam production which continues to force many farmers out of production

(NRCRI, 2018), or reduced investment funds into yam farming resulting in an increase in

demand over supply. Though, yam’s significant contribution to the food security in the sub-

region has been well documented (Maroya et al., 2014), however the need to quantitatively

investigate the factors influencing the productivity and profitability of yam production becomes

of utmost importance, hence the focus of this study in the study area.

1.3 Research Questions

In order to determine the socio-economic factors affecting the productivity and profitability of

yam production in the study area, the following research questions were raised;

i. What are the socio-economic characteristics of yam farmers in the Study area?

ii. What is the profitability of yam in the study area?

iii. How could the productivity and profitability of yam production be improved/ increased in

the study area?

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1.4 Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study is to determine the socio-economic factors influencing

the productivity and profitability of yam farmers in Owo Local Government Area in Ondo State.

The specific objective are to:

i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of the yam producers in Owo Local

Government Area

ii. compute profitability of yam production in the study area;

iii. identify the problems/constraints to yam production in the study area

1.5 Justification of the Study

Yam is a staple crop in Nigeria and Owo Local Government Area is one of the major

yam-producing areas in Nigeria. However, yam farmers in the region face various challenges,

including low productivity, poor market access, insecurity and limited adoption of improved

farming practices, which hinder their productivity and profitability. The outcome of this study is

expected to bring into limelight, the socio-economic factors affecting the productivity and

profitability of yam farmers in Owo Local Government Area of Ondo State. This will provide

lead-ways for policymakers, extension agents, and other stakeholders to develop robust

programmes to ensure productivity and profitability of yam farmers which would invariably

improve the general socio-economic conditions of the farmers.

Moreover, understanding the socio-economic factors influencing yam farmers'

productivity and profitability is crucial for promoting food security, poverty reduction, and

sustainable agricultural development in Owo Local Government Area of Ondo State

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brief Review on Yam (Dioscorea spp) Production in Nigeria

Yam is a tropical tuber crop that is cultivated in Africa, Asia, South America, the

Caribbean, as well as the South Pacific Islands. After Cassava, yam is the second most important

tuber crops in Nigeria.

The crop plays an essential role in the nutrition and sociocultural life of more than 60

million people in five West African countries, that is, Nigeria, Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory

Coast), Benin, and Togo. In West Africa, some 50 million tons are cultivated on about 4 million

hectares annually, accounting for more than 90% of the world’s production. As the demand of

yam is high in the urban society, the prices could be high, especially during off-season periods.

Consequently, yam is a major source of income for many farmers, especially in coastal regions

of West Africa.

2.1.1 Origin and geographic distribution

Yams may have been present in Africa, Asia, South America, the Caribbean, as well as

the South Pacific islands since a very long time, and reports suggest that Dioscorea rotundata

was first domesticated in West Africa in about 5000 BC. Three main centers of origin of yams

have been identified: West Africa, Southeast Asia, and tropical America. Different species of the

genus Dioscorea may have different regions of origin. Yam cultivation is widespread in the

tropics and spans the entire globe along the so-called ‘yam belt,’ around some degrees north and

south of the equator where people grow yams.

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2.1.2 Different types of yams common in Africa

Although there are many types of yams, the most commonly cultivated ones in Nigeria

are discussed below:

 White yam (D. rotundata) and yellow yam (Dioscorea cayenensis): These are native to

Africa and are the most widely cultivated types of yams in Nigeria. They can grow quite

large with vines reaching lengths of up to 12 m. The tubers usually weigh between 2.5

and 5 kg each, but can attain weights of as much as 25 kg or even more.

 Water yam (Dioscorea alata), also called ‘winged yam’ or ‘purple yam,’ is a perennial,

vigorously twining vine with winged stems. The vines grow to 10 m or more in length

and are freely branching. The tubers are large with purple flesh. The plants normally

grow for 8–10 months, and then go dormant for 2–4 months. During dormancy the aerial

stems die back.

 Air potato (Dioscorea bulbifera) is appreciated for its bulbils, which form at the base of

the leaves. In this case, these bulbils are more important food products compared with the

tubers that the plant also produces. The name ‘air potato’ is derived from the size of the

bulbils equaling those of potatoes (0.5–2 kg). Air potato is hardly grown commercially.

However, it is popular in home gardens as it starts yielding after only 4 months and

continues producing for the entire life of the vine, sometimes up to 2 years. Furthermore,

the bulbils are easy to harvest and cook.

 Bitter yam (Dioscorea dumetorum): The cultivation of this species requires less labor

than other yams. Its wild forms may be highly toxic, which explains why they are

sometimes mixed with some bait and subsequently used to poison animals.

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2.2 Morphology and Cultivation of Yam

Yam is an annual or perennial vine and a climber with annual or perennial underground

tubers. The life cycle of the yam plant consists of the following stages: propagules (true seed or

tuber), emerging seedling or plantlet, mature plant, senescing plant, and dormant tubers. Yam has

an annual vegetative system composed of a root system (some extend throughout the upper

layers of the soil, others consist of root hairs), a stem system, a foliar system, and a reproductive

system (Degras and Coste, 2013). The root system generally consists of two categories of roots:

the adventitious roots (appearing from the base of the stem) and roots arising from the skin of the

tuber. The adventitious roots are usually about 3–6 mm thick and 1–3 m long and absorb

nutrients and water. This type of roots extends throughout the upper layers of the soil and rarely

branch out and emit few rootlets. The roots on the tuber are rarely more than few centimeters in

length and are usually 1 or 2 mm thick (Degras and Coste, 2013).

In Nigeria, yams are vegetatively propagated using the basal nodal region of the tuber, as

flowering is rare. The tuber, the economically important part of the yam plant, is rich in

carbohydrates and contains modest amounts of mineral matter (calcium and iron), vitamin B,

vitamin C, and crude fiber (Andres et al., 2016). The plant usually produces a single annual

tuber, which is 20–40 cm long and weighs from two to a dozen kilograms, depending on cultivar

and growing conditions. The body can be elongated or spherical with a white, yellow, or purple

flesh (Soibam et al., 2017).

2.3 Harvesting

Time for yam harvesting varies and may be spread out over several months in almost all

regions due to the wide range of species and cultivars. For example, D. rotundata and D.

8
cayenensis in West Africa are harvested twice (Degras and Coste, 2013), while D. alata is

harvested only one time per season. The first harvesting is done at a time when the plant has

fully flowered (usually 6 months after planting) and the vines are about to cease growth with

some of the bottom leaves turning yellow, that is usually around August and September. After

this first harvest, the yam plant will regenerate and grow for some time and wither and finally

dry up. This allows for the production of seed yam which is harvested in the second harvest

period (December to January) together with late yam varieties like D. alata (Fu et al., 2011).

Early harvesting is done by the use of either a cutlass (Asiedu and Sart, 2010) or a sharp-

ended stick where the mound is carefully cut open and the tuber is severed from the vine at the

point below the base of the vine after which the mound is neatly covered to allow regenerative

growth for seed tubers. On the other hand, late harvesting is done by the use of a hoe and cutlass,

where the withered plant is cut off and half of the mound destroyed in order to remove the ware

tuber or the seed tuber. In either situation, care is needed to minimize damage or bruises that lead

to rot in tubers and a decrease in market value of the yam (FAO, 2020).

