O P EN A C C ESS

African Journal of
Food Science

July 2021
ISSN 1996-0794
DOI: 10.5897/AJFS
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Editors

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Ohio State University and State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology,
Ohio State Agricultural and Development Jiangnan University,
Center (OARDC) China.
Department of Animal Sciences
USA.
Dr. Dominic Agyei
Department of Food Science/Te Tari Pütaiao Kai
Prof. Kofi E. Aidoo University of Otago,
Department of Biological and Biomedical Dunedin,
Sciences New Zealand.
Glasgow Caledonian University
Glasgow
Scotland. Dr. Fook Yee Chye
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
Dr. Barakat S.M. Mahmoud Malaysia.
Food Safety/Microbiology
Experimental Seafood Processing Laboratory
Costal Research and Extension Centre Dr. Adel Shatta
Mississippi State University Department of Food Technology,
USA. Faculty of Agriculture,
Egypt.

Dr. Neela Badrie

Department of Food Production, Dr. Tendekayi Henry Gadaga
Faculty of Science and Agriculture, Departmentof Environmental Health Science
University of the West Indies, University of Swaziland
Trinidad and Tobago. Swaziland.
Editorial Board Members

Dr. K. Pandima Devi

Department of Biotechnology
Alagappa University
Tamil Nadu
India.

Dr. Ashish Kumar Singh

Dairy Technology Division
National Dairy Research Institute,
Haryana,
India.

Prof. Rui Cruz

Department of Food Engineering
Institute of Engineering
University of Algarve, Faro
Portugal.

Dr. Nicole Roberta Giuggioli,

Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food
Sciences (DISAFA)
University of Turin,
Italy.
 Table of Content

Profiling of processors for baked and fried wheat based products

in Nairobi Kenya 281
George Ooko Abong, Mukani Moyo, Elmah Odhiambo Geoffrey
and Tawanda Muzhingi

Studies on some physico-chemical and engineering properties

of Musa spp (ABB) starch flour 289
W. A. Adebayo, B. S. Ogunsina, K. A. Taiwo1 and P. O. Chidoziri

Effects of freezing as a post-harvest storage technique on quality

of Friesian crossbred cattle milk 298
Lilian Mutheu Musembei, Rawlynce Cheruiyot Bett,
Charles Karuku Gachuiri, Benjamin Kyalo Mbondo and Felix Matura Kibegwa
 Vol. 15(7) pp. 281-288, July 2021
DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2021.2112
Article Number: C103A9B67209
ISSN: 1996-0794
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article African Journal of Food Science
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJFS

Full Length Research Paper

Profiling of processors for baked and fried wheat based

products in Nairobi Kenya
George Ooko Abong1*, Mukani Moyo2, Elmah Odhiambo Geoffrey1 and Tawanda Muzhingi2
1
Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053-00625, Kangemi,
Kenya.
2
Food and Nutritional Evaluation Laboratory, International Potato Centre, P. O. Box 25171-00603, Nairobi, Kenya.
Received 23 April, 2021; Accepted 9 June, 2021

This study aimed at profiling bakers and fryers of wheat products in Nairobi to inform decisions leading
towards incorporation of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) puree in these products. An exhaustive
sampling was carried out and 748 processors were interviewed in Nairobi County. The results indicate
that even though there were more female processors than men, this difference was not significant
(p>0.05). Majority of processors and consumers were youths and there was low adoption of OFSP as an
ingredient (4%). However, about 78% of the processors were willing to adopt OFSP puree as an
ingredient. Moreover, the youths dominated the micro-enterprises presumably because they have a lot
of energy as well as huge potential for innovation. Major customers were street passerby as majority
operated roadside kiosks or hotels while location had significant (p<0.05) influence on willingness to
adopt OFSP, production trends, main customers as well as markets for the products. The survey
recommends capacity building among the Micro-Small-Medium-Enterprises (MSMEs) in order to be able
to adopt nutritious ingredients such as Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) puree as a way of
improving food and nutrition security for the masses that rely on fried and baked products.

Key words: Bakers, fryers, orange fleshed sweet potato, micro-small-medium-enterprises, wheat products.

INTRODUCTION

Fried and baked products play a key role in food and include bread, doughnuts (KDF), chapattis, cakes, bans
nutrition security of many populations given that a and rolls all of which differ in their frequency and
number of people rely on these products in their daily occasions they are required. Bread baking, for instance,
meals beginning from breakfast to lunch and supper is an old process that dates back to over 12,000 years
(Williams, 2014). The enticing flavour and convenience ago being a deliberate experimentation with water and
make fried and baked products preferred by many grain flour (Arranz-Otaegui et al., 2018). Bread is a widely
consumers and hence their popularity (Nwosu et al., consumed breakfast cereal globally with diverse recipes
2014). Among the most popular baked and fried products (Williams, 2014) with production being spread all over the

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
282 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Figure 1. Study area, Nairobi County.

Source: https://softkenya.com.

world with different countries having different kinds of sweetpotato (OFSP) puree need to be adopted. There is
domesticated bread production methods (Adiguzel et al., therefore need to understand the current processing
2019). Though initially crude, bread production has industry.
evolved over the ages in terms of ingredients used with There is a huge diversity processed and baked wheat
the latest developments in bread production leading to products in Nairobi that leads to huge variations in terms
the advancements in the bread industry that have of quality and safety of processed products that are
enabled the use of various composite flours including offered to consumers whose information is limited.
purees to produce bread for improvement in the sensory Understanding this sector and characteristics of the
acceptability and physico-chemical quality (Adeyeye and products currently offered in the larger Kenyan market,
Akingbala, 2015; Julianti et al., 2015; Muzhingi et al., Nairobi city, will provide a path on which OFSP puree
2018). products can get into the existing market. Consequently,
There are different types of bread but the two main this will also inform marketing strategies that will assure
categories are leaven and unleaven breads. Leavened uptake and incorporation of OFSP based products as a
breads make use of yeast as the main fermenting agent way of scaling up. The objective of this study was to
and hence have large volumes (Nwosu et al., 2014). On profile processors of baked and fried wheat products in
the other hand, unleaven breads are usually flat given Nairobi County in Kenya, with emphasis on assessing the
that no yeasts or fermentation agents are used. formal and informal bakeries or fryers based on their
Processing of baked and fried products are carried out by location, size and nature of operation, range of products
diverse groups of processors ranging from small scale and their market base.
kitchen and street processors to medium and large scale
processors of bread and cakes. There is no doubt that MATERIALS AND METHODS
regulation of this sector is quite challenging, from quality
and public health perspective. Products arising from the Study area
diversity of processors also vary in their quality and This study was carried out in Nairobi County, Kenya. The county
safety depending on the location and market base (Ijah et hosts the capital city of Kenya and has nine sub-counties:
al., 2014; Nwosu et al., 2014). Makadara, Embakasi, Starehe, Langata, Kasarani, Westlands,
Most of the industrial production of fried and baked Kamukunji, Dagorreti and Njiru (Figure 1). The county’s population
products such as bread, doughnuts, cakes among others is estimated to be over 4.4 million according to the latest census
(Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2019). Most of the population
in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Kenya included, relies on
are low-income earners hence dwell in slums. The county has many
wheat as the raw material. To change this scenario, markets offering food stuffs with most of these food markets being
alternative locally available, highly nutritius and more open air markets. For the purpose of this study, all sub-counties
affordable raw materials such as orange fleshed were sampled.
 Abong et al. 283

Study design RESULTS

The study design was a cross-sectional study design employing
qualitative data collection methods through interviews and
Socio-demographic characteristics
observation.
Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of
the respondents.
Study population and sampling technique Most of the respondents involved in baking or frying
The study consisted of street processors of fried and baked
business were of female gender (56%) compared to
products as well as industries that are involved in processing baked males (44%); this difference was, however, insignificant
and fried products commercially traded in Nairobi Kenya. A total of (p>0.005) and hence the industry could as well be
748 respondents were exhaustively sampled from the survey. Since considered as an adventure for both genders. At least
the study was carried out during COVID-19 pandemic period, the 80% had completed secondary school or colleges and
number that was surveyed may not include those who may have university hence considered literate. It was therefore easy
temporarily stopped processing.
to converse with them during the interviews. Fifty-four
percent of the respondents were the owners of the
The survey instruments business while 46% were employees that could mean
that a lot of youths either own or employed in this sector
A semi-structured questionnaire was used for this study. The tool given, they were the majority respondents. The
was written in English and captured information on ownership, size
businesses could also be easy to start and may require
and years of operation, main ingredients, range of products and
market base as well as any other relevant information. The tool was smaller capital compared to other businesses. Promotion
pre-coded in Computer Aided Personal Interview (CAPI) which of these businesses should therefore target the youth.
facilitated the use of Open Data Kit (ODK) in data collection.

