®

1. Maxima and minima

Consider the curve
y = f (x) axb
shown in Figure 7:

y
f (a)

b
a x0 x1 x
f (b)

Figure 7
By inspection we see that there is no y-value greater than that at x = a (i.e. f (a)) and there is no
value smaller than that at x = b (i.e. f (b)). However, the points on the curve at x0 and x1 merit
comment. It is clear that in the near neighbourhood of x0 all the y-values are greater than the
y-value at x0 and, similarly, in the near neighbourhood of x1 all the y-values are less than the y-value
at x1 .
We say f (x) has a global maximum at x = a and a global minimum at x = b but also has a
local minimum at x = x0 and a local maximum at x = x1 .
Our primary purpose in this Section is to see how we might locate the position of the local maxima
and the local minima for a smooth function f (x).
A stationary point on a curve is one at which the derivative has a zero value. In Figure 8 we have
sketched a curve with a maximum and a curve with a minimum.

y y

x0 x x0 x

Figure 8
By drawing tangent lines to these curves in the near neighbourhood of the local maximum and the
local minimum it is obvious that at these points the tangent line is parallel to the x-axis so that
df
=0
dx x0

HELM (2015): 15
Section 12.2: Maxima and Minima
 Key Point 3
df
Points on the curve y = f (x) at which = 0 are called stationary points of the function.
dx

However, be careful! A stationary point is not necessarily a local maximum or minimum of the
function but may be an exceptional point called a point of inflection, illustrated in Figure 9.

x0 x

Figure 9

Example 2
Sketch the curve y = (x 2)2 + 2 and locate the stationary points on the curve.

Solution
df
Here f (x) = (x 2)2 + 2 so = 2(x 2).
dx
df
At a stationary point = 0 so we have 2(x 2) = 0 so x = 2. We conclude that this function
dx
has just one stationary point located at x = 2 (where y = 2).
By sketching the curve y = f (x) it is clear that this stationary point is a local minimum.

2
2 x

Figure 10

16 HELM (2015):
Workbook 12: Applications of Di↵erentiation
 ®

Tas k
Locate the position of the stationary points of f (x) = x3 1.5x2 6x + 10.

df
First find :
dx
Your solution
df
=
dx

Answer
df
= 3x2 3x 6
dx
df
Now locate the stationary points by solving = 0:
dx
Your solution

Answer
3x2 3x 6 = 3(x + 1)(x 2) = 0 so x = 1 or x = 2. When x = 1, f (x) = 13.5 and
when x = 2, f (x) = 0, so the stationary points are ( 1, 13.5) and (2, 0). We have, in the figure,
sketched the curve which confirms our deductions.
y
(−1, 13.5)

−2.5 2 x

HELM (2015): 17
Section 12.2: Maxima and Minima
 Tas k
3⇡
Sketch the curve y = cos 2x 0.1  x  and on it locate the position
4
of the global maximum, global minimum and any local maxima or minima.

Your solution

0.1 π/4 π/2 3π/4 x

Answer
y global maximum

local maximum

0.1 ⇡/4 ⇡/2 3⇡/4 x

local minimum
and global minimum

2. Distinguishing between local maxima and minima

We might ask if it is possible to predict when a stationary point is a local maximum, a local minimum
or a point of inflection without the necessity of drawing the curve. To do this we highlight the general
characteristics of curves in the neighbourhood of local maxima and minima.
For example: at a local maximum (located at x0 say) Figure 11 describes the situation:

f (x) to the left of df

>0
the maximum dx

to the right of df < 0

the maximum dx
x0 x

Figure 11
df
If we draw a graph of the derivative against x then, near a local maximum, it must take one
dx
of two basic shapes described in Figure 12:

18 HELM (2015):
Workbook 12: Applications of Di↵erentiation
 ®

df df
dx dx
or
α α = 180◦
x0 x x0 x

(a) (b)

Figure 12
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
d df d df
In case (a) ⌘ tan ↵ < 0 whilst in case (b) =0
dx dx x0 dx dx x0

We reach the conclusion that at a stationary point which is a maximum the value of the second
d2 f
derivative is either negative or zero.
dx2
Near a local minimum the above graphs are inverted. Figure 13 shows a local minimum.
f (x) df
to the left of <0
the minimum dx
to the right of df
>0
x0 x the minimum dx

Figure 13
Figure 134 shows the two possible graphs of the derivative:

df df
dx dx
or
β x x
x0 x0

(a) (b)

Figure 14
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
d df d df
Here, for case (a) = tan >0 whilst in (b) = 0.
dx dx x0 dx dx x0

In this case we conclude that at a stationary point which is a minimum the value of the second
d2 f
derivative is either positive or zero.
dx2