2.4 Storage

Yam as a tropical tuber crop has a relatively long shelf life (6–8 months) compared to

other tropical fresh produce (Ravi et al., 2006). This explains why, as a staple food, yam is

available all year round for consumers. However, this long storability of yam notwithstanding,

tubers are often damaged during harvesting and after harvesting, and this can lead to postharvest

losses. After harvesting, yam can be stored either by adopting traditional or modern methods of

storage (Degras and Coste, 2013). The traditional system of yam storage varies among the

different yam-producing countries of the world (Ravi et al., 2006). In Nigeria, just as observed in

9
other West African countries (Ravi et al., 2006), yams can be stored by leaving them in the

ground until they are needed for food or for sale. This system however exposes the yam tuber to

attack by pests such as termites and rodents and harvesting also becomes difficult when the

ground becomes hard during the dry season, resulting in tuber breakage and bruises which

predispose the tubers to pathogens leading to loss of tubers in storage (Falola et al., 2017). Also,

with this system, when there is heavy rain, the tubers may become rotten.

The other traditional methods of yam storage include wooden platforms, cool and well-

ventilated rooms, yam barns, heaping and covering with dry grass under trees, stored in a

thatched shed, and Silo (burying in the soil) (Ravi et al., 2006; Falola et al., 2017). The

commonest traditional method of yam storage in Nigeria is storage in the yam barn (Wumbei et

al., 2019). The modern methods on the other hand include chemical treatments (e.g. fungicides),

storage in a cold room, and refrigeration; however, the method of cold storage is hardly practiced

by farmers in West Africa (Falola et al., 2017). The efficacy of tuber storage structures for

preserving yams until they are used is influenced by the cultivars, environmental conditions such

as relative humidity and temperature, the physical condition of the tubers at the beginning of

storage, and the effectiveness to exclude vermin such as rodents (Ravi et al., 2006; Wumbei et

al., 2019). Traditional storage methods therefore vary according to ecology and the volume of

yam produced (Asiedu and Sart, 2010). In this traditional area, after harvest, farmers will usually

burry the tubers in the soil or keep them under the shade of a tree and cover them with dry vines

of yam or grass. They can also keep them in constructed barns on the farm or in the house or

keep them in well-ventilated rooms.

Storage is an important element within the yam production chain which, when not

properly done, can lead to high postharvest losses leading to low incomes for farmers and food

10
insecurity. Onwueme (1978) and Ravi et al. (2006) respectively observed that shading,

ventilation, and constant inspection are three essential elements for good yam storage in a barn.

They asserted that ventilation serves two purposes, i.e. preventing the buildup of high humidity

which favors rotting and preventing tubers from heating up owing to their own respiratory

activities. Postharvest losses for yam in Nigeria are as high as 24 percent of production, despite

the Ministry of Agriculture’s goal to reduce these losses to only 12 percent (Ansah and Tetteh,

2016). The major causes of postharvest losses are weight loss due to evapotranspiration

intensified by sprouting, rotting due to fungal and bacterial pathogens, and insect infestation

(Ansah and Tetteh, 2016; Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007).

2.5 Economic Importance of Yam

In Nigeria, yams are a major source of income and have high cultural value. They are

used in fertility and marriage ceremonies, and a festival is held annually to celebrate its harvest

in most cultures across West Africa. Yam is widely consumed especially in west Africa in

different dimension and recipe. It is often pounded into a thick paste after boiling (pounded yam)

and is eaten with soup. Yam can also be processed into flour that is used in the preparation of the

paste. Yam is a preferred food and a food security crops in sub-Saharan Africa countries. (IITA,

1998). Unlike cassava and other tuber crops, one can store yam tubers for periods of up to 4 or

even 6 months at ambient temperature. This characteristic contributes the sustaining of food

supply, especially different period as the start of the west season.

In Nigeria, yam plays key roles in food security, income generation, and the sociocultural

life of at least 60 million people (IITA, 2014). It also serves as source of foreign exchange to

government. Nigeria has been exporting little quantities of yam United States, Indian and

11
African countries such as Uganda and Niger. Yam export shipment from Nigeria stood at 926

exported by 277 Nigerian exporters (Anaadumba, 2013; IITA, 2014), exporting barely 72,000

metric tons of yams in 2017 (Channel Television). In addition to the food and market values,

yams play vital roles in traditional sociocultural rituals and religions that the ethnocentric

attachment to the crop remains strong for some ethnic groups in Africa (Nweke and Aidoo,

2013). In a typical Nigerian urban center, household food budget formed about 51% of the total

household budget (Aidoo, 2009).

Yam production is regarded as a source of food security and employment to a lot of

people in many areas where it is cultivated (Nahanga and Vera, 2014). Yam is among the major

cash and most consumed food crops in West African countries like Nigeria, Cote D’Ivoire,

Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. Its cultivation is very profitable despite high costs of production and

price fluctuations in the markets (Izekor and Olumese, 2010). Over 60% of people grow yams as

a primary source of livelihood (Anaadumba, 2013).

2.6 Distribution of Yam in Nigeria

Yam is Nigeria’s leading root crop, both in terms of land under cultivation and in the

volume and value of production (Agboola, 2019). The production of the crop in Nigeria is

undertaken in the forest, derived savanna and southern guinea savanna environments. This is

explained by its ability to thrive under a variety of environmental conditions owing to differences

in the ecological requirements of the various species. Generally, its natural habit is considered to

be secondary bush or forest where the canopy has not been disturbed. The branches of trees in

the forest zone provide the support required by the climbing vine, thereby reducing the cost of

12
procuring stakes. Yam species are well adapted to the savanna conditions and in such cases the

yam vines use the stems of taller and bigger grasses as climbing supports (katung et al., 2006).

Some of the most important yam producing areas are located in the savanna environment

which supports the speculation that the cultivation of yam probably originated there (Agboola,

2019). Yam production is therefore concentrated in the forest and savanna (the derived and

southern guinea savanna) environments. The most important area for yam production with over

50% of cultivated land under the crop covers Ikom, Obubra and Ogoja of the Cross River State

and Abakaliki in Ebonyi State. The predominance of yams in the yam producing area is due to

absence of export tree crops capable of limiting arable crops production, the high proportion of

farmers who grow the crop, its position in crop combinations and the social status attached to the

crop. There are four other areas where yam production is also important and 30-49% of

cultivated land is under the crop. There are Akwa Ibom, Imo and Anambra States and a more

limited extent Delta and Edo, more extensive area stretching from Borgu, Oyo, Illorin, Ekiti,

Ondo and Kwara; and Benue, and Plateau States covering parts of Igala, Idoma, Tiv, Nasarawa

and Lafia. The first two of these are located in areas of high population densities; the remaining

two are located in the derived and southern guinea savanna environments and with the exception

of part of Tivs (Agboola, 2019).

2.7 Trend in Yam Productivity in Nigeria

Yam presents a greater problem with uncertain data. Estimates of yam production differ

by a factor of three among published sources. Prior to the oil boom in the early 1970s agriculture

was the backbone of the Nigeria’s economy and the country was self-sufficient in food. This is

illustrated by the performance of yam. According to Degras (2000), yam production increased by

13
about 70 percent from 1960 to 1970 due to an increase in surface area (+44 per cent) and yield

(+18 percent). It was observed that the annual output of yam had fluctuated since then reflecting

changes in area cultivated and yield. However, output was much higher between 1986 and 1995

while the lowest performance occurred between 1970 and 1983 when the agricultural indices

were generally low.