Nature of business
Data collection

The data collection was carried out in the year 2020 between the Table 2 summarizes the nature of bakery/fryer businesses
month of May and August. The questionnaire was administered to in Nairobi Kenya. Most (70%) of the respondents have
all processors, both small, medium and large-scale bakeries and been operating for the last 1 or more years hence were in
informal street processors. For formal registered companies, visits a position to answer to questions regarding their
to supermarkets/kiosks were made to map out all baked and fried operations. More than 50% have only been in the
products being sold, key ingredients and contacts of the same were
picked to trace processors for interview. Kenya Association of
business for two years which could translate to the sector
Manufacturers (KAM) data base was consulted to ensure all formal having progressive growth in terms of those getting into
bakeries are reached. Since informal processors are not easy to the sector and/or value chain.
trace from their products most of which have no labels, all streets in Majority (94%) of the businesses were micro
sub-counties were scanned by research assistants. Data was enterprises having between 1 and 10 employees and
collected using the ODK tool.
they processed either once or twice daily (80%), while
others processed more than twice a day (7.5%). There
Study ethics were differing opinions on business trends. Those who
indicated that the trend was increasingly attributed it to
Before answering any question, consent was sought from the mushrooming new outlets, high customer demand,
respondents. The respondents were taken through the purpose of product diversification and good products quality.
the study, asked to voluntarily participate in the study and assured
of confidentiality of their responses. They were then asked to give
On the other hand, others noted that there has been
consent before proceeding with the study. A considerable distance decreasing business trend attributed to COVID-19
was kept between the enumerators and the respondents as well as pandemic partial lock down given that most clients closed
having mask on during the interview process; this was in down especially those who relied on schools that were
compliance with the ministry of health protocols as the study was shut for long periods, changing consumer preferences,
carried during Covid-19 pandemic. shifting demand for homemade foods and alternatives
such as sweet potatoes and the safety concerns from
Data analysis consumers.

Data obtained was coded and entered into SPSS for Windows
software (IBM version 21) and analyzed. Descriptive statistics were Nature of products
used to summarize the data while associations were tested using
appropriate inference statistics. Chi-square test of significance was
used to test for any existing significant associations between the Chapatis are the main products (74.5%) processed by
various variables under study with a p-value less than 0.05 being the respondents followed by doughnuts (mandazis/KDF)
set as the level of significance. (Table 3). The key ingredients for the baked and fried
284 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of bakers/fryers in Nairobi Kenya.

Description Number of respondents (N) Respondents (%)

Gender
Male 344 46
Female 404 54
Education Level
College/University 231 30.9
Completed secondary 439 58.7
Completed primary 45 6
Dropped out from primary 3 0.4
Dropped out from secondary 12 1.6
In primary 2 0.3
In secondary 14 1.9
Never been to school 2 0.3
Age
Teens (12-17) 11 1.5
Youth (18-35) 613 82
Middle age (36-60) 105 14
Not answered 19 2.5

Table 2. Nature of bakery/fryer businesses in Nairobi Kenya.

Description Number of respondents Respondents (%)

Years in business
<1 year 226 30.2
1-2 years 200 26.7
> 2 years 322 43.1

Size
Micro enterprise (<10 employees) 703 94
Small enterprise (11-50 employees) 38 5.1
Medium enterprise (51-250 employees) 6 0.8
Large enterprise (>250 employees) 1 0.1

Frequency of operation
Once a day 285 38.1
Twice daily 401 53.6
Once a week 1 0.1
Twice a week 5 0.7
Others 56 7.5

Business trends
Increasing 233 29.8
Decreasing 306 40.9
Indifferent 219 29.3

products include wheat flour, fats/oil, sugar/sweetener, processors (12%) included carrots, lemon, pumpkin, milk,
baking powder and salt. Other ingredients used by a few coriander, sweet potato, ginger, eggs and margarine.
 Abong et al. 285

Table 3. Nature of products and main ingredients used by processors in Nairobi.

Description Number of respondents Percentage

Main products
Bread 42 5.6
Donuts 128 17.1
Cakes 137 18.3
Chapati 565 74.5
Others* 473 63.2
Main ingredients
Wheat flour 743 99.3
Fats/oil 742 99.2
Salt 737 98.5
Sugar/sweetener 576 77
Baking powder/yeast 476 63.6
Others 86 11.5
Type of flour
All-purpose wheat flour 665 88.9
Baking flour 269 36
Soft wheat flour 22 2.9
Others (self-raising wheat) 16 2.1
Unit of packaging
Less than 20 kg 646 86.4
30 kg 64 8.6
50 kg 20 2.7
70 kg 3 0.4
Others (more than 70 kg) 15 2
*Others= Mandazi, Bhajia, KDF, biscuits confectionary, ngumu, mahamri, pastries,
pizza, kebab, cookies.

Table 4. Names of premises incorporating of orange fleshed sweet potato in their production process.

Constituency of operation Number Name/contact

Dagorreti North 1 Kibanda
Dagorreti South 2 Wema Hotel
Langata 2 Tuskys Karen, The Mayura – Hub Karen
Kibra 1 Kwa Davie
Roysambu 4 Café 316 Fast Foods; Kini's Kitchen; Vale's Cakes; Victoria Eats
Kasarani 2 Farm fresh milk and Bakery; Mashan Café
Ruaraka 7 Cake Shop, Hotels and 5 Vibandas
Kamukunji 2 Mawan Hotel; Shawarma Hotel
Starehe 1 Tuskys Pioneer – Moi Avenue;
Total 21
*These come from the 17 constituencies in Nairobi that were surveyed.

Majority of the processors use all-purpose wheat flour and they depend on customers most of whom require
while a few uses self-raising wheat flour (2.1%). Majority convenient sizes.
package their products in quantities less than 20 kg, Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) has only been
justifiably because most of them are micro-enterprises used by 4% of the respondents (Table 4). However,
286 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Figure 2. Market distribution of baked and processed wheat products based on age and outlets.

majority (78%) were willing to incorporate if it would Associations between socio-demographics and other
improve health and volume of products. Sixty percent of parameters
processors were willing to participate in technology
demonstration for incorporating OFSP into their products. Table 5 shows the associations between socio-
demographic characteristics and other practices.

