Chapter 3:

Optoelectronic
Devices
ENGR. DONALD M. LAPIGUERA
Program Chair
BulSU Electronics Engineering Department
References

Boylestad, R. L., & Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory (11th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Incorporated.

Floyd, T. (2018). Electronic Devices Conventional Current Version Global Edition (10th ed.).
London, UK: Pearson Education Limited.

Frenzel, L., Jr. (2014). Contemporary Electronics Fundamentals, Devices, Circuits, and Systems.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
 References

Malvino, A., Bates, D., & Hoppe, P. (2021). Electronic Principles (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Mandal, S. (2014). Power Electronics. New Delhi, IN: McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.

Platt, C., & Jansson, F. (2015). Encyclopedia of Electronic Components (Vol. 2). Sebastopol, CA:
Maker Media, Incorporated.

Scherz, P., & Monk, S. (2016). Practical Electronics for Inventors (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.

Schuler, C. (2024). Electronics Principles and Applications (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Schultz, M. (2021). Grob’s Basic Electronics (13th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Theraja, B.L. (2005). Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume 4.

 Topics

• Light Emitting Diode

• Laser Diode
• Photodiode
• Optocoupler (opto-isolator)
• Phototransistor
• Photo-SCR or Light activated SCR (LASCR)
• Infrared (IR) Detectors
• Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 Topics

• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)

• Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
• Quantum Dot LEDs (QLEDs)
• Solar Cells (Photovoltaic Cells)
• Electro-Optic Modulators (EOMs)
• Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)
• Fiber-optic data link

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 ECE Board Exam Coverage

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 ECE Board Exam Coverage

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Optoelectronic
Devices
 Optoelectronics

It is the technology that

combines optics and
electronics, and the devices
based on this technology
are known as
optoelectronic devices.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 These devices are broadly classified as follows:

Devices that convert Devices that convert Devices that detect

optical radiation into electrical energy into optical signals through
electrical energy optical radiation electronic processes.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

These devices are broadly classified 1. Devices that convert optical
as follows: radiation into electrical energy such
as photovoltaic devices or solar cells.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

2. Devices that convert
electrical energy into optical
radiation such as light-emitting
diodes and the LASER diodes.

*LASER is an acronym for light

amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

• The devices that convert electrical energy into optical
radiation are known as emitters.

• Photodetectors are the semiconductor devices that can

be used to detect the presence of photons and convert
optical signals into electrical signals.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

3. Devices that detect
optical signals
through electronic
processes such as
photodetectors.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 The Visible Light Spectrum

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 According to the
Quantum theory, light
consists of discrete
packets of energy
called photons.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Quick Fact

Niels Bohr and Max Planck,

two of the founding
fathers of Quantum Niels Bohr
Theory, each received a
Nobel Prize in Physics for
their work on quanta.
Max Planck

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Quick Fact

A photon is emitted when an

electron jumps from one orbit to
another with lower energy.

Bohr's theory could explain why

atoms emitted light in fixed
wavelengths.

He received the Nobel Prize in Niels Bohr

Physics in 1922.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Quick fact
Einstein is considered the
third founder of Quantum
Theory because he described
light as quanta in his theory
of the Photoelectric Effect,
for which he won the 1921
Nobel Prize. Albert Einstein

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

In a forward bias p–n junction, electrons and holes both
cross the junction.

In this process, some electrons and holes recombine with

the results that electrons lose energy; the amount of
energy lost is equal to the energy band gap of
semiconductor EG.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 At room temperature, the value of EG is:

For Si ⇒ EG = 1.1 eV
Ge ⇒ EG = 0.72 eV
GaAs ⇒ EG = 1.43 eV
InAs ⇒ EG = 0.36 eV

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

PHOTO CONDUCTIVITY

If radiation falls upon a semiconductor, its conductivity

increases. This is called photoconductive effect.

Radiant energy supplied to the semiconductor causes

covalent bonds to be broken, and new electron–hole
pairs in excess of those generated thermally are created.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

These increased current
carriers decrease the
resistance of the material,
and hence, such a device is
called a photoresistor or
photoconductor.
The energy band diagram of
a semiconductor having both
acceptor and donor
impurities is shown in the
Photo excitation in a semiconductor
figure.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
If photons of sufficient energies are illuminated on this
specimen, then following transitions are possible:

1. An electron–hole pair can be created by a high-energy

photon—what is called intrinsic excitation. i.e., the
excitation takes place directly from valance band
to conduction band. This is known as intrinsic excitation.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

2. A photon may excite a donor electron into conduction
band or a valance electron may go into an acceptor state.
These transitions are known as impurity excitations.