Yield in farmers’ plots is relatively low in Nigeria compared with other West African

countries. The high production of yam in Nigeria is related to area under cultivation; average

yield of 9.55t/ha is obtained in Nigeria, 10.83t/ha in Cote d’ Ivoire, 10.94t/ha in Benin and

12.74t/ha in Nigeria, Yam growth rate for 2011 stood at 5.4, but reduced to 4.9 in 2012 (CBN,

2012), higher yields however continued, Nigeria produced over 45.004 million metric tonnes in

2014 (FAO, 2014), which is attributed to the combined effort of the National Root Crops

Research Institute and IITA, Ibadan.

2.8 Constraints to Yam Production in Nigeria

The major challenges in yam production can be categorized into ten groups: weed

pressure, decline in soil fertility, soil borne pests and diseases, leaf disease, storage pests and

diseases, labour cost for land (heap) preparation, and barn making and lack of staking materials,

use of traditional technology for production of seed yam, scarcity of planting materials

(Manyong et al., 2001; Nweke et al., 2011) as well as consumer preference (Katung et al., 2006).

Many farmers retain and use about 25% of the yam harvested as planting material for

next crop. Where the number of seed yams required is large, especially when there is expansion

in farm size, the proportion as planting materials may be consistently higher (Katung et al.,

2006). The cost of planting materials has been shown to represent about 50% of the cost of yam

14
production (Nweke et al., 2011). The traditional methods of yam production include double

harvesting and cutting large tubers into setts of 150-1000g. The minsett technique using 25-50g

setts to produce seed yam has been introduced to farmers but the rate of adoption is generally

low (11TA, 2005). Using the vine cutting for seed yam production (Cabanillas and Martins,

2007) may not be practicable at the farmers’ level because of rooting problems and extended

growing period (Aighewi et al., 2001).

Pests and diseases in both field and storage constitute the most important constraint in

yam production; pests especially yam beetles create holes in the tubers and reduced the quality of

the tubers and also facilitate fungal infection leading to tuber rots. Attack by nematodes affects

the quality of tubers too. Infestations by nematodes in yam producing areas increases due to the

shortening of fallow (Manyong and Oyewole, 2007).

It is also estimated that staking could double cost of yam production especially in areas

where live stakes or crop stakes are not present in the farm for trailing of the vines. Stakes also

deteriorate in value within a year demanding for fresh stakes in subsequent cropping year(s) and

this poses a serious stress on the farmer who desires for high yield of the crop (Manyong et al.,

2001). It is worrisome that this particular farm input is not considered within the confine of

government input support. However, this problem could be tackled when the research results on

non-stake yam is available which would be released to farmers in Nigeria.

Weeding is also considered as a major challenge to yam in the tropics. This is because

weeds easily developed under stake condition because of low canopy cover (). The yam varieties

in famers’ field are no longer the heavy foliage type yet high yielding compared with older

varieties and local types and this situation creates favorable condition and open spaces for rapid

15
weed growth. As a result, farmers carry out three weddings before final harvest and this

increases the overhead cost of production and reduces profit margins of yam farmers (Manyong

and Oyewole, 2007). However, Katung et al. (2006) recommends the use of pre- emergence

herbicides such as primextra at 3kg ai per hectare or fluometuron + metolachor at 2-3+2-3kg ai

per hectare for effective weed control in addition to occasional weeding.

2.9 Prospects of Yam Production

There are many strategies of solving the major constraints to yam production and

sufficiency in Nigeria. It involves a complex interaction of agronomic, genetic, technology

consumer preferences in the choice of species/cultivars and socio-economic considerations

(Manyong et al., 2001). The National Root Crop Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike, Nigeria

has the genetic mandate on yam. Collaborative evaluation of 11TA derived breeding lines with

the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike and the Crops Research Institute Nigeria

has resulted in the release of ten varieties of Dioscorea rotundata during the 2001-2009 research

project in Nigeria, and one in 2007 in Nigeria. More lines have been released for multi-locational

evaluation by Root Crop Research Institutes in Nigeria, Nigeria, Benin republic, Cote d’lvoire,

Sierria Leone, Togo and Liberia, with multiple pest and disease resistance, wide adaptability and

good organoleptic attributes (NACGRAB, 2004).

Attention has also been given to improved management practices, soil fertility

management and development of improved production packages and development of simple and

effective storage techniques (Katung et al., 2006). In the year 2008, four more new hybrid yam

varieties were released in Nigeria. These were made up of three water yam (Dioscorea alata)

varieties and one white yam (Dioscorea rotundata) variety (Nwachukwu, 2009). The National

16
Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike employs a cyclic selection system which involves

several stages of selection and re-selection vis-à-vis national and local checks. These stages

spanning over nine years include hybrid botanic seed production (crossing), seeding evaluation,

cloned evaluation, preliminary yield trial uniform yield trial and the pre-release trial. Similarly,

the trail of 24 top yielding hybrid yam lines in Umudike and Utobi, resulted in the nomination of

five yam lines (99/AMO/110, AMO/189,99/AMO/115, 99/SMO/MAX and OO/ AMO/191 for

National Coordinated Research Project (NCRP) multi-locational trials based on their total fresh

tuber yield rank sums (Nwachukwu., 2009).

The National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike has not lost focus in the pursuit of

its official mandate. Aggressive efforts towards the realization of the highest yield possible have

been intensified. Some of the measures for improvement in yam production include:

2.9.1 Yam Minisett Technology

The yam minisett technologies were developed by the National Root Crops Research

Institute, Umudike several decades ago to address the problem of high cost and scarcity of seed

yam. Yam minisett is a section from a clean, healthy yam tuber weighing approximately 25g or

less, about 15 to 25 setts can be obtained from an average seed yam. A tuber of 20cm long can

give about 5-6 disc, which gives 20 to 24 minisetts (Otoo et al., 2001). The minisett technique

could increase yam production due to ready availability of planting materials at affordable cost

and high multiplication ratio (Ezulike et al., 2006) and this technique could encourage many

farmers to go back to yam production (Ekpe et al., 2005), thereby increasing total yam output.

Minisett technique using 25 to 50 setts to produce seed yams has been introduced to farmers

(11TA, 2005) and the result is good.

17
 Reports by Ogbodu (2005) and Anuebunwa et al. (2008) showed that adoption rate of the

technology was still below 40% and that farmers showed only partial adoption. Among the

reasons advanced by farmers for the poor adoption is that the size of the minisetts (25g) is too

small and that the technology was developed under monoculture, while most farmers in the

humid tropics practice inter cropping (Ikeogu and Ogbonna, 2009). The yam minisett technique

has been modified and recommendations makes more elastic such that farmers who wish to

produce seed yams of 500g and above could use minisett of 35g-45g (Ikeogu et al., 2000).Now,

farmers are provided mini tubers (Ikeogu and Ogboma, 2009) for planting according to their

production objectives, thereby eliminating the fears that the minisett would delay the production

cycle.