Marketing and customer base

DISCUSSION
Majority had youths as their main customers (84%) as
shown in Figure 2. However, some of the respondents The age of the respondents was significantly associated
indicated that it was difficult to categorize who the main (p<0.05) with adoption of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato
customers were. Street passersby are the main markets (OFSP) in the production, size of operation, frequency of
for most of the respondents justifiably because many production and main customers. Similar studies have
processors are micro and street based as subsequently reported that the elderly are less likely to venture into
shown. new technologies and/or innovations, as their energy is
limited (Berkowsky et al., 2017). On the other hand,
gender only influenced frequency of production, with
Food safety and training majority being youth and risk takers especially the female
gender (Canevari-Luzardo, 2019). The dominance of any
Almost half of the respondents have not undergone any business is determined by a number of factors, food
form of training on food safety and hygiene (55%). business especially in the African context would be
However, to ensure that hygiene and safety is kept at the determined by the social culture where most of the
operation area, the respondents have different copying cooking is usually left to the female gender (Gurung et
mechanisms that include: cleaning their work place on a al., 2016). This could explain the slightly higher numbers
daily basis, try to comply with safety and health of females in this industry.
guidelines, using proper packaging materials, using Education level was significantly associated (p<0.05)
proper packaging materials and sanitizing as part of the with products produced, role played in business, main
Ministry of Health (MoH) guidelines, equipping employees customers, main market, and size of operation. The level
with safety gears. Some premises needed an overhaul of of literacy was quite high and agrees with the report by
the set up to be a food processing business. the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics that puts literacy
 Abong et al. 287

Table 5. Associations (p values) between socio-demographic characteristics and other practices.

Gender Education level Location Production

Parameter Age Products
(df=1) (df=8) (df=14) trends
Adoption of OFSP 0.986 0 0.405 0.001 - -
Willingness to adopt OFSP 0.955 0.289 0.005 0 - -
Size of operation 0.201 0.001 0.001 0.125 0 0.209
Production trends 0.024 0.12 0.015 0 0.023
Scale/Frequency of production 0.001 0 0.025 0 0 0.296
Unit of package 0.083 0.916 0.046 0.008 0 -
Type of floor used 0.035 1 0.982 0 0 -
Main market 0.134 0.359 0 0 0 -
Main customers 0.102 0 0 0 0.013 0
Role in business 0.013 0 0 0.003 - 0.181
Products 0.346 0 0 0 - -
Ingredients used in production 0.329 0.063 1 0 1 -
Association significant when the p-value is equal to or less than 0.005.

level at more than or equal to 82% (Kenya National customers’ preferences and customers will shy away
Bureau of Statistics, 2019). The level of literacy could from unhealthy environments. Additionally, location
also be linked to the age of the respondents. determines the type of raw materials used in production
Majority of the respondents who engage in processing as a result of social class and purchasing ability, hence
baked and fried wheat products being youths aged the smaller MSMEs will go for what they can afford as
between 18 and 35 years old at 82% followed by the opposed to what is currently trending as the best
middle aged at 14%. With more than half of the country’s (Caswell et al., 2013). Larger enterprises are attributed to
population being youths, majority of them are engaging in better packaging materials, frequency of operations and
agri-food entrepreneurship and value addition (LEO, better markets as opposed to smaller MSMEs whose
2016). Moreover, studies have indicated that with more customers are majorly locals consisting of street
knowledge acquired, individuals are able to make passersby (Connor et al., 2020; Mukanyandwi et al.,
informed decisions on which business to venture into, 2019).
technology to use and best markets hence improved
productivity and returns (Mustapha et al., 2020; Raja and
Nagasubramani, 2018). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
More than 50% have only been in the business for two
years which could translate to the sector having Majority of the bakers and fryers are micro-enterprises
progressive growth in terms of those getting into the with gender mainstreaming almost even, just depicting
sector and/or value chain and that it is the quickest way how this sector is fast growing as the youths take center
many can earn a living (Canevari-Luzardo, 2019). It is not stage in entrepreneurship, with frequency of production
clear what was the contribution of COVID-19 that led a being at least twice a day. OFSP adoption into the sector
number of restrictions (UNDP, 2020), despite many is very low, however, with majority willing to adopt it,
attributing low business to the global pandemic (UNDP, mainstreaming of this through robust sensitization
2020). through capacity building trainings is eminent hence
Location (constituency of operation) had significant recommended.
(p<0.05) relationship with incorporation of OFSP into the
production, willingness to integrate OFSP, production
trends, frequency of production, type of floor used, main CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
market, main customers, main ingredients, products and
role in business. There is need to increase puree use, The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
improve nutrition and volume, there is need to target
replacement or minimizing wheat flour (Gurung et al.,
2016). According to other studies (Mukanyandwi et al., ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2019), location determines production trends and
frequency of operation as it has direct impact on This work was supported by the RTB Scaling up fund
288 Afr. J. Food Sci.

project of CGIAR. Muzhingi T, Owade JO, Abong GO, Okoth MW, Heck S, Low J, Mbogo
D, Malavi D (2018). Sensory Attributes of composite breads from
shelf storable orange-fleshed sweetpotato puree. Open Agriculture
3(1):459-465.
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 Vol. 15(7) pp. 289-297, July 2021
DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2020.1921
Article Number: 961001867279
ISSN: 1996-0794
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article African Journal of Food Science
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJFS

Full Length Research Paper

Studies on some physico-chemical and engineering

properties of Musa spp (ABB) starch flour
W. A. Adebayo1*, B. S. Ogunsina2, K. A. Taiwo1 and P. O. Chidoziri1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
Received 18 February, 2020; Accepted 8 May, 2020

This study investigated some physiochemical and engineering properties of Musa spp (ABB) starch
flour using standard procedures with a view to providing data that will aid in process design, control
and bulk handling of Musa spp (ABB) starch flour. Loose and packed bulk densities, the least gelation
concentration, density ratio and porosity ranged between 0.47 to 0.70 g/mL, 0.60 to 0.95 g/mL, 8 to 16%
(w/v), 74.25 to 77.26%, and 22.73 to 25.74% respectively. Similarly, the Carr index had a range of 29.11 to
35.78% and Hausner ratio ranged from 1.29 to 1.36. The amylose-amylopectin ratio content obtained
range from 0.45 to 0.50. Also, the thermal properties of the samples measured using differential
scanning calorimeter ranged between 79.3 and 92.8°C, 106.4 and 121.2°C, 106.2 and 122.8°C, 56.75 and
2
278.6 J/g, 21.4 and 94.743.5°C, 10.95 and 20.28 J/(gK), 0.50 and 0.705 W/m°C, and 0.090 and 0.094 m /s
for onset temperature, peak temperature, end temperature, enthalpy, temperature range, specific heat
capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, respectively. This study therefore provides
engineering data in relation to process design, control and bulk handling with a view to extending the
usage of Musa spp (ABB) starch samples in food process industries.

Key words: Musa spp (ABB), Starch, physico-chemical and engineering properties, bulk handling.

INTRODUCTION

Musa spp (ABB) also known as bluggo (common name) are largely cultivated on small plots, garden and orchards
is a perennial crop that grows quickly and bears fruit all where statistics is poorly documented (Uma, 2006). In
year round in the tropics and sub-tropics of Asia, many tropical countries, the bulk of the fruits produced
America, Africa and Australia where favourable are consumed and traded locally, thereby playing a
conditions for its growth are met. Its harvest falls in the crucial role in food security (Daniells et al., 2001). In
dry season when most other starchy staple foods are in Nigeria, its cultivations are concentrated in the Southern
short supply. It is grown in about 130 countries with an part of the country with approximately 60% postharvest
annual output of 106 mt annually (FAO, 2005; Idoko and loss due to lack of appropriate technologies for handling,
Nwajiaku, 2013). In most regions of the world, the fruits storage and processing (FAO, 2005). It is widely

*Corresponding author. E-mail: Email: [email protected].

