Rock Mechanics
Understanding
Rock Deformation
Behavior and Interactions
Based on Geology training– BH 2006, Webinars 2008-2009
& Non-technical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production—Norman J. Hyne, Ph.D
Geology
Geology as science Explores the Earth's
origin and the processes shaping its sur-
face, crust, and interior. Besides, Geology
studies the formation, physical properties,
and chemical composition of rocks.
Geology is important to understand the rock
mechanics properties, which is the basis of
O&G, Mining and Construction markets.
It allows to predict:
Size and geometry of zone of interest
Sequence of formations to be drilled to get to
targets
Disturbances
Formation hardness/Drillability, rock type,
structure
Stress regime, of formation pressures, of
wellbore integrity issues.
Geologic Time Scale
Knowing the Geologic Time Scale
Order/sequence of events and development
trends in Earth‘s History
Sequence of formations is related to
geologic time (Stratigraphy). Terminology
to describe horizons and targets often
refers to the geologic time where they
belong to “We are drilling in the Upper
Cretaceous...“
Changes of Earth‘s geography and climate
determined areas and conditions where
origin of oil and gas took place
Deposition of large amounts of Hydrocarbon
material started around Carbonian/Permian
Period
Reconstruction and Modelling of Earth‘s
Younger History (meaning: the past 300
million years, approximately) is backbone
of the quest for oil and gas reservoirs
Stratigraphy: Time-Based Order of Formations
Stratigraphy describes the sequence of the
sedimentary layers in a basin and their
relationship to geologic time.
In an undisturbed sequence, the oldest layer
lies at the greatest depth.
While the Geologic time scale counts global,
Stratigraphy is always limited to regional/
local Geology
Formation names usually refer to a local
Stratigraphy (e.g. “Queen City”)
Knowing the stratigraphic order and geologic
history allows us to expect what formation
to drill at which depth and in which order
Since some sedimentary rocks share similar
properties, geologists analyze lithology
(rock composition) to determine their
formation process and characteristics and
describes rocks and minerals in the rock,
such as Quartz, Feldspar, Mica, etc.
Types of Rocks
Rocks are classified into three main types
based on their formation processes:
Igneous
Formed from the cooling and solidification
of magma or lava.
Intrusive (Plutonic) -> Granite
Extrusive (Volcanic) -> Basalt, Obsidian
Metamorphic
Formed when existing rocks are subjected to
high temperature and pressure, causing
mineral and structural changes.
Foliated -> Schist, Gneiss
Non-Foliated > Marble, Quartzite
Sedimentary
Formed from the accumulation, compaction,
and cementation of sediments over time.
Clastic -> Shale, Sandstone
Chemical -> Limestone, Halite
Organic -> Coal, Chalk
Sedimentary Rocks
These types of rocks serve as the primary
source and reservoir for oil and gas. Un-
derstanding their behavior during drilling
helps optimize performance and efficiency.
Close to ninety-nine percent of sedimentary
rocks that make up the earth’s crust are
Shales, Sandstones, and Limestones. Most of
sedimentary rocks are combination of these
three types. Their mixtures are described
as Sandy, Shaly, Limey or Calcareous.
Sedimentary Rocks (cont.)
Shale
Shale is the most common sedimentary rock,
composed of clay-sized particles.
It is typically well-layered and relatively
soft, breaking down into mud when exposed to
water. Shale is commonly found in river flood-
plains and ocean floors. A similar rock,
mudstone, contains both silt- and clay-sized
grains but lacks the well-defined layering of
shale.
Sandstone
Sandstone consists primarily of sand grains
that have been naturally cemented together. It
has a rough texture and is commonly deposited
in environments such as beaches, river
channels, and dunes.
Limestone
Limestone is composed of calcite mineral
grains, which can range in size from very fine
to large, sparkling crystals. It is soft enough
to be scratched with a knife and reacts with
cold, dilute acid, producing bubbles.
Limestones often contain fossil fragments,
which are also typically composed of calcite.
Sedimentary Rocks (cont.)
Conglomerate
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock con-
taining a mixture of pebble- to clay-sized
grains. It is distinguished by its coarse, well
-rounded particles. Typically deposited in
river channels or alluvial fans where mountain
streams empty into deserts, conglomerate
forms under high-energy conditions. When the
particles are angular instead of rounded, the
rock is classified as Breccia.