2.9.2 Propagation by Vine Cutting

Progress has been recorded with vine cutting technique (Mazza et al., 2009). Sett

production through yam vine cuttings increases the multiplication of clones beyond levels

possible through conventional use of tuber sett (Wilson, 2008), and a lot of tubers need not be

reserved for planting purposes (Akoroda and Okonmah, 2012). However, when the this trial is

fully established would result in the production of mini tubers for farmers thereby reducing the

problems of scarcity and high cost of both planting materials and yam tubers; Nyoku (2013)

drew attention to the possibility of raising plant of D. alata, D. rotundata and D. dumetorum

through vine cutting, as an alternative to propagation by tuber. It was demonstrated that cuttings

of the vine excluding a node never rooted, even after being treated with rooting substances. A

cutting normally involves a node made in such a way that about 2.5cm of vine tissue is left

attached below and above the node, with the leaf intact. Okonkwo et al. (2013) showed that

nodal cuttings from old plants (10 weeks and above) of D. bulbifera regenerated and formed

18
tubers and roots only, but no shoots, whereas cuttings from younger plant (5 weeks or less)

produced roots, tubers and shoot).

Increase in number of nodes leads to increase in the growth of the resulting root, tuber

and shoot. Using single-node cuttings, procedure has been developed for the propagation of

virus-free tested clones of yam. A two step propagation developed for yam involves, placing

single-node cuttings in a liquid culture medium for 1 month to induce multiple shoot formation,

followed by sub culturing the node cuttings in solid media for distribution. Virus-tested clonal

materials are micro propagated and distributed on request to national programmes as plantlets

and microtubers of yam (Ng, 2012).

2.9.3 Development of Non-Stake Yam Genotypes

Recently, the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudke in collaboration with

other research institutes has directed attention and research to the development of non-stake yam.

Staking has been considered to increase cost of yam production. Vegetation is now constantly

removed which may result in lack of staking materials (Manyong et al., 2001) or insufficiency

and high cost of staking materials. It also requires transportation of stakes from far distances or

locations to the farm and this too reduces the profit margins of farmers engaged in yam

production. Staking is also time consuming and labour intensive (Tomothy and Bassey, 2009)

which in turn impinges on the profit which the farmers would have realized. For these reasons,

Manyong et al. (2001) and Nweke et al. (2011) consider yam production as a non-profitable

business. Therefore, yams have been considered mainly as “man crop”. Breeding and selection

of yam for non-staking potentials by the NRCRI, Umudike would be another milestone in the

19
development of farmers friendly technology and could encourage more farmers to go back to

yam production (Timothy and Bassey, 2009), thereby increasing total tuber yield.

2.9.4 Advances in Soil Management

Several programmes of soil management for yam production have been developed and

introduced to farmer. Soil fertility is probably the most crucial factor in the cultivation of yams

in Nigeria. Attention has already been drawn to the relationship between soil fertility and the

duration of bush and grass fallow (Agboola, 2019). Awareness has been created on the role of

organic manure on yield of yam (Eze et al., 2016) and the adoption of this practice is high for

homestead farms. Due to loss of agricultural land to national disaster and contemporary man’s

infrastructural advancement, there is no enough fertile land for producing the amount of yam that

would be sufficient to feed the ever growing human population relying on bush fallow practices

to restore soil fertility, loss of site productivity on account of bush burning, intense cropping

often without nutrient supplementation, over grazing and soil erosion are important factors that

affect yam productivity in Nigeria.

Integrated plant nutrition, integrated nutrient supply or integrated nutrient management

system is a recent development advocated by the Food and Agriculture organization (FOA). It is

the combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer, coupled with soil conservation farming

system in the supply of nutrients to crops. Researchers conducted on effectiveness of organic

mineral fertilizer result in higher crop yield compared with recommended NPK fertilizer alone

(Eya, 2016), efforts in this direction will build up soil productivity and quality on long term basis

(Adeniyam and Ojeniyi, 2005). Compared with chemical fertilizers integrated plant nutrition

20
ensures longer residual effect and overall development of soil physical, chemical and biological

qualities (Ayeni et al., 2009; Nyoku et al., 2016).

2.9.5 Agricultural Policy and Institutional Support

The Federal Government of Nigeria has continued with the implementation of the

Agricultural transformation Action Plan (ATAP). Under the Growth Enhancement Support

Scheme (GESS) designed to give farmers timely access to agricultural inputs, 17 major fertilizer

suppliers were selected to supply the commodity to about 2,500 agro-dealers across the country.

In addition, a national farmers’ census was carried out in 2012 to create a reliable database for

effective input distribution under the scheme (CBN, 2012). It is expected that yam farmers in

Nigeria through the All Farmers Association of Nigeria (AFAN) will key into this noble plan of

the Federal Government of Nigeria by demanding for seed yams for farmers as it is the case for

maize, cotton, rice cassava, cocoa and palm nuts.

21
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

The study was conducted in Owo Local Government Area of Ondo State. Owo is situated

in the Northern Sectorial District of Ondo State, South-Western Nigeria which is renowned for

its substantial contribution to yam production in Nigeria. Owo Local Government Area, is

characterized by fertile soils, favorable climatic conditions, and abundant water resources, all of

which are conducive to yam cultivation. The area’s agricultural landscape is diverse, and its

socio-economic environment reflects a mix of traditional practices and modern influences. This

dynamic setting provides a unique context for understanding how various socio-economic factors

influenced the productivity and profitability of yam farming. The inherent diversity of the area

also allows for a comprehensive analysis of how different environmental and economic

conditions affect farming practices and outcomes.

22
Plate 3.1: Image of Ondo State Map showing Owo

23
3.2 Sampling Technique and Sampling Size

To obtain a representative sample from the diverse population of yam farmers in Owo

LGA, a multistage sampling technique was employed. In the first stage, the study area was

divided into several strata based on administrative zones to capture the geographical and socio-

economic diversity of the region. In the second stage, simple random sampling was used within

each stratum to select individual yam farmers. This method ensured that every farmer had an

equal chance of being included in the study, thereby minimizing selection bias. The sample size

was determined using a standard statistical formula, which ensured that the sample was both

statistically significant and adequate for making reliable inferences about the entire population of

yam farmers in Owo. Based on this, ten (10) communities, Ajowa Asolo, Agunla, Oke-ofe, Ago

Alaji, Eporo, Obasooto, Ireakari Camp, Ago Oyinbo and Elegbeka were selected. Ten (10)

farmers were then randomly selected from each of the ten selected communities making a sample

size of one hundred (100).

3.3 Data Collection

Data collection was carried out using both primary and secondary methods to ensure a

comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Primary data were collected through the

administration of well-structured questionnaire that were administered using direct personal

(focus) interview method on the yam farmers. The questionnaire provided quantitative data on

various socio-economic factors and farming practices, while the interviews offered qualitative

insights that enriched the overall analysis. In addition, secondary data were gathered from a

review of relevant literature, government publications, academic journals, and agricultural

reports. These secondary sources provided contextual background information and supported the

24
interpretation of the primary data. The combination of these data collection methods ensured that

the study captured a holistic view of the factors influencing yam farming productivity and

profitability in Owo.

3.4 Data Analysis Tools

Data were analyzed by using (1) descriptive statistics tools such as frequency distribution

tables, means and percentages, (ii) budgeting techniques was used to analyze the profitability of

yam farming in the study area, (iii) descriptive statistics was also used to present the identified

problems/constraints of yam farming; and (iv) correlation analysis was used to test the

relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of yam farmers and their profitability

using null hypothesis

Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of yam

farmers and their profitability

25
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 The Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents

The socio-economic characteristics of the respondents investigated include: gender, age, level of
education, yam farming experience, marital status, annual farming income, household size,
access to credit facilities, source of start-up capital, membership of farmers’ association,
extension visitation and frequency of visits.