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
290 Afr. J. Food Sci.

consumed by millions of people in the tropics to serve as were debarked using a stainless steel kitchen knife and the pulp
a good source of carbohydrate and vitamins which diced while immersed in an aqueous solution of sodium
metabisulphite (1.25 g/L) to prevent enzymatic browning reaction
competes favourably with that of sweet potato, cassava (Gbadamosi and Oladeji, 2013). The pulp was drained and rinsed
and potato (Daramola and Osanyinlusi, 2006; Adeniji et with portable water. The pulp was then macerated at low speed
al., 2007; Adeniji and Tenkouano, 2008). It is also a good using a Stephan universal machine (Western Germany, Model No-
source of mineral especially iron, calcium and potassium P33/E) for 5 min. The homogenate slurry obtained was sieved
which meets daily diet recommendation (Aurand, 1987; using an electrical SWECO separator (Belgium, Model No- S18).
USDA, 2009; Yarkwan and Uvir, 2015); and also serves The filtrate was subsequently left to settle for 3 h in a stainless
decanting bowl, after which the supernatant was discarded. The
as a commercial source of starch for food, textiles, starch slurry was then oven dried using a hot air oven (Uniscope,
cosmetic, paper, pharmaceutical and beverages SM9053, England) at 50°C for 24 h. The starch flakes were milled
industries. using laboratory milling machine (sieve size 500 µm aperture) to get
The diverse industrial usage of starch is premised on native starch flour (Figure 1). The native starch yield was expressed
its availability at low cost, high caloric value, inherent in percentage dry weight of native starch per weight sample used.
The native starch obtained was divided into two portions: the first lot
excellent physicochemical properties and ease of its
was stored in a labelled Ziploc bag and kept in an air tight jar till the
modification to other derivatives (Omojola et al., 2010). time of usage while the second lot was modified according to the
There are a number of chemical modifications made to method documented by Atichokudomchai and Varavinit (2003).
starch to produce many different functional
characteristics. Starches are modified to change the
properties of unmodified starch, and chemical Starch modification using acid
modification on starches has markedly altered
The starch modification of the native starch sample was done using
physicochemical properties compared with their parent method documented by Atichokudomchai and Varavinit (2003).
starches (Rusli et al., 2004). Acid hydrolysis of the native starch was carried out by suspending
It has been shown that when native starch is modified, 200 g (dry basis) of native starch in 400 mL of 6% (w/v) HCl
it generally shows better paste clarity, better stability, solution at 27 ± 2°C for 1 h without stirring. After hydrolysis, the
increased resistance to retrogradation and increased suspension was neutralized with 10% (w/v) sodium hydroxide
solution to terminate the reaction. The slurry was washed three
freeze-thaw stability (Zheng et al., 1999). Starch citrate
times with distilled water, dried in a hot air oven at 45°C for 24 h
has also been reported as a resistant starch in food and then milled using laboratory milling machine (sieve size 500 µm
industry (Xie and Liu, 2004). aperture) to get acid modified starch flour. The acid modified starch
Recent advances in computer software and micro- was kept in a labelled Ziploc bags and kept in an air tight jar till the
electronics are now applied to bulk handling of time of usage. The yield of acid hydrolyzed starch was expressed
particulate, powdered and liquid foods using PLC based on dry basis as percentage dry weight of recovered starch per dry
weight of native starch.
logic controllers to avoid risk of contamination and other
benefits associated with the advances. Therefore,
information needed by the PLC based logic controllers Physico-chemical properties determination
are obtained from sensors which detect, measure and
interpret engineering properties related to bulk handling The physiochemical properties such as bulk density, amylose and
of foods. Therefore, studying of physico-chemical and amylopectin ratio, flow property and its least gelation concentration
engineering properties of Musa spp (ABB) starch flour will was carried out on both the native and modified starches using
standard procedure.
provide data to aid in process design, control and bulk
handling with a view to extending the usage of Musa spp
(ABB) starch flour in food process industries. Moisture content

The moisture content determination was carried out using AOAC

MATERIALS AND METHODS (2005). The sample (3 g) was placed in moisture cans of known
weight and dried in a hot air oven at 105 ± 1°C for 6 h, cooled in a
Sources desiccator and subsequently re-weighed. The moisture content was
determined using Equation 1 below:
Freshly harvested matured bunches of Musa spp (ABB) also known
as bluggoe banana (Plate 1) at stage one maturity using colour as
basis of classification (Ahenkora et al., 1997; Dadzie and Orchard,
1997) were obtained from Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching
and Research Farm, Ile-Ife. Commercial potato starch flour was Where: W1 = weight of the starch powder before drying (g); W2 =
purchased from Niji Foods Farms and all chemicals used were of weight of the starch powder after drying (g); M.C db = moisture
analytical grades. content on dry basis (%).

Samples preparation Packed bulk density

About 4 kg of freshly harvested debunched Musa spp, (ABB) fruits The bulk density was determined according to the method
were sorted and extraneous materials removed. The cleaned fruits documented by Okezi and Bello (1988). A 10-mL graduated
 Adebayo et al. 291

(10 ml) in distilled water (2-20%) was transferred into test-tube,

heated in a boiling water-bath for 1 h and cooled. The sample in
test-tube was further cooled for 2 h at 4°C and the least gelation
concentration (LGC) was taken as concentration when the sample
from the inverted test tube did not fall or slip.

Determination of density ratio and porosity

The density ratio (Dr) and porosity of the sample flours were
determined using Equations 3 and 4 (Mohsenin, 1986):

( )

( ( ))

Where:
= bulk ratio; = porosity (%); = packed bulk density of the
sample (g/mL); = tapped density of the sample (g/mL).

Flowability properties

Flowability as a function of compression and compaction of the

samples was determined from packed bulk and loose bulk densities
data. The Hausner ratio and Carr index of the flour samples were
determined using Equations 5 and 6, respectively. The values of
Hausner ratio and Carr index were used to classify the flour
samples compression, compaction and flowability as excellent,
good, fair, or poor (Paksoy and Aydin, 2004).

Figure 1. A schematic diagram showing extraction

of Musa spp (ABB) native and acid modified starch.
Source: Gbadamosi and Oladeji (2013).

Where:
HR = Hausner ratio; = Asymptotic constant density after certain
amount of taps; = Initial bulk density; C.I = Carr Index; =
cylinder was gently filled with a known weight of the sample and the Packed bulk density, g/mL and = Loose bulk density, g/mL.
bottom of the cylinder was gently tapped several times on a
laboratory work bench until there was no further diminution of the
sample level after filling to the 10-ml mark of the cylinder. Bulk Amylose and amylopectin contents
density then was calculated using Equation 2.
The amylose content was determined using method documented by
Thomas et al. (2013). Sample (100 mg) was measured into 100-mL
standard flask, 1.0 mL of ethanol (95%) and 9.0 mL of 1.0 M NaOH
Where: BD = bulk density (g/mL); m = weight of sample (g); v = was added, and the mixture was heated on a boiling water-bath for
volume occupied by sample (mL). 10 min to gelatinize the starch. The gelatinized starch solution (5.0
mL) was subsequently transferred to a 100-mL standard flask;
further, 1.0 mL of 1.0 M acetic acid and 2.0 mL of stock iodine
Loose bulk density solution were added to it and the volume was made up to the mark
with distilled water. The content was thoroughly vortex and allowed
The method documented by Yusuf (2004) was used for the to settle for 20 min. The resultant colour was allowed to develop
determination of the loose bulk density. A 10-mL graduated cylinder and the absorbance read at 620 nm using a UV-Spectrophotometer
was gently filled with the starch sample. This was not tapped. The (Model - 752S). The amylose content was then calculated from the
volume occupied was recorded. The loose bulk density was then standard curve of potato amylose, expressed in percentage. The
calculated using Equation 2. amylopectin content was obtained by subtracting the value of
amylose content determined from 100.