HELM (2015): 19
Section 12.2: Maxima and Minima
For the third possibility for a stationary point - a point of inflection - the graph of f (x) against x
df
and of against x take one of two forms as shown in Figure 15.
dx
f (x) f (x)

x0 x x0 x
df df
dx dx

x0 x x
x0

df df
to the left of x0 >0 to the left of x0 <0
dx dx
df df
to the right of x0 >0 to the right of x0 <0
dx dx

Figure 15
✓ ◆
d df
For either of these cases =0
dx dx x0

The sketches and analysis of the shape of a curve y = f (x) in the near neighbourhood of stationary
points allow us to make the following important deduction:

Key Point 4
df
If x0 locates a stationary point of f (x), so that = 0, then the stationary point
dx x0

d2 f
is a local minimum if >0
dx2 x0

d2 f
is a local maximum if <0
dx2 x0

d2 f
is inconclusive if =0
dx2 x0

20 HELM (2015):
Workbook 12: Applications of Di↵erentiation
 ®

Example 3
Find the stationary points of the function f (x) = x3 6x.
Are these stationary points local maxima or local minima?

Solution
df df p
= 3x2 6. At a stationary point = 0 so 3x2 6 = 0, implying x = ± 2.
dx dx
p p
Thus f (x) has stationary points at x = 2 and x = 2. To decide if these are maxima or minima
we examine the value of the second derivative of f (x) at the stationary points.
d2 f d2 f p p
= 6x so = 6 2 > 0. Hence x = 2 locates a local minimum.
dx2 dx2 x=p2
d2 f p p
Similarly = 6 2 < 0. Hence x = 2 locates a local maximum.
dx2 x= p2
A sketch of the curve confirms this analysis:

f (x)

√
2
√ x
− 2

Figure 16

Tas k
For the function f (x) = cos 2x, 0.1  x  6, find the positions of any local
minima or maxima and distinguish between them.

Calculate the first derivative and locate stationary points:

Your solution
df
=
dx
Stationary points are located at:

HELM (2015): 21
Section 12.2: Maxima and Minima
 Answer
df
= 2 sin 2x.
dx
Hence stationary points are at values of x in the range specified for which sin 2x = 0 i.e. at 2x = ⇡
or 2x = 2⇡ or 2x = 3⇡ (making sure x is within the range 0.1  x  6)
⇡ 3⇡
) Stationary points at x = , x = ⇡, x =
2 2

Now calculate the second derivative:

Your solution
d2 f
=
dx2

Answer
d2 f
= 4 cos 2x
dx2

Finally: evaluate the second derivative at each stationary points and draw appropriate conclusions:
Your solution
d2 f
=
dx2 x= ⇡
2

2
df
=
dx2 x=⇡

d2 f
=
dx2 x= 3⇡
2

Answer
d2 f ⇡
= 4 cos ⇡ = 4 > 0 ) x= locates a local minimum.
dx2 x= ⇡ 2
2

2
df
= 4 cos 2⇡ = 4<0 ) x = ⇡ locates a local maximum.
dx2 x=⇡

d2 f 3⇡
= 4 cos 3⇡ = 4 > 0 ) x= locates a local minimum.
dx2 x= 3⇡ 2
2

f (x)

3π/2
0.1 π/4 π/2 3π/4 6 x

22 HELM (2015):
Workbook 12: Applications of Di↵erentiation
 ®

Tas k
1 3
Determine the local maxima and/or minima of the function y = x4 x
3

First obtain the positions of the stationary points:

Your solution
1 3 df
f (x) = x4 x =
3 dx
df
Thus = 0 when:
dx

Answer
df df
= 4x3 x2 = x2 (4x 1) = 0 when x = 0 or when x = 1/4
dx dx
Now obtain the value of the second derivatives at the stationary points:
Your solution
d2 f d2 f
= ) =
dx2 dx2 x=0

d2 f
=
dx2 x=1/4

Answer
d2 f d2 f
= 12x2 2x = 0, which is inconclusive.
dx2 dx2 x=0

d2 f 12 1 1 1
= = > 0 Hence x = locates a local minimum.
dx2 x=1/4 16 2 4 4

Using this analysis we cannot decide whether the stationary point at x = 0 is a local maximum,
df
minimum or a point of inflection. However, just to the left of x = 0 the value of (which equals
dx
df
x2 (4x 1)) is negative whilst just to the right of x = 0 the value of is negative again. Hence
dx
the stationary point at x = 0 is a point of inflection. This is confirmed by sketching the curve as
in Figure 17.
f (x)

1/4
x
− 0.0013

Figure 17

HELM (2015): 23
Section 12.2: Maxima and Minima