Table 4.1: Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents

Variable Categories Frequency (n=100) Percentage (%)

Gender Male 82 82%
Female 18 18%
Age Below 30 15 15%
31 – 45 38 38%
46 – 60 30 30%
Above 60 17 17%
Level of Education Primary School 16 16%
Secondary School 49 49%
Tertiary Institution 25 25%
Others 10 10%
No of years in Yam
Above 20 years 23 23%
Farming
15 – 20 years 32 32%
10 – 15 years 27 27%
Less than 10 years 18 18%
Marital Status Single 21 21%
Married 68 68%
Divorced 11 11%
Annual Farm Income Below #300,000 44 44%
#300,000 - #600,000 31 31%
#600,000 - #1,000,000 19 19%
Above #1,000,000 6 6%
Household Size Less than 5 56 56%
5–8 24 24%
Above 9 20 20%
Source: Field survey data, 2024

4.1.1 Gender Distribution of Respondents

26
Table 4.1 reveals that yam farming is male-dominated, with 82% of respondents being male and

only 18% female. This suggests that men play a more significant role in yam production in the

study area, likely due to the labor-intensive nature of the activity. Women’s lower participation

might be influenced by cultural norms, land ownership restrictions, or their involvement in other

agricultural or household activities. This findings is consistent with the study of Ajetomobi et al.

(2011) which found out that male farmers dominate yam production in Southwestern Nigeria due

to the labour-intensive nature of yam production.

4.1.2 Age Distribution of Respondents

As shown in Table 4.1, a substantial proportion of yam farmers (68%) fall within the

economically active age group of 31–60 years, with 38% aged 31–45 years and 30% aged 46–60

years. This indicates that the majority of yam farmers are in their productive years, which is a

positive factor for labor availability and innovation adoption. However, 17% of farmers are

above 60 years, suggesting an aging farming population that may struggle with the physical

demands of yam cultivation. The relatively low percentage of young farmers (15% below 30

years) raises concerns about the future of yam farming, as younger generations may be shifting

toward other economic activities.

4.1.3 Level of Education

Education plays a crucial role in farm productivity, influencing the ability of farmers to adopt

improved practices. Table 4.1 shows that while 49% of respondents have secondary school

education, and 25% attained tertiary education. This findings implies that the farmers have

enough education for farming activities to influence their abilities to adopt modern farming

practices. This supports the findings of Izakor and Olumese (2010), who established that

27
education enhances farmers’ ability to access and utilize improved agricultural technologies and

innovations.

4.1.4 Experience in Yam Farming

The majority of respondents (82%) have over 10 years of farming experience, with 23% farming

for more than 20 years and 32% having 15–20 years of experience (table 4.1). This suggests a

highly experienced farming population, which could be beneficial for knowledge transfer and

sustained productivity. However, 18% of respondents have less than 10 years of experience,

indicating the entry of new farmers into yam cultivation.

4.1.5 Marital Status

A significant portion of the farmers (68%) are married, while 21% are single and 11% are

divorced. Married farmers may have greater household labor support, allowing them to cultivate

larger farm sizes. Additionally, marriage could influence financial stability and investment in

farming activities.

4.1.6 Annual Farm Income

Profitability is a key concern in any enterprise. Table 4.1 and the data reveals that 44% of

respondents earn below ₦300,000 annually, while 31% earn between ₦300,000 and ₦600,000.

Only 6% of farmers make over ₦1,000,000 annually, indicating that yam farming has relatively

low profitability in the study area. The farmers’ low-income levels may be that most farmers

operate at a subsistence level, possibly due to factors such as low yields, high production costs,

poor market access, or inadequate storage facilities. Improving access to better market prices,

mechanization, and value-added processing could enhance yam farming profitability.

28
4.1.7 Household Size

Household size influences labor availability and economic responsibilities. Table 4.1 indicates

that 56% of respondents have a household size of less than five people, while 24% have 5–8

members, and 20% have more than 9 members. Larger households may provide more family

labor, reducing dependence on hired labor, while smaller households might face labor shortages,

affecting farm productivity. Encouraging labor-saving technologies such as mechanized farming

could support farmers with smaller household sizes.

Table 4.2: Access to Credit and Farming Resources

Frequency Percentage
Variable Categories
(n=100) (%)
Access to Credit Facilities Yes 23 23%
No 77 77%
Source of Start-up Capital Personal Savings 48 48%
Family Savings 17 17%
Thrift & Cooperative
31 31%
Societies
Commercial Bank 4 4%
Membership of Farmers’
Yes 55 55%
Association
No 45 45%
Visited by Extension Agent Yes 23 23%
No 77 77%
Frequency of Extension Visits Thrice a Year 10 10%
Twice a Year 11 11%
Once a Year 2 2%
None 77 77%
Source: Field Survey Data, 2024

Table 4.2 provides key insights into yam farmers' access to credit, their sources of start-up

capital, and their engagement with farming support services. These factors are crucial in

understanding the constraints and opportunities for improving productivity and profitability in

yam farming.

29
4.2.1 Access to Credit Facilities

A significant majority (77%) of respondents reported that they did not have access to credit

facilities, while only 23% had access. This indicates that access to financial resources, such as

loans, is a major barrier for yam farmers. The inability to access credit limits farmers' ability to

invest in modern farming techniques, buy inputs, or expand their operations. This lack of credit

access could be a major factor contributing to the relatively low profitability observed in the

sector. This is in agreement with Omonona et al. (2010), which found out that limited access to

formal credit institutions tampers agricultural productivity in Nigeria.

4.2.2 Source of Start-up Capital

Table 4.2 reveals that, it comes to the source of start-up capital, 48% of respondents rely on

personal savings, while 17% depend on family savings. 31% use thrift and cooperative societies,

and only a small fraction of 4% access capital from commercial banks. The reliance on personal

and family savings reflects a limited access to formal financial institutions, which may be a result

of lack of collateral, limited financial literacy, or banking infrastructure in rural areas. This

further supports the notion that financial barriers significantly hinder the growth of yam farming.

Thrift and cooperative societies are a vital alternative source of funding, but the relatively low

proportion of farmers using commercial banks highlights the need for improved financial

inclusion and tailored banking services for farmers.

4.2.3 Membership of Farmers’ Association

55% of respondents are members of a farmers' association, while 45% are not. Membership in

these associations can provide access to collective resources, such as shared equipment, group

credit, training, and market linkages. Being part of a farmers' association can also help with

advocacy for better government support and services. However, close to half of the respondents

30
 are not part of any association, which suggests that there is potential for increasing collaboration

among farmers to maximize their collective bargaining power and access to resources.

Visited by Extension Agent

A very low percentage of farmers, 23%, have been visited by an extension agent, while 77%

reported no visits. Extension services play a crucial role in providing farmers with information

on best practices, new farming techniques, and pest management strategies. The low rate of

extension visits indicates a gap in the dissemination of agricultural knowledge, which could be a

major constraint to improving farming practices. Precious research by Ogunlela and Mukthar

(2009) emphasized the importance of extension services in disseminating improved farming

practices, and their absence could negatively impact yam productively.