Gelation and least gelation concentration

Least gelation concentration was determined by the method Where: APC = Amylopectin content (%) and AC = Amylose content
documented by Coffman and Garcia (1977). The flour suspension (%).
292 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Thermal properties Statistical analysis

The thermal properties of the starch flour samples were measured The data obtained were analyzed descriptively and inferentially
using a KD2 Pro Thermal Properties Analyser (Decagon Devices using Turkey’s post test procedures of GraphPad Prism version
Inc., Pullman, WA), a portable field and laboratory equipment that 4.00 for Windows.
use the transient line heat source method. The 30-mm long, 1.28-
mm diameter, and 6-mm spacing dual needle SH-1 sensor
measures the onset temperature, peak temperature, end
temperature, gelatinization enthalpy, and specific heat capacity RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(heat capacity). An interval of 5 min was provided between each
reading. The yield of native and modified starch flour samples
Thermal diffusivities of the flour samples were thereafter were 45.3 and 93.43%, respectively. The values obtained
determined from the temperature - time data of the samples were higher than 40.9% reported by Tribess et al. (2009)
generated by the DSC using Equation 8 according to Leniger and
Beverloowere (Man et al., 2013) and then employed to determine
for native Musa spp (ABB) starch but lower than 58.5%
thermal diffusivity which was calculated using Equation 8 given by documented by Suntharalingam and Ravindran (1993).
Leniger and Beverloowere The difference in the yield values could be attributed to
difference in variety or specie and geographical location
as reported by Ravi and Mustaffa (2013).
[ ]
Ambigaipalan et al. (2011) reported that the yield of
starches from faba bean (32.94 - 36.34%), black bean
Where: Tmax = Maximum processing starch flour temperature (K); Ti (27.53 - 29.89%) and pinto bean (27.41 - 31.16%) varied.
= Initial starch flour temperature (K); T = Starch flour temperature at
any time (K); R = Radius of the crucible (m); L = Length of the
Akanbi et al. (2009) also reported 14.26% for bread fruit
starch flour in the crucible (m); t = time (s); and = thermal starch. The value obtained from Musa spp (ABB) was
diffusivity (m2/s). higher than legume starches reported by authors
Thermal conductivity was calculated mathematically using because legumes have less starch content compared to
Equation 9 cereals, tubers and starchy berries. This result indicates
that Musa spp (ABB) can serve as an alternative source
of starch in the food industry and other allied industries.
Where: α = thermal diffusivity (m2/s); k = thermal conductivity The physico-chemical properties such as moisture, bulk
(w/m°C); = specific heat capacity (J/(gK)) and = density (g/mL). density, gelation and least gelation concentration,
porosity, density ratio, and flow properties of native and
modified Musa spp (ABB) starch are presented in Table
Coefficient of friction of the starch flour 1.
The coefficient of friction of starch flour sample was determined The moisture content values were 2.07 and 1.35% (d.b)
using the method documented by Bahnasawy (2007). The for native and modified starches, respectively. The values
coefficient of friction was tested against plywood, stainless steel, obtained compared favorably with 2.85% of commercial
galvanized steel and glass surfaces. A bottomless cylinder of 5 cm potato starch with no significant difference (p ≤ 0.05).
diameter and 10 cm height was filled with the starch sample and Flour is considered shelf stable if its moisture content is
placed over the different surfaces which were in turn placed on an
inclined plain system. The surfaces were gently raised using a jack
below 11% (Gbadamosi et al., 2012). Hence, the shelf
and the angle at which the powder motion began as the plain stability of the starch flour investigated could be
inclined was read off with a calibrated protractor in degrees. The considered shelf stable for moisture related deterioration.
coefficient of friction was calculated using Equation 10. The bulk densities of native and modified Musa spp
starch flour were 0.65 and 0.63 g/mL (loose) and 0.84
and 0.85 g/mL (packed), respectively. The values
obtained compared favourably with 0.51 and 0.66 g/ml
Where: μ = coefficient of friction and = angle, in degrees.
(commercial potato starch) for loose and packed
densities, respectively. Acid hydrolysis of the Musa spp
Angle of repose starch resulted in increased packed bulk density. There is
no significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) between native and
The method documented by Garnayak et al. (2008) was used in
modified starch bulk density values but there is significant
determination of angle of repose. A bottomless cylinder of 5 cm
diameter and 10 cm height was placed over a plain surface and the difference when compared with the value of commercial
starch flour sample was placed in the cylinder. The cylinder was potato starch. The values obtained compared favourably
raised slowly allowing the sample to flow down and form a natural with 0.64, 0.68 and 0.68 g/mL for cassava starch,
slope. The angle of repose was calculated using Equation 11. cocoyam and breadfruit flours, respectively (Gbadamosi
and Oladeji, 2013).
( ) The bulk density either loose or packed, measures
quantity of material that can be packed within a pre-
Where: θ = angle of repose (°); h = height (cm) and D = diameter specified packing space (Gbadamosi and Oladeji, 2013).
(cm). It depends on the combined effect of interrelated factors
 Adebayo et al. 293

Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of Musa spp. starch.

Parameters Native starch Modified starch Potato starch

a a b
Loose bulk density (g/mL) 0.65±0.03 0.63±0.01 0.51±0.03
a a b
Packed bulk density (g/mL) 0.84±0.06 0.85±0.03 0.66±0.04
a a a
Carr index (%) 29.11±4.03 35.78±5.53 30.61±7.36
a a a
Hausner ratio 1.29±0.03 1.36±0.05 1.31±0.07
a a a
Density ratio (%) 77.26±2.36 74.25±2.75 76.53±4.21
a a a
Porosity (%) 22.73±2.36 25.74±2.75 23.47±4.21
b b a
Angle of repose (°) 31.6±3.31 31.91±1.99 39.78±1.74
a a a
Moisture content (%) 2.07±0.19 1.35±1.35 2.85±0.07
Compressibility Fair Very good Good
Flowability Free flowing Free flowing Free flowing
Values are mean ± standard deviation in triplicate. Mean values within each row bearing different superscript roman letter
are significantly different (p≤0.05).

Table 2. Pearson Correlation Matrix between properties of Musa spp. and potato starch flours.

Variables LBD PBD C. I H.. R D. R P A. R AMY APEC M. C LGC

LBD 1 0.9856 0.1922 0.2558 -0.1748 0.1736 -0.9968 0.9935 -0.9935 -0.8192 -0.6068
PBD 0.9956 1 0.3554 0.4156 -0.3388 0.3377 -0.9960 0.9984 -0.9984 -0.9044 -0.7325
C. I 0.1922 0.3554 1 0.9979 -0.9998 0.9998 -0.2702 0.3027 -0.3027 -0.7202 -0.8966
H. R 0.2558 0.4156 0.9979 1 -0.9966 0.9965 -0.3325 0.3642 -0.3642 -0.7640 -0.9236
D. R -0.1748 -0.3388 -0.9998 -0.9966 1 -1.0000 0.2532 -0.2858 0.2858 0.7079 0.8887
P 0.1736 0.3377 0.9998 0.9965 -1.0000 1 -0.2520 0.2847 -0.2847 -0.7070 -0.8881
A. R -0.9968 -0.9960 -0.2702 -0.3325 0.2532 -0.2520 1 -0.9994 0.9994 0.8625 0.6686
AMY 0.9935 0.9984 0.3027 0.3642 -0.2858 0.2847 -0.9994 1 -1.0000 -0.8792 -0.6934
APEC -0.9935 -0.9984 -0.3027 -0.3642 0.2858 -0.2847 0.9994 -1.0000 1 0.8792 0.6934
M. C -0.8192 -0.9044 -0.7202 -0.7640 0.7079 -0.7070 0.8625 -0.8792 0.8792 1 0.9530
LGC -0.6068 -0.7325 -0.8966 -0.9236 0.8887 -0.8881 0.6686 -0.6934 0.6934 0.9530 1

such as the intensity of attractive inter-particle forces, and Oladeji, 2013).