Coal
Coal is a brittle, brown to black sedimentary
rock composed of plant remains that were buried
and transformed by heat and time.
It has several varieties, including lignite,
bituminous, and anthracite, each differing in
carbon content and energy potential.
Chert
Chert is an extremely hard, amorphous form of
quartz that cannot be scratched by a knife. Due
to its structure, it fractures along smooth,
curved surfaces, forming sharp edges and
points. Chert is one of the hardest sedimentary
rocks to drill through.
Sedimentary Rocks (cont.)
SHALE SANDSTONE
LIMESTONE(WACKSTONE) LIMESTONE GRAINSTONE)
CONGLOMERATE BRECCIA
COAL CHERT
Rock Mechanics Properties
THE rock mechanics is the study of how rocks
respond to forces in the subsurface.
Understanding these properties is essential
for optimizing drilling performance,
ensuring wellbore stability, and preventing
issues like hole collapse or fluid losses.
Given your background in drilling and drill
bit design, these properties are key factors
in selecting the right bit and drilling pa-
rameters for different formations.
Compressive Strength
Tensile Strength
Shear Strength
Young’s Modulus (Elasticity)
Poisson’s Ratio
Porosity
Permeability
Rock Brittleness
Fracture Toughness
Applying the rocks mechanics principles can
improve ROP and reduce vibrations while
drilling, supports wellbore stability,
optimizes drilling, enhances fracturing,
prevents sand production, and improves
performance while reducing risks
Lab Test vs Logging Data
Static RMP vs Dynamic RMP
(Rock Mechanics Properties)
Static RMP needs Lab test which has high
costs and usually specimen requires specific
preservation technique (core sample)
Dynamics RMP is cost effective, easy and
fast data access, but is affected by the
environments and calibration cores required.
Extrinsic factors affecting on lab results
Examples of Extrinsic Factors
Types of Lab Test
Test Abbrev Meaning Specimens Time (1 test)
Uniaxial Compres- UCS Unconfined compres- Minimum 2 if ▪Coring 30min ▪
sive Test sive strength there’s not a Cutting 10min ▪
big std. dev. Grinding 20min ▪
E Young’s modulus Preparation 1hr ▪
n Poisson’s ratio Testing < 5min
K Bulk modulus
G Shear modulus
Kn Normal stiffness
Ks Shear stiffness
Triaxial Compres- t Shear strength Minimum 10 ▪Sampling 1hr ▪
sive Test / under at least Cell setting 1hr ▪
Internal friction angle 5 confining Time depend on
Direct Shear Test
pressures
j - rock strength
c Cohesive strength
- confining stress
α Biot’s constant
CCS Confined compres-
sive strength
Brazilian Disk To Tensile strength Minimum 7 ▪Sampling 30min
Test / Flexural ▪Testing < 2min
Bending Test
Time per test can vary, it depends on rock type
and equipment for testing. This is a reference.
UCS / CCS
The main purpose of this test is to obtain
strength classification and characterization of
intact rock.
This is a key factor to select a bit and design a
BHA to reach the best drilling performance.
YOUNG’S MODULUS / POISSON’S RATIO
E is stress over strain.
V is radial strain over axial strain which
means ratio of contraction to expansion.
Because of opposite direction of radial and
axial strains, v has a negative meaning. But
the value is positive.
BULK MODULUS /SHEAR MODULUS
K and G both are calculated from the
relation of E and v.
SHEAR STRENGTH / TENSILE STRENGTH
Shear strength is an important concept to
understand shear failure mechanisms such as
landslide or earthquake.
Borehole also subjects to shear failure
because borehole is surrounded by 3-D earth
stresses. So if a deviatoric stress is
greater than borehole strength, then shear
failure can be occurred in the borehole as
the shape of breakouts, along the direction
of minimum horizontal stress.
FRICTION ANGLE / COHESIVE STRENGTH
Internal friction angle and cohesive
strength can be obtained from triaxial
compressive test or direct shear test, since
these parameters require to construct Mohr-
Coulomb failure envelop. Then friction angle
is measured by reading the slope of the
failure envelop, and cohesive strength is
measured by Y-axis intercept of the failure
envelop. Friction angle means material’s
ability to withstand shear stress and
cohesion is a bonding stress between
minerals.