4.2.5 Frequency of Extension Visits

Among those visited by extension agents, 10% reported visits three times a year, 11% twice a

year, and 2% once a year. The fact that 77% of farmers have not been visited by extension agents

further emphasizes the insufficient reach of extension services. This low frequency of visits

suggests that farmers may not be receiving the necessary support to adopt modern farming

practices, which could improve their yields and profitability. A more consistent and frequent

engagement with extension agents is needed to ensure that yam farmers are well-equipped to

overcome challenges in production and marketing.

Table 4.3: Productivity and Profitability of Yam Farming

Variable Categories Frequency (n=100) Percentage (%)

31
Sources of Labor Family 40 40%
Hired 30 30%
Both 30 30%
Average Yam Yield per Acre
Less than 500 30 30%
(Tubers)
500 - 1000 40 40%
Above 1000 30 30%
Average money spent per Acre a
Above #300,000 25 25%
year
#300,000 - #200,000 19 19%
#200,000 - #100,000 46 46%
Below #100,000 10 10%
Annual sales in a year from an
Above #250,000 25 25%
acre
#250,000 - #150,000 19 19%
#150,000 - #50,000 46 56%
Below #50,000 10 10%
Average Price of a tuber of yam Above #4,000 32 32%
#4,000 - #3,000 18 18%
#3,000 - #2,000 21 21%
Below #2,000 29 29%

Yam Varieties Planted Only white yam 11 11%

Only Yellow yam 0 0%

Only Water yam 0 0%
White and Yellow Yam 33 33%
White yam, Yellow yam
56 56%
and Water yam
Annual Net Profit from Yam
Above #300,000 20 20%
Farming
#300,000 - #200,000 30 30%
#200,000 - #100,000 35 35%
Less than #100,000 15 15%
Source: Field Survey Data, 2024

Table 4.3 provides a detailed view of the productivity and profitability of yam farming in the

study area. The data reflects variations in labor sources, yields, expenditures, income, and prices,

all of which play a significant role in shaping the economic performance of yam farmers.

32
In terms of labor, 40% of farmers rely on family labor, while 30% use hired labor, and another

30% use both family and hired labor. This suggests that yam farming is largely labor-intensive,

with many farmers still depending on family members to contribute to the work. However, the

use of hired labor also indicates a need for additional workforce, possibly during peak seasons or

for larger-scale operations. The combination of both family and hired labor likely helps some

farmers manage the demands of the farming process more effectively.

The yield per acre is another key factor influencing productivity. Forty percent of farmers report

harvesting between 500 to 1000 tubers per acre, while another 30% report yields above 1000

tubers per acre, and the remaining 30% harvest fewer than 500 tubers. This shows that there is a

considerable variation in productivity among the farmers, with some achieving higher yields and

others facing challenges that limit their output. Factors such as soil quality, farming practices,

and access to inputs like fertilizers or quality planting materials likely contribute to these

differences in yield. This finding is Consistent with the earlier findings of Udoh and Etim (2008),

who reported that input use significantly enhances yam yield.

The money spent per acre varies significantly as well. The majority of farmers, 56%, spent

between 200,000 and 100,000 naira annually on their farms, while 25% spend more than 300,000

naira. A small portion, 10%, spend below 100,000 naira. These figures suggest that a significant

number of farmers operate on a relatively modest budget for inputs, which may impact their

ability to invest in modern farming techniques or improve yields. Those spending higher

amounts may be investing in more intensive farming practices or larger-scale operations,

possibly resulting in higher productivity.

33
When it comes to annual sales, table 4.3 reveals that 56% of farmers generate between 150,000

and 50,000 naira in sales from one acre, indicating that many are earning relatively low income

from their yam farming activities. A smaller group of 25% report earning above 250,000 naira,

showing that some farmers are able to achieve higher revenue. However, 10% of respondents

earn less than 50,000 naira, pointing to the challenges of achieving profitability, possibly due to

low yields, market conditions, or high input costs. This supports the earlier finding of Agbaje et

al., (2016), who reported that although yam farming is profitable, high production costs limit the

income potentials of farmers.

The price of yam per tuber also varies, with 32% of farmers reporting prices above 4,000 naira

per tuber, while 29% face prices below 2,000 naira. The variation in price reflects the

fluctuations in the yam market, which can significantly affect the profitability of yam farming.

Farmers who sell their tubers at higher prices are likely benefiting from either better-quality

products or more favorable market conditions, while those receiving lower prices may struggle to

cover costs and earn a reasonable profit.

The types of yam varieties planted also show some variation. While 56% of farmers grow a

combination of white yam, yellow yam, and water yam, 33% grow only white and yellow yam.

Only a small proportion, 11%, grow only white yam. This suggests that many farmers diversify

the types of yam they grow to reduce risk or to meet varying market demands. The combination

of different varieties may also help in managing pests and diseases, which are common

challenges in yam production.

Lastly, annual net profits from yam farming show considerable variation. Thirty-five percent of

farmers earn between 200,000 and 100,000 naira in net profit, while 30% earn between 300,000

34
 and 200,000 naira. A small group of 20% reports net profits above 300,000 naira, indicating that

these farmers have more successful operations. However, 15% of farmers report net profits of

less than 100,000 naira, reflecting the difficulties some farmers face in achieving profitability.

Table 4.4: Problems/Constraints of Yam Production

S/N Problems/Constraints of Yam Farming SD (%) D (%) A (%) SA (%)

Land scarcity is a major constraint to yam production in the

1 8 (8%) 15 (15%) 45 (45%) 32 (32%)
study area

Farmers in the study area experience difficulties in accessing

2 6 (6%) 12 (12%) 50 (50%) 32 (32%)
credit facilities

The lack of access to improved yam varieties is a significant

3 7 (7%) 14 (14%) 48 (48%) 31 (31%)
problem in the study area

Pests and diseases pose a major threat to yam production in

4 5 (5%) 10 (10%) 50 (50%) 35 (35%)
the study area

Inadequate extension services is a major constraint to yam

5 9 (9%) 18 (18%) 47 (47%) 26 (26%)
production in the study area

Yam farmers in the study area face challenges in accessing

6 6 (6%) 16 (16%) 52 (52%) 26 (26%)
markets

The high cost of labor is a significant problem in yam

7 4 (4%) 12 (12%) 50 (50%) 34 (34%)
production in the study area

Yam farmers in the study area experience difficulties in

8 5 (5%) 14 (14%) 51 (51%) 30 (30%)
accessing irrigation facilities

Lack of storage facilities is a major constraint to yam

9 3 (3%) 10 (10%) 54 (54%) 33 (33%)
production in the study area

Climate change and variability pose a significant threat to

10 6 (6%) 12 (12%) 48 (48%) 34 (34%)
yam production in the study area
Source: Field Survey Data, 2024

SD = Strongly Agreed, A = Agreed, D = Disagreed, SA = Strongly Disagreed

Table 4.4 highlights the major problems and constraints affecting yam production in the study

area. The results indicate that farmers face multiple challenges, including land scarcity, difficulty
35
in accessing credit, pest and disease issues, inadequate extension services, and market access

problems.

Land scarcity is recognized as a significant constraint, with 45% of respondents agreeing and

32% strongly agreeing. However, 23% of farmers disagree, which may indicate that land

availability is not a uniform issue across all locations within the study area. Access to credit is

another major challenge, as 50% of farmers agree and 32% strongly agree that they experience

difficulties in obtaining financial support. Only 18% of respondents disagree, suggesting that

financial constraints hinder expansion and investment in modern farming techniques.