particle size and number of contact points (Gbadamosi Using the Pearson correlation matrix (Table 2), loose
and Oladeji, 2013). Bulk density plays essential role in bulk density correlates significantly (p≤0.05) to packed
dispersion rate of food powder, which is related to starch bulk density (0.9856), angle of repose (-0.9968), amylose
reconstitution. (0.9935), amylopectin (-0.9935) and moisture content
The angle of repose values were 31.6, 31.91 and (0.8.19) as shown in Table 2. Packed density on the
39.78° for the native, modified and commercial potato other hand, exhibit significant (p<0.01) correlation with
starch flour samples, respectively (Table 1). The angle of loose bulk density (0.9858), angle of repose (-0.9960),
repose is an indication of the flow rate of the starch amylose (0.9984), amylopectin (-0.9984), moisture
powder extracted. It correlates with the values for loose content (-0.9044) and least gelation concentration (-
bulk density, packed bulk density and the moisture 0.7325).
content as seen in Table 2. According to Carr (1965, The density ratio of native and modified starch samples
1970) and Raymus (1985), angle of repose below 30° were 0.77 and 0.74% respectively. These values
indicated good flowability, 30° - 45° some cohesiveness, compared favourably with that of commercial potato
45° - 55° true cohesiveness and above 55° sluggish or starch which had a density ratio of 0.76% (Table 1).
very high cohesiveness and very limited flowability. To Paksoy and Aydin (2004), reported similar values of
this end, the native and modified starches of Musa spp density ration at 0.73, 0.76, and 0.79% for breadfruit
(ABB) and that of potato starch exhibited some starch flour, Musa spp starch flour and wheat starch flour,
cohesiveness. Since there are about eight different respectively.
methods of measuring the angle of repose which give The porosity values of native and modified starch
somewhat different values, the published values of samples were 22.73 and 25.74% respectively with no
angles of repose are seldom comparable (Gbadamosi significant difference (p ≤ 0.5). The porosity values
294 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 3. Gelation and least gelation of Musa spp and potato starch flours.

Concentration Native starch Modified starch Potato starch

2 -- -+ --
4 -+ -+ -+
6 -+ -+ -+
8 -+ ++ -+
10 -+ ++ -+
12 -+ ++ -+
14 ++ ++ -+
16 ++ ++ -+
18 ++ ++ ++
20 ++ ++ ++
LGC 14% 8% 16%
-- No gelation, -+viscous, ++full gelation, LGC least gelation concentration.

Table 4. Starch characterization of Musa spp. starch flour.

Sample
Parameter (%)
Native starch Modified starch Potato starch
a a a
Amylose 31.27±0.17 33.26±0.04 29.77±0.11
a a a
Amylopectin 68.73±0.17 66.74±0.04 70.23±0.11
a a a
Amylose/amylopectin 0.45±0.01 0.50±0.01 0.42±0.01
Values reported are means ± standard deviation in triplicate. Mean values within each row bearing a different superscript
roman letter are significantly (p≤0.05) different

obtained compared favourably with 23.47% of hydrolysis did not improve the flowability of modified
commercial potato starch flour. The values obtained also starch but improved the compressibility. Similar trends
compared favourably with 24.1 and 23.8% for mug bean were reported by Olorunsola et al. (2011) for native and
and sorghum starch powders, respectively (Gupta and acid hydrolyzed sweet potato starch.
Das, 1997; Altuntas and Yildiz, 2007). Porosity measures The Carr index provides an indirect measure of
the percentage of voids of an unconsolidated mass of material fluidity, and the higher its value, the more
materials often needed in air and heat flow studies as cohesive the substance (Riley et al., 2008). Hausner ratio
well as other application. The Pearson correlation matrix correlated significantly with Carr index (0.998), porosity
showed significant correlation between porosity and Carr (0.997) and least gelation concentration (-0.9236).
index (-0.9998), Hausner ratio (-0.9966) and least The gelation and least gelation concentration of the
gelation concentration (-0.8881) (Table 2). native and modified starch samples were shown in Table
Carr index and Hausner ratio for the native and 3. The least gelation concentration of native and modified
modified starch flour samples were 29.11 and 1.29; 35.78 starch samples occurred at 14 and 8% (w/v), respectively
and 1.36, respectively (Table 1). The values compared whereas the acid modification of the starch resulted in the
favourably with 35.78 and 1.31 for commercial potato intermolecular repulsion to occur in the starch-gel
starch. The Carr index and Hausner ratio indicate the accounting for its lower gelation concentration. The least
flow properties of flour samples. Using Carr index gelation concentration result obtained for the modified
assessment, the native starch showed fair compactness starch is consistent with the report by Oladebeye et al.
and compressibility but poor flowability, while modified (2014), which suggest the rapid tendency of starch
starch sample indicated higher compressibility but poor granules to swell at an elevated temperature within a
flow properties and potato starch indicated a fair level of short time. The low gelation concentration of the modified
compressiveness but a poor flow property (Table 1). As starch enhances its application as a bulking agent in food
reported by Falade and Ayetigbo (2014), most formulations such as chocolate and confectioneries. It is
hydrocollides are known to have good compressibility but used as an index of gelation capacity.
very poor flow ability properties when it is based on their The result for the amylose and amylopectin content and
Carr index. When Hausner ratio and angle of repose are amylose- amylopectin ratio of the starches are presented
used as flow property index, it was seen that the starch in Table 4. The result indicates that the amylose content
samples were free flowing and compressible. Acid of the samples ranged between 29.77 - 33.26% which
 Adebayo et al. 295

Table 5. Thermal properties of Musa spp. starch flour using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Parameter Native starch Modified starch Potato starch

Onset Temperature, TO 92.8°C 79.3°C 72.7°C
Peak Temperature, TP 109.5°C 121.2°C 106.4°C
End Temperature, TE 114.2°C 122.8°C 106.2°C
Enthalpy, H 56.75 J/g 81.25 J/g 278.6 J/g
Temperature Range 21.4°C 43.5°C 35.5°C
Specific Heat Capacity, CP 14.24 J(gK) 20.28 J(gK) 10.95 J(gK)
Thermal conductivity, k 0.5 w/m°C 0.705 w/m°C 0.305 w/m°C
2 2 2
Thermal diffusivity, α 0.09 m /s 0.094 m /s 0.095 m /s
Density, ρ 0.84 g/mL 0.85 g/mL 0.66 g/mL

falls within the values (24.41 to 36.87%) reported for density, respectively. As shown in Table 5, the
different Musa cultivars (Mustaffa, 2013). The high gelatinization enthalpy (ΔH) for the potato starch is
amylose content of the modified starch indicates high greater than that of native starch and modified starch,
amylose-amylopectin ratio and hence, slowly digestible. with native starch having the least enthalpy value. Singh
The amylopectin content range from 66.74 to 70.23% et al. (2009), in their report, related gelatinization
(Table 4), with the potato starch having the highest enthalpy to degree of crystallization. Starch with high
amylopectin content. The amylose content values were gelatinization enthalpy possess higher degree of
within the reported range of 24.41 - 36.87% for various crystallization and hence, low swelling power. The
Musa spp cultivars (Mustaffa, 2013). variation in ΔH in starches as result of modification and
Amylose-amylopectin ratio for the native and modified starch type may be due to differences in quantity of
starch samples and commercial potato starch sample longer chain amylopectin (Singh et al., 2003). The high
were 0.45, 0.5 and 0.42%, respectively. The lower the gelation temperature range value of the modified starch
amylose-amylopectin content range, the lower the indicates the presence of crystallite of difference stability
glycemic index of the starch making it ideally consumable within the crystalline region of the starch granule (Hoover
by diabetic patients. It is also an indication that hydrolysis et al., 1997). Density of the samples which is a function of
of the starch is slow showing that the starch is a slowly mass and volume differed significantly between native
digestible resistant starch (Jenkins et al., 1981). Amylose and modified starch and potato starch. Native and
plays an important role in the starch internal structure and modified starches had significantly similar densities.
its digestibility is readily present in the amorphous region The static coefficient of friction of dried starch samples
during modification. This region can be easily assessed was determined against glass, wood, galvanized steel
than the amylopectin side chains, thus the amylose and stainless steel. The coefficient of static friction for
content is subject to change during modification (Man et native and modified Musa spp (ABB) starch samples
al., 2013). The structural difference between amylose and against glass, wood, galvanized steel and stainless steel
amylopectin is said to be the backbone of starch during were 0.46 and 0.40°; 0.41 and 0.48°; 0.36 and 0.45°; and
utilization. Starch with high amylose content tend to show 0.40 and 0.45° respectively (Table 5). This compares
a high degree of flakiness, however food materials favourably with commercial potato starch sample which
prepared with starch that has a low amylose content had 0.51, 0.66, 0.61, and 0.57° for glass, wood,
becomes hard sticky and hard to chew (Karmakar et al., galvanized steel and stainless steel respectively (Table
2014). The amylose content of starch is an important 6). The values obtained for coefficient of static friction are
characteristic that affects its functionality. similar to those documented by Carman (1996) for glass
The onset temperature, peak temperature, end (0.40 - 0.45°), wood (0.40 - 0.50°), and galvanised steel
temperature, gelatinization enthalpy, temperature range, (0.4 - 0.5°). No significant difference (p≤0.5) was
specific heat capacity and density of native and modified observed among the starch samples. Each sample was
starch flour samples were 92.8°C, 109.5°C, 114.2°C, statistically different from the other as shown in Table 5.
56.75 J/g, 21.4°C, 14.24 J/(gK) and 0.84 g/mL; The static co-efficient of friction data is helpful in
and79.3°C,121.2°C, 122.8°C, 81.25 J/g, 43.5°C, 20.28 designing storage facilities and other bulk handling
J/(gK), and 0.85 g/mL, respectively (Table 5). The values devices such as impelling unit and augers.
obtained compared favourably with commercial potato
starch values of 72.7°C, 106.4°C, 106.2°C, 278.6 J/g,
33.5°C, 10.95 J/(gK) and 0.66 g/mL for its onset Conclusion
temperature, peak temperature, end temperature, gelation
enthalpy, temperature range, specific heat capacity and This study investigated some engineering and
296 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 6. Coefficient of friction.