The minimum energy of a photon required for intrinsic

excitation is the forbidden energy gap EG of the
semiconductor material.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Relative response of Si and Ge
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Example 1

The longest wavelength that can be absorbed by Si,

which has the band gap of 1.12 eV, is 1.1 μm. If the
longest wavelength that can be absorbed by another
material is 0.87 μ m, then the band gap of this material is
_______.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Solution:

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 PHOTO DIODE

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Structure of a photodiode

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Classic Alternate

Schematic symbol of a
photodiode

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

If a junction diode is reverse biased, then conduction
occurs due to the minority charge carriers only. The
reverse, saturation current is practically of constant
magnitude, which is irrespective of the applied reverse
bias.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

If the temperature of the junction increases, then
evidently the reverse saturation current also increases as
new electron–hole pairs are created due to incident
thermal energy; the same effect is caused with incident
light also.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

V-I Characteristics

Photodiode operates in the reverse bias mode, there is an

arrangement by which light is allowed to fall on the
particular surface across the junction through a window,
the diode is kept enclosed within a plastic container.
Except for the surface that receives the radiant energy,
the other sides are painted black.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

When light, which consists of photons, is incident on the
junction surface, additional electron–hole pairs are
created due to the fact that valance electrons acquire
energy from the photons.

This has the effect of increasing the reverse current.

It depends on the incident photon energy at the junction.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 V – I characteristic of a photodiode
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Typical values of the parameter of a photodiode:

Diode forward resistance Rf = 100 Ω

Reverse resistance Rr = 50 nΩ
CT = 10 pF

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Applications:

Optoelectronic applications. They are used in light-

operated switches, light detection systems, for reading
of soundtrack on films, and for counting objects in a
production line.
They are used in high-speed reading of computer
punched cards and tapes.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 AVALANCHE
PHOTO DIODE

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Avalanche photodiode is also a photodetector.

A photodiode will produce less amount of current, which

is not sufficient to drive some circuits.

An avalanche photodiode (APD) gives more output

current when compared to a photodiode. The ‘impact
ionization’ takes place in APDs.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Structure of an APD
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 PIN
PHOTODECTECTOR

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

A PIN diode is composed of three sections.

A high resistivity intrinsic layer is sandwiched between P-

and N-regions.
The high resistance of the intrinsic layer provides the
possibility of larger electric field between the P- and N-
regions, and therefore, electron–hole pair generation is
enhanced by enabling PIN diode to process even very
weak input signals.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 Structure of an PIN diode

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

PIN diode in the forward bias mode offers a variable
resistance—decreasing with the increase in forward
current.

For a larger DC current, it will appear like a short.

In reverse bias mode, it offers infinite resistance.

The main drawback of photodiode is the low output

current.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 The equivalent circuit of a PIN diode at DC or low frequency
operation is similar to a conventional P-N junction

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 High-frequency model

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 LIGHT
EMITTING
DIODE

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

The operation of light-emitting diodes (LED) is based on
the phenomenon of electro-luminance, which is the
emission of light from a semiconductor under the
influence of an electric field.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

• In Si and Ge diodes (indirect band gap S.C), most of
the electrons give up their energy in the form of heat.

• In GaAsP, GaAs, GaP, and InP semiconductors, the

electrons give up their energy by emitting photons
(direct band gap S.C).

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

• LEDs operate the forward biasing with a current of
20 mA.

These emit no light when reverse biased.

In fact, operating LEDs in the reverse direction will quickly

destroy them.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 LED Color, Construction, and
Typical Forward Voltage
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 Diode Operating bias
Photodiode, APD Reverse bias
LED, LASER, and
Forward bias
solar cells
Biasing of various
optoelectronic devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photodiode

It is a semiconductor
device with a P-N
junction that converts
photons (or light) into
electrical current.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photodiode

Application: Used in light

detectors, solar cells,
optical communication
systems, and barcode
scanners.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Phototransistor

It is a semiconductor device that

is able to sense light levels and
alter the current flowing
between emitter and collector
according to the level of light it
receives.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Phototransistor

Application: Amplifying and

switching light signals in various
electronic circuits, including
optical encoders and light-
sensitive switches.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells):

A photovoltaic cell is an electronic

device that converts the energy in
the solar radiation that reaches the
earth in the form of light (photons)
into electrical energy (electrons)
thanks to the photoelectric effect.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells):

Application: Convert sunlight

into electrical energy for use in
solar panels to generate
electricity.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photomultiplier Tube (PMT):

A photomultiplier tube, useful for light

detection of very weak signals, is a
photoemissive device in which the
absorption of a photon results in the
emission of an electron. These
detectors work by amplifying the
electrons generated by a photocathode
exposed to a photon flux.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photomultiplier Tube (PMT):

Application: Detection of low-

intensity light in applications
such as medical imaging,
fluorescence detection, and
particle physics experiments.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photoresistor (LDR - Light Dependent
Resistor):

The photoresistor is a special resistor

made of semiconductor materials such
as sulfurized or selenized spacers, and
its working principle is based on the
internal photoelectric effect. The
stronger the light, the lower the
resistance value.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Photoresistor (LDR - Light Dependent
Resistor):

As the light intensity increases, the

resistance value decreases rapidly, and
the bright resistance value can be as
small as 1KΩ or less. When there is no
light, the photoresistor is in a high
resistance state, and the dark resistance
is generally up to 1.5MΩ.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Photoresistor (LDR - Light
Dependent Resistor):

Application: Automatic lighting

control, camera exposure
control, and in light-sensitive
alarms.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC):