A lack of access to improved yam varieties is also identified as a major problem, with 48%

agreeing and 31% strongly agreeing. This suggests that limited availability of high-yield or

disease-resistant varieties may negatively impact productivity. Similarly, pests and diseases pose

a serious threat to yam farming, as 50% of respondents agree and 35% strongly agree that these

issues significantly affect their production. This finding aligns with the study of Ekunwo et al.,

(2013), which found that improved yam varieties play a crucial role in increasing yam

production.

Inadequate extension services are another key challenge, with 47% of farmers agreeing and 26%

strongly agreeing that they lack sufficient technical support and training. This indicates that

many farmers may not have access to up-to-date farming techniques and best practices.

Additionally, market access is a major concern, with 52% of farmers agreeing and 26% strongly

agreeing that they face challenges in selling their produce. This suggests potential issues related

to transportation, pricing, or market availability. This study is in agreement with the findings of

36
Alabi and Aruna (2006), who reported that collective marketing enhances farmers bargaining

power and reduces price fluctuations.

The high cost of labor is another critical issue, as 50% of respondents agree and 34% strongly

agree that labor expenses significantly impact their production costs. Only 16% disagree,

indicating that labor-intensive practices in yam farming contribute to overall production

challenges. Access to irrigation facilities is also a constraint, with 51% agreeing and 30%

strongly agreeing that they experience difficulties in obtaining reliable water sources for farming.

Lack of storage facilities is one of the most pressing challenges, with 54% agreeing and 33%

strongly agreeing that inadequate storage leads to post-harvest losses. Only 13% of farmers

disagree, reinforcing the need for better storage infrastructure to minimize losses and stabilize

market supply. Finally, climate change and variability are seen as significant threats, as 48% of

respondents agree and 34% strongly agree that changing weather patterns affect yam production.

4.2 Profitability Analysis

Budgetary analytical approach was used to estimate cost and return in yam farming so as

to be able to know the net profit of the farmers. According to Adegeye and Dittoh (1985), profit

is defined as the net flow of income. In essence, it indicates whether a business is worthwhile or

not Benefit Cost Ratio and Rate of Return on Investment were used to measure the profitability

and determine the worthwhile of yam farming.

Profit = Total Revenue – (Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost)

Mathematically, π = TR – (TFC + TVC)
Where π donates profit;

37
 Total Revenue (TR) = (amount realized from the yam production)
Total Fixed Cost (TFC) = (Sum of Cost of land and machinery)
Total Variable Cost (TVC) = (Sum of Cost of labour, fertilizer, herbicides, fungicides, yam

seeds, etc.).

GM = TR – (TFC + TVC)

Table 4.5: Gross Margin Analysis of Yam Production

S/N Items Value

A Fixed Cost (FC)
1 Land 450,086.10
2 Machinery 150,960.20
3 Building 680,200.50
B Variables Cost (VC)
4 Cost of yam sets 158,281.90
5 Cost of labour/transportation 587,300.70
6 Cost of agro-chemicals 125,520.50
7 Cost of fertilizer 200,250.30
C Total fixed costs (TFC) 1+2+3 831,611.56
D Total variable cost (TVC) 4+5+6+7 1,071,353.40
E Total cost (TFC + TVC) 1,902,964.96
F Total revenue (TR)
8 Average total output (tuber/acre) 850
9 Unit price per tuber (#)
10 Total Revenue (8x9) 2.975,000
G Gross Margin (GM) Total revenue (TR) – Total #2,975,000 - #1,071,353.40 =
variable cost (TVC) #1,903,464.60
H Net farm income (NFI) Total Revenue (TR) – Total Cost #2,975,000 - #1,902,964.96 =
(TC) #1,072,035.04
I Net Return on Investment (NRI) NFI/TC #1,072,035.04 ÷ #1,902,964.96
= 0.56

Source: Field Survey Data, 2024

Table 4.5 shows costs and returns of yam production in the study area. While respondents has

gross margin (GM) of #1,903,464.96 per annum, they incurred a total cost (TC) of

#1,902,964.96. Their net farm income (NFI) was #1,072,035.04 and net return on investment

38
(ROI) of 0.56 respectively. This budgeting analysis as revealed by the return on investment

shows that for every #1 invested on yam production, respondents had a return of #0.56 which

implies that yam production is profitable in the study area.

Table 4.6: Test of significant relationship between socio-economic characteristics of

respondents and profitability

Socio-economic B Std. Error T. Significant

characteristics
Constant 302246.1 42121.7 0.72p 0.443
Age 21303.824 5061.126 4.211** 0.000
Sex 362248 123300.2 -3.124NS 0.10
Level of 189001 173724.9 2.791** 0.120
Education
Marital Status 5828.233 24702.62 -0.974* 0.202
Household Size -12344.2 28324.21 0.185** 0.103
Farming -8726.529 9184.922 0.443* 0.278
Experience
Frequency of 0.088 0.048 -1.066* 0.278
visits
Source of capital 1.626 0.448 1.800** 0.000
Total tubers of 3.844* 0.03
yam sold

Source: Field Survey Data, 2024

n = 100; Adjusted R2 = 0.755; F – ratio = 63.361.

* Significant at 0.05 level

** Significant at 0.01 level
NS not significant
4.3 Relationship Between Socio-economic Variables of Respondents and their

Profitability

Result of multiple regression analysis is presented in Table 4.6. The value of coefficient

of variability (adjusted R2) was 0.755, implying that the fitted model explained 75.5% of total
39
variables. While level of education and size of household are positively significant at 1%

probability level, farming experience and total tubers of yam produced are positively significant

at 5% level. This implies that further increase profitability of the yam farmers. Level of

education had been shown to be t = 2.791. This shows that the higher the level of education of

respondents, the higher their profitability. This is probably due to the fact that more educated

farmers will naturally be more efficient in production and hence more profitability. Hild (1997)

had assorted that education is related not only to the ability to obtain and process modern

farming information, but also to the use of sophisticated techniques by farmers that would make

production more efficient and at reduced cost. Household size exerted positive influence on

profitability probably because the higher the number of members in a farmer’s household, the

higher the member of helping hands available to the farmer for yam production and the lower the

amount to be spent on hired labour which will invariably reduce production cost and increase

profitability.

Years of farming experience was found to be positively significant and this is in

agreement with the finding of Iwala (2005) that farming experience is related to the ability of

farmers to obtain, process and use information relevant to agricultural production overtime

which will make them more efficient and it reduced cost with the attendant higher net profit.

Also, the positive coefficient of total tubers of yam producer indicates that as the number of

tubers of yams produced by the respondents increased the total revenue accruable to them also

increased proportionately. The coefficient of sex is negative and not significant. This reveals that

sex has no influence on the profitability of respondents profitability. This may be due to the fact

that majority of the respondents (82%) were male while only 18% were female. The positive

40
coefficient of source of capital used in yam production suggests that as the initial working capital

increased, the total revenue accruable also increased.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of Findings

41
 The study empirically analyzed the productivity and profitability of yam farming in Owo

LGA of Ondo State, Nigeria. A total of 100 yam farmers were selected for the study through

multi-stage sampling technique. Farmers were interviewed using well-structured questionnaire to

identify their demographic characteristics. Budgetary analysis revealed that yam farming is

profitable with gross margin of #1,903,464.60, net farm income of #1,072,034.04 and return on

investment of 0.56. The outcome of multiple regression on the influence of socio-economic

variables of yam farmers on their profitability had coefficient of variability (R 2) value of 75.5%

and all explanatory variables except sex were significant. The study found that the majority of

yam farmers in Owo Local Government Area are male, representing 82% of the respondents,

with most of them falling within the economically active age group of 31-60 years. This

indicates that yam farming is dominated by middle-aged individuals who are still physically

capable of handling the labor-intensive nature of farming. Education levels among yam farmers

vary, with 49% having completed secondary school. This suggests a reasonable literacy level,

which could influence their ability to adopt modern farming techniques and manage farm

enterprises effectively.