Sample Glass (°) Wood (°) G. Steel (°) S. Steel (°)

ab c b b
Native starch 0.46±0.03 0.41±0.05 0.36±0.03 0.40±0.06
b b b b
Modified starch 0.40±0.02 0.48±0.04 0.45±0.02 0.45±0.02
a a a a
Potato starch 0.51±0.07 0.66±0.03 0.61±0.09 0.57±0.03
G. steel – galvanized steel, S. Steel – stainless steel. Mean values within each row bearing different superscript letter
are significantly different (p<0.05).

physiochemical properties of Musa spp (ABB) starch flour Technology 12(5):473-480.

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 Vol. 15(7) pp. 298-303, July 2021
DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2021.2118
Article Number: 57383C067418
ISSN: 1996-0794
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article African Journal of Food Science
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJFS

Full Length Research Paper

Effects of freezing as a post-harvest storage technique

on quality of Friesian crossbred cattle milk
Lilian Mutheu Musembei*, Rawlynce Cheruiyot Bett, Charles Karuku Gachuiri,
Benjamin Kyalo Mbondo and Felix Matura Kibegwa
Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Received 12 May, 2021; Accepted 13 July 2021

Twenty-five raw milk samples from Friesian crossbred dairy cows were analyzed for milk fat, protein
and lactose using an ultrasonic milk analyzer. The samples were then subjected to two different
freezing protocols; single freezing and multiple freezing, after which parameters were reanalyzed after
freezing and thawing at different freezing times (24, 48, and 72 h). Paired t-test was used to compare the
effect of freezing type while the differences in milk constituents with freezing time were analyzed using
ANOVA. Linear regression analysis was also performed to study correlations between freezing duration
and any change in cattle milk's macronutrient content. The results indicated that milk fat, protein and
lactose content decreased significantly with freezing time. However, the decrease was more in multiple
frozen samples than single frozen samples. The most decreased macronutrients were lactose (14.1%) in
single freezing and fat (25.5%) in multiple freezing. Analysis of the interaction between freezing type
and freezing time showed that freezing time significantly affected all the parameters while freezing type
(p=0.03) and its interaction with freezing time (p=0.02) affected only the fat content. In conclusion, it
should be noted that cattle milk samples frozen at -20°C leads to a significant decrease in fat, protein,
and lactose content. The loss of constituents was much more pronounced when samples were frozen,
thawed, and refrozen (multiple freezing) than when samples were thawed only once (single freezing).

Key words: Single freezing, multiple freezing, macronutrients, dairy cattle.

INTRODUCTION

Milk and other animal-source foods are concentrated were affected by malnutrition by 2019, with 144 million
dietary sources of macro- and micronutrients such as stunted, 47 million wasted, and 38.2 million overweight
proteins, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin (UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Group, 2020). In Kenya,
B2, B12. Milk is an incredibly important form of animal- under-nutrition affects nearly one third of children (KNBS,
source food since it is intended for nurturing the young, a 2015). This under-nutrition increases disease risk,
population group at high risk for nutritional deficiencies. restricts cognitive development, and impedes human
Worldwide, nearly 229.2 million children below five years capital accumulation. Human milk has been and still is

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +254719543831.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
 Musembei et al. 299

the best source of nutrition that is uniquely suited not only S and longitudes 36° 42' E and 36° 3' E. Twenty-five Friesian
for term and preterm infants (Victora et al., 2016) but also crossbred dairy animals (350 ±50 kg body weight) were randomly
selected from the farm herd for use in this study.
for very low birth weight (VLBW) infants (Arslanoglu et
al., 2019), conferring both short- and long-term health
benefits. It is recommended that the delivery of this milk Milk sampling
to the infant be through breastfeeding. However,
sometimes breastfeeding may not be possible due to The samples were collected in morning milking (6 am) prior to
mother and infant contraindications (Szajewska et al., feeding. Milk samples were collected aseptically and placed in
labeled sterile 50 ml polypropylene centrifuge tubes. Samples were
2016). immediately placed in ice cooled container and transported to the
Usually, in such cases, in developed countries, human laboratory for analysis. Twenty-five 50 ml samples of fresh milk
milk bank for hospitalized babies has been considered as from each cow were analyzed for milk composition parameters on
the first choice. However, the emergence of immune the day of collection, 0 h, then divided into four portions of 10 ml
debilitating diseases like HIV/AIDS and the development aliquots. The samples were then allocated either into single
freezing or multiple freezing protocol (freezing type). For single
of infant formulas have highly affected the human milk
freezing, milk composition was determined on three aliquots of
bank’s popularity (Leaf and Winterson, 2009). Conversely, each sample in the following order: (i) after 24 h (aliquot 1), (ii) after
in developing countries, where milk banks and infant 48 h (aliquot 2), and (iii) after 72 h (aliquot 3). All aliquots were
formulas are not easily accessible, one way to foster discarded after taking measurements at each time point.
infants’ nutritional status is by increasing their Determination of milk composition for the multiple freezing was
consumption of livestock-derived foods (LDF), especially done on the fourth aliquot for each sample, after 24, 48 and 72 h.
Following each of the measurements, in the latter experiment, the
milk. Milk produced by domestic animals is not only samples were refrozen and then thawed for the next measurements
consumed by infants but also by other age groups. before being discarded after analysis at 72 h. All samples were
In Kenya, dairy cattle produce more than 56% of the frozen at -20 ± 1°C (Kamelska et al., 2012; Pietrzak-Fiećko and
country's overall milk production (Odero-Waitituh, 2017). Kamelska-Sadowska, 2020) in a DW-40W380 Haier Deep Freezer
This makes cattle milk the most common and readily (Haier Medical Laboratory Products. Co., Ltd. Qingado, China).
available milk source for infant supplementation and Prior to the analysis, samples were left to thaw at room temperature
for 45-60 min and homogenized by shaking for 30 s (Figure 1).
household consumption (Muriuki, 2011). Over 70% of this
milk is marketed raw through informal markets (Muriuki,
2011). Therefore, this milk has a shortened shelf life, Milk parameter measurement and Statistical analysis
usually between three to five days (Ajmal et al., 2018). To
preserve the nutritional value, avoid spoilage and Milk fat, protein, and lactose, for all the samples, were determined
using an automatic ultrasonic milk analyzer (Lactoscan MCC, SLP
increase this milk's shelf life, players along the milk value
60, V60), calibrated for cattle milk. Statistical analysis was
chain have considered freezing as a good solution due to performed on the various milk nutritional parameters using SPSS
its greater storability and convenience (Pollack, 2001). version 25 SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill). Paired t-test was used to
However, many consumers tend to freeze the milk in compare macronutrient concentrations of single freezing and
bulk, thaw, and then refreeze the remaining aliquot of multiple freezing experiments. In addition, analysis of variance
milk. Bulk milk storage contrasts with previous studies' (ANOVA) was used to assess for differences in milk constituents
from fresh milk and over previously frozen milk at different times.
recommendations that milk should be stored in small The means were then compared using the Bonferroni posthoc test.
amounts that are consumable within one feeding (Alinovi Variables were expressed as percent mean ± SE. A p-value of p ≤
et al., 2020). Further, many previous studies on effect of 0.05 was considered significant. The linear model described below
freezing on quality have been on human milk (Abranches was fitted to study correlations between freezing duration and any
et al., 2014; García-Lara et al., 2012), with very few change in cattle milk's macronutrient content:
studies on the effect of freezing on cattle milk’s
Y = a + Xβ
macronutrients content (Weese et al., 1969). As such,
there is a need to assess the impact of freezing and where Y is the predicted change in individual milk parameter
refreezing thawed milk, as a post-harvest storage content, the dependent variable, depending on the duration of
technique, on cattle milk's nutritional composition. freezing (hours), X, the vector of the independent variable, a is the
Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate the effects of intercept, a constant, and β is the regression slope
freezing (type and time) on the cattle milk composition.