STIFFNESS / BIOT’S CONSTANT
Stiffness is stress over displacement. If the same
magnitude of stress is applied onto different rock
types, then the induced displacements are differ-
ent for each rock.
Biot’s constant, α, is the effective stress
concept. There are three different materials here
– steel, shale and sandstone under the same amount
of load.
Steel is an artificial, homogeneous and continuous
material which doesn’t have any porosity.
But rock is a natural, these are heterogeneous and
discontinuous material. So, there are different
matrix, minerals and pores. Therefore, the ratio
of α which is the ratio of K/Ks is different with
rock types.
BRAZILIAN DISK TENSION TEST
BDT test is to determine tensile strength.
Right side figures are the results of the test and
numerical modeling.
PFC (Particle Flow Code) is a discrete element
modeling (DEM) software used to simulate rock
behavior at the granular level.
Clump modeling in PFC is an advanced technique to
represent irregularly shaped particles (e.g., rock
grains or drill cuttings).
Applications in Drill Bit Design
PDC Cutter Testing
Bit Wear and Lifetime Analysis
Hard vs. Soft Formation Drilling
UNDERSTANDING OF ROCK MECHANICS PARAMETERS
When the rock strength is high -> UCS ↑
Static RMP from lab tests is accurate, however
discrete depth and expensive.
–Uniaxial compressive test
–Triaxial compressive test
–Brazilian Disk tension test
Dynamic RMP from well logs is continuous and time/
cost effective, however environmentally sensitive.
Static RMP can be obtained from LMP (logging).
Empirical correlations can be used for estimating
dynamic RMP when well logs are limited.
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS
Coates and Denoo (1980 SPWLA)
Deere and Miller (1966 U.A. Air force Lab)
Most common UCS formula
Where:
σc = Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa or psi)
P = Maximum applied load at failure ( N or lbf)
A = Cross-sectional area of the specimen (m2 or in2)
Bulk Modulus
Young’s Modulus
Shear Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio
UCS values for common Rock Types
Values vary based on porosity, grain size, and
cementation.
Harder rocks (e.g., quartzite, granite) have
higher UCS.
Shales and weak sandstones have lower UCS, making
them prone to wellbore instability.
Hard/Harsh formation is the challenge
For limestone interbedded with chert, UCS
values can vary significantly depending on
porosity, cementation, and chert content.
High UCS contrast → Hard chert layers can
cause bit wear, slow ROP, and vibrations.
Brittle chert → Prone to fracturing and
causing torque fluctuations.
Limestone variation → Porous zones may lead to
mud losses and differential sticking.
Identifying transitions between layers
enables a holistic approach to drill bit
and BHA design, allowing for development
of an optimal parameter matrix to enhance
drilling performance
Drill bit selection
Based on Lab test and/or software, the
drill bit selection has been improved by
best designs
Roller Cone
Define IADC code regarding UCS and well-
bore stability
Steel tooth—> soft formation
Insert (TCI)-> hard and abrasive formation
PDC (Fixed Cutters)
Define density cutter layout
Cutter size, shape and chamfer
Blade count
Gauge shape and length
Body material (steel or matrix)
Rake angles
Hybrid
Roller cones with Fixed cutters
PDC cutters handle Limestone, while Roller
Cones manage Chert
Fixed cutters with inserts
PDC cutters handle Limestone, while insert
crush and fracture Chert
Drilling Strategies
Knowing Lithology, UCS, and Friction Angle
drilling parameters can be adjust and tools
be added in the BHA.
Weight on Bit
Apply moderate WoB to avoid overloading cut-
ters in hardest formation
Increase WoB gradually in hard formation zones
to maximize ROP
Avoid excessive WoB that can lead to cutter
damage in hard rock or bit balling in softer
zones
Rotary speed (RPM)
Higher RPM (140—180) for hard rock to improve
ROP
Lower RPM (80-120) in harder rock to reduce
cutter impact loading
Use auto-driller to control RPM for smooth
transitions
Drilling Dynamics & Vibration Control
Use tools to mitigate vibrations, be sure that
this is proper tool for vibration type
Monitor torsional oscillations (Stick-Slip)
when transitioning between layers
Downhole sensors (real-time MWD/LWD) and any
tool available help to detect formations
changes early
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