Yam farming in Owo Local Government Area is characterized by moderate productivity

levels, with 40% of farmers harvesting between 500-1000 tubers per acre, while 30% achieve

yields above 1000 tubers. However, profitability remains low for many farmers, as 56% of them

spend between #100,000 and #200,000 per acre annually on farm expenses, while only 35% earn

net profits between #100,000 and #200,000 per annum. Farmers experience difficulties in

accessing financial support, with only 23% having access to credit, which limits their ability to

invest in improved farm inputs and technologies.

42
 Farmers also face challenges related to high labor costs, poor storage facilities, and

limited market access, which negatively impact profitability. About 77% of the farmers reported

receiving no extension services, further restricting their ability to improve farming methods.

Climate change is another challenge affecting yam production, as erratic rainfall patterns reduce

yields and increase uncertainty in farming activities. Despite these obstacles, farmers recognize

the potential of modern farming practices, improved seed varieties, irrigation, cooperative

marketing, and better storage facilities in enhancing productivity and profitability.

5.2 Conclusion

The study concludes that yam productions in the study are in very profitable as farmers

earned 56 kobo on every one naira invested in the farming enterprise. Most of the socio-

economic factors play a crucial role in determining the productivity and profitability of yam

farmers in the study area. Financial constraints, inadequate technical support, and poor

infrastructure hinder farmers from maximizing their potential. The low level of credit

accessibility means that many farmers operate on a subsistence level, unable to expand or

improve their farming operations. Limited extension services further aggravate the problem, as

farmers lack exposure to modern agricultural techniques that could enhance their yields.

Additionally, labor costs remain high due to the traditional manual farming methods employed

by most farmers. The absence of mechanization places a heavy burden on farmers, increasing the

cost of production and reducing profitability. Post-harvest losses are also a major concern, with

inadequate storage facilities leading to significant wastage of harvested yams. Market

accessibility is another key issue, as poor transportation infrastructure and price fluctuations

reduce farmers' earnings. Climate change further complicates these challenges, affecting yield

stability and increasing production risks.

43
5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings in this study, the followings are therefore recommended;

i. To enhance the productivity and profitability of yam farming in Owo Local Government

Area, the government and financial institutions should implement policies aimed at

improving farmers' access to credit. Providing low-interest loans and grants will enable

farmers to invest in better farming inputs, mechanization, and infrastructure.

Strengthening cooperative societies and microfinance institutions will also help

smallholder farmers obtain financial support without the stringent requirements of

traditional banks.

ii. Extension services should be strengthened by increasing the number of agricultural

extension officers and ensuring that they provide regular visits to farmers. Training

programs on improved farming techniques, pest and disease management, and efficient

storage methods should be implemented to enhance farmers' knowledge and productivity.

The use of mechanized farming techniques should be encouraged to reduce labor costs

and improve efficiency. Subsidizing farm machinery and providing incentives for

adopting mechanization will attract more farmers to modernize their practices.

iii. Market accessibility should be improved by establishing structured yam markets,

reducing transportation costs, and enhancing price stability through cooperative

marketing. Forming farmers' cooperatives will help negotiate better prices, access bulk

sales opportunities, and reduce the impact of middlemen on profit margins. Investments

in rural road networks and transportation infrastructure will facilitate easier movement of

farm produce to urban markets.

44
 iv. Post-harvest storage facilities should be developed to minimize wastage and ensure that

yams are available in the market year-round. Establishing community-based storage

centers and promoting value-added processing, such as yam flour production, will

improve profitability and extend the shelf-life of yam products. Additionally, climate

adaptation strategies should be adopted, including irrigation systems, drought-resistant

yam varieties, and improved soil management practices to mitigate the effects of climate

variability on yam production.

v. By implementing these recommendations, yam farming in Owo Local Government Area

can transition from subsistence-level production to a more commercialized and profitable

agricultural enterprise. The adoption of modern agricultural practices, improved financial

support, and enhanced market structures will contribute significantly to increasing yam

farmers' productivity, ensuring food security, and boosting the local economy.

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51
 RUFUS GIWA POLYTECHNIC, OWO

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND MANAGEMENT

QUESTIONNAIRE ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING
PRODUCTION AND PROFITABILITY OF YAM FARMING IN OWO LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA OF ONDO STATE

52
 QUESTIONNAIRE

Please tick where appropriate

SECTION A
1. Name of respondent’s town/village _________________________________________
2. Gender (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
3. Age (a) below 30 [ ] (b) 31 – 45 [ ] (c) 46 – 60 [ ] (d) Above 60 [ ]
4. Educational Background (a) Primary school [ ] (b) Secondary school [ ]
(c) Tertiary Institution [ ] (d) Others [ ]
5. Yam farming expensive (a) above 20 years (b) 15-20 years (c) 10-15 years (d) less than 10
years
6. Marital status (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Divorced [ ]
7. Annual farm income (a) Below #300,000 [ ] (b) #300,000 - #600,000 [ ]
(c) #600,000 - #1,000,000 [ ] (d) Above #1,000,000
8. House hold size (a) Less than 5 [ ] (b) 5 – 8 [ ] (c) above 9 [ ]
9. Do not have access to credit facilities? Yes ( ) No ( )
10. What is the source of your starting-up capital? Personal saving ( ) Family saving ( ) Thift
and cooperative societies ( ) commercial bank ( )
11. Do you belong to any yam farmers association? Yes ( ) No ( )
12. Were you ever visited by an extension agent? Yes ( ) No ( )
13. If Yes, how often? (a) Thrice a year (b) Twice a year (c) Once per year (d) None
14. What are your sources of labour? Family ( ) Hired ( ) Both ( )
15. How many tubers of yam do you produce per acre of yam farm per year?
16. How much do you spend in farming on acre of yam farm per year?
17. How much sales do you make from an acre of farm in a year?
18. What is the average price of a tuber of yam from your farm?
19. What varieties of yam do you plant
20. Your annual net profits per year is above #300,000 ( ) between #300,000 and #200,000 ( )
between #200,000 and #100,000 ( ) less than #100,000

53
 SECTION B

Problems/constraints of yam production

S/N Problems/constraints of yam production SD D A SA

1 Land scarcity is a major constraint to yam production in

the study area

2 Farmers in the study area experience difficulties in

accessing credit facilities

3 The lack of access to improved yam varieties is a

significant problem in the study area

4 Pests and diseases pose a major threat to yam production in

the study area

5 Inadequate extension services is a major constraint to yam

production in the study area

6 Yam farmers in the study area face challenges in accessing

markets

7 The high cost of labor is a significant problem in yam

production in the study area

8 Yam farmers in the study area experience difficulties in

accessing irrigation facilities

9 Lack of storage facilities is a major constraint to yam

production in the study area

10 Climate change and variability pose a significant threat to

yam production in the study area

54