RESULTS
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The milk fat, protein, and lactose contents significantly
Experimental animals decreased with an increase in duration of freezing, from 0
to 72 h, for single freezing (p<0.05) and multiple freezing
The experiment was approved by the Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Nairobi’s Institutional Animal Care and Use
(p<0.001) (Table 1). Additionally, the decline in all the
Committee (IACUC), Reference number: FVM BAUEC/2020/268. parameters had a significant correlation with the freezing
The experiment was conducted at the University of Nairobi duration (Figure 2). When samples for single and multiple
Veterinary farm. The farm lies between latitudes 1° 14’ S and 33° 4’ freezing experiments were compared at different times, it
300 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Figure 1. The scheme of sample analysis.

Table 1. Effects of type of freezing on milk composition of Friesian crossbred dairy cattle.

Freezing Freezing time (hours)

Parameter P-value
type 0 24 48 72
a a a a
Fat (%) 3.81±0.12 3.59±0.10 3.4±0.11 3.39±0.10 0.042
b ab a a
Single Protein (%) 2.03±0.04 1.92±0.05 1.83±0.05 1.81±0.05 0.005
b ab a a
Lactose (%) 2.13±0.06 1.96±0.05 1.85±0.06 1.83±0.06 0.002

c bc b a
Fat (%) 3.81±0.12 3.59±0.10 3.29±0.10 2.84±0.13 <0.001
b ab a a
Multiple Protein (%) 2.03±0.04 1.92±0.05 1.77±0.05 1.76±0.05 <0.001
b ab a a
Lactose (%) 2.13±0.06 1.96±0.05 1.77±0.07 1.76±0.06 <0.001
Data for freezing time is presented as mean ± SE, abMean with different superscripts within a row are significantly
different (P<0.05)

was observed that most milk parameters were lowest for DISCUSSION
multiple freezing at 48 and 72 h. Assessment of the
magnitude of parameter decline between the fresh milk Milk is of nutritional value to both young and adults
and the milk parameters at 72 h revealed that all the because of its complex constituent’s mixture of fats,
parameters decreased with a higher magnitude for proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and other
multiple freezing than single freezing. Specifically, miscellaneous constituents dispersed in water (chloride,
lactose, 14.1%, and fat content, 25.5%, were the sodium, and urea). Although milk composition is unique
parameters that decreased the most during both single for each species, the presence of the same nutrients
and multiple freezing. Analysis of the interaction between renders milk from different species substitutable, e.g.,
freezing type and freezing time showed that freezing time bovine milk has been used to feed infants where human
had a significant effect on all the parameters while milk is not available. The milk water content is
freezing type (p=0.03) and its interaction with freezing approximately 88% for both bovine and human milk while
time (p=0.02) affected only the fat content (Table 2). milk fat, lactose and protein is content is 3.9 and 4.1%,
 Musembei et al. 301

Figure 2. Correlation between duration of freezing (hours) and the changes in milk parameter content. Graph A is for Milk
Fat, B is for Milk Protein, and C is for Milk Lactose.

Table 2. Interaction effect of freezing time and freezing types on milk composition of Friesian crossbred dairy cows.

Time (hours) P-Value

Parameter
0 24 48 72 T F TXF
c bc ab a
Fat (%) 3.81 3.59 3.34 3.14 <0. 001 0.03 0.02
b b a a
Protein (%) 2.03 1.92 1.80 1.79 <0. 001 0.40 0.88
c b ab a
Lactose (%) 2.13 1.96 1.81 1.80 <0. 001 0.40 0.86
abc
T- freezing time, F- freezing type, TXF- Time and freezing type interactions, Mean with different superscripts within a row are
significantly different (P<0.05).

4.5 and 7%, and 3.3 and 1.3% respectively (Haug et al., increased freezing time. Similar results were observed in
2007; Martin et al., 2016). While the species influences studies done by Weese et al. (1969) on effect of freezing
the milk composition (Roessler et al., 2019), other factors and length of storage on dairy milk properties. The above
like storage time and type (freezing or refrigeration) may studies demonstrated that refrigeration, freezing, and
affect the nutrient content. thawing lower macronutrient concentrations in human
Despite freezing fresh milk being a possible way of milk.
storing milk for a required duration, such an approach Previous studies have reported chemical and physical
may have a deteriorating impact on product stability in alteration of milk components during freezing and
terms of quality. Abranches et al. (2014), assessed the thawing (Abranches et al., 2014; García-Lara et al., 2012;
freezing and thawing effects on fat, protein, and lactose Weese et al., 1969). In this study, milk fat decreased
levels of natural human milk administered by gavage and significantly with an increase in freezing time for single
continuous infusion. In the aforementioned study, there and multiple freezing experiments. However, this decline
was a decrease in levels of milk parameters with with freezing duration was more pronounced in the
302 Afr. J. Food Sci.

multiple freezing experiments. These results were in Conclusion

congruence with other previous studies that reported
depressed milk fat after cattle milk was stored at -26°C We conclude that despite freezing being a widely used
(Weese et al., 1969), goat milk frozen for 80 days at storage technique, there is a significant decrease in fat,
between −16 to −20°C (Yu et al., 2021), sheep milk protein, and lactose content. This decrease in
frozen at -15 or -25°C (Zhang et al., 2006), and human constituents was more pronounced when samples were
milk samples frozen at -20°C (Abranches et al., 2014). frozen, thawed, and refrozen (multiple freezing) than
Similar results were also reported in cattle milk where when samples were thawed only once (single freezing).
milk was refrigerated at 4°C (Rico et al., 2014; Zajác et
al., 2015). Two hypotheses have been previously put
forward to explain this result. First, when milk is stored at CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
-20°C, the lipase activity goes on, albeit at a lower rate
(Goff and Sahagian, 1996). Second, repeated thawing The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
and freezing alters the fat globule by disrupting the
globule membrane, increasing the substrate's accessibility
to the depressed enzyme activity (Vieira et al., 2011). In REFERENCES
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