A PIC is a chip that contains photonic

components, which are components
that work with light (photons). photons
pass through optical components such
as waveguides (equivalent to a resistor
or electrical wire), lasers (equivalent to
transistors), polarizers, and phase
shifters.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Integrated Circuit
(PIC):

Application: Used in optical

communication systems for
high-speed data transmission
and signal processing.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

CCD (Charge-Coupled Device)

Is a silicon-based integrated circuit consisting

of a dense matrix of photodiodes that operate
by converting light energy in the form of
photons into an electronic charge.
Electrons generated by the interaction of
photons with silicon atoms are stored in a
potential well and can subsequently be
transferred across the chip through registers
and output to an amplifier.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

CCD (Charge-Coupled Device):

Application: Image sensors in

digital cameras, camcorders,
and various imaging devices.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) Image Sensor:

It is made up of an array of pixels, which

measure the intensity of light in the scene
and convert it into electrical signals.
These electrical signals are then
processed by the camera's analog-to-
digital converter to produce a digital
image.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) Image
Sensor:

Application: Used in digital

cameras, smartphones, and
other devices for capturing
images and videos.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Photonic Crystal:

A photonic crystal is a structure in which the

refractive index changes periodically, making
it possible to confine light in a small area
and improve interaction between light and
material.
Using nanofabrication technology,
semiconductors can be microfabricated to
create light-manipulating structures from
these crystals.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Crystal:

Application: Optical
communication, sensors, and
light manipulation in devices like
lasers and LEDs.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

An APD is a very responsive

semiconductor detector that uses the
photoelectric effect to change light into
electricity.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

Silicon APDs cover the spectral range of

400 nm to 1100 nm and the InGaAs APDs
cover 950 nm to 1550 nm.
It provides higher sensitivity than a
standard photodiode and is for extreme
low-level light (LLL) detection and photon
counting.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Avalanche Photodiode (APD):

Application: High-speed
communication systems, fiber
optic communication, and low-
light-level detection.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a

semiconductor device that
emits light when an electric
current flows through it.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

Application: Lighting, displays

(LED screens), indicator lights,
and optical communication.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Laser Diode

It is a semiconductor that uses a p-n

junction for producing coherent
radiation with the same frequency and
phase which is either in the visible or
infrared spectrum.
It is also called an injection laser diode
and the technology is similar to that
found in LEDs.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Laser Diode

Application: Used in laser

pointers, optical storage devices
(CD, DVD, Blu-ray),
telecommunications, and
medical devices.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Optocoupler (Opto-isolator):

It is a semiconductor device that allows

an electrical signal to be transmitted
between two isolated circuits.
Two parts are used in an optocoupler:
an LED that emits infrared light and a
photosensitive device that detects light
from the LED.
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Optocoupler (Opto-isolator):

Application: Provides electrical

isolation between input and
output circuits, commonly used
in interfacing microcontrollers
with high-voltage systems.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Switch:

This optical switch controls the

direction of light passing
through optical fibers faster and
more efficiently.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Switch:

Application: Optical
communication networks for
routing and switching optical
signals.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Crystal Fiber:

Photonic crystal fibers have

wavelength-scale morphological
microstructure running down their
length. This structure enables light to
be controlled within the fiber in ways
not previously possible or even
imaginable.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Crystal Fiber:

Application: Fiber optics for

high-speed data transmission,
sensing applications, and
nonlinear optical devices.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Phototube

Also known as a photoelectric tube, is a

light-sensitive electronic device. It is
designed to emit an electric current
when exposed to light or another form of
electromagnetic radiation. The
phototube has earned the moniker
"electric eye," because of its use in a
wide range of light-sensing applications.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Phototube:

Application: Used in photometry

and spectroscopy for detecting
and measuring light.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Transistor

Application: Optical signal

processing and computing in
emerging photonic
technologies.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Photonic Transistor:

Application: Optical signal

processing and computing in
emerging photonic
technologies.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

 Optical Fiber

Fiber optics, or optical fiber,

refers to the technology that
transmits information as light
pulses along a glass or plastic
fiber.

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 Types of Optical Fiber
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
 Sample questions:

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Example:

A PIN diode is frequently used as a _______.

(A) Peak clipper (B) voltage regulator

(C) harmonic generator (D) fast-switching diode

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Answer:

A PIN diode is frequently used as a _______.

(D) fast-switching diode

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Example:

Match List-I with List-II.

List-I List-II
LED Coherent radiation
LASER Spontaneous emission
APD Current controlled attenuator
PIN diode Current gain

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Answer:

List-I List-II
LED Spontaneous emission
LASER Coherent radiation
APD Current controlled attenuator
PIN diode Current gain

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Example:

Match List-I with List-II.

List-I List-II
JFET Population inversion
MOS capacitor Pinch-off voltage
LASER diode Early effect
BJT Flat-band voltage

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Answer:

Match List-I with List-II.

List-I List-II
JFET Pinch-off voltage
MOS capacitor Flat-band voltage
LASER diode Population inversion
BJT Early effect

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices

Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
Chapter 3: Optoelectronic Devices
“True humility and fear of the LORD
lead to riches, honor, and long life.”
- Proverbs 22:4 NLT