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CE315: APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

(LECTURE NOTES)

First Semester 2020/2021 Session

Course Contents
1. Introduction
2. Elementary summary of fluid dynamics equations
3. Element of irrotational flow theory (fluid kinematics)
4. Velocity potential and stream function
5. Source and sinks
6. Open channel hydraulics
7. Channel controls and transitions
8. Flow in pipe systems
9. Transient phenomena
10. Hydraulic measurements
11. Review of one-dimensional compressible flow
12. Fundamental of gas dynamics
13. Basic principles of fluid machinery

Course Lecturer: Dr. Ibrahim Hassan

Department of Civil Engineering, ATBU, Bauchi

January, 2021
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1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Mechanics – a physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influence of forces.

Statics – bodies at rest

Dynamics – bodies in motion

Study of behaviour of fluids at rest or in motion – fluid statics or fluid dynamics respectively

Fluid mechanics – the science that deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest or in motion,
and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries

Hydraulics – is the application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing with the
collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.

Before the start of hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is
involved.

Hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction
of water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and deposition. The hydraulic
engineer actually develops the conceptual designs for the various features which interact with
water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related
structures for irrigation projects, and cooling water facilities for thermal power plants.

Difference between solid and fluid

Distinction between solid and fluid is basically on the basis of the substance’s ability to resist
an applied shear or tangential stress that tends to change its shape.

A solid resists an applied stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress.

In solids – stress is proportional to strain

In fluids – stress is proportional to strain rate

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When a constant shear force is applied, solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain
angle.

A fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain strain rate.

Compressible and incompressible flow

Depends on the level of variation of density during flow

Incompressible flow – if the density remains nearly constant throughout.

The volume of every portion of fluid remained unchanged over the course of its motion
when the flow is incompressible.

Generally, densities of liquids are essentially constant, thus liquid flow is typically
incompressible.

Gases are highly compressible.

A pressure change of 0.01atm may cause a change of 1% in the density of atmospheric air.
(For water, it takes a pressure of 210atmm to change the density at 1atm by 1%)
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2.0 ELEMENTARY SUMMARY OF FLUID DYNAMICS EQUATIONS

The forces acting on the fluid are studied in dynamics of fluid flow. The dynamic equation
of fluid motion is obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion to fluid element
considered as a free body. The fluid is assumed to be ideal. Because in ideal fluids, there is no
friction between fluid layers and boundary walls, there is no energy dissipation due to friction. The
dynamic equations are considerably simplified if the fluid is assumed to be ideal. In many cases,
these simplified equations give fairly accurate results. The equation so derived may be used for real
fluids in modified forms after accounting for the losses due to friction. The fluid is assumed to be
incompressible. These assumptions restrict the discussion here to liquid’s flow. However, gases
which undergo small changes of temperature and pressure behave like incompressible fluids and
are also treated. The assumption that the fluid is incompressible is not only practical in most cases
but also prove to be useful simplification.
The three basic equations of fluid mechanics are: (1) Continuity equation (2) Energy
equation, and (3) Impulse – momentum equation.

2.1 Continuity equation

The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. Let us consider
a small stream tube in Fig. 1a. If the cross section of the tube is small, the velocity at the centre of
the tube will be the average velocity over the section. Let dA1 and dA2 be the cross-sectional areas
of the tube at section 1 and 2 respectively. If v1 and v2 are the average velocities and ρ1 and ρ2 are
the mass densities at these two sections, then

Fig. 1a: Stream tube Fig. 1b: Conduit

Volume of fluid passing at section 1 per unit time = v1dA1 (1)

Mass of fluid passing at section 1 per unit time = ρ1v1dA1 (2)

Similarly, mass of fluid passing at section 2 per unit time = ρ2v2dA2 (3)

According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of fluid entering section 1 must
be equal to the mass of fluid leaving section 2 of there is no storage of mass in the tube between
sections 1 and 2. No storage of mass is possible in steady flow. If any mass were stored in the tube,
the mass will go on changing with time, which is impossible in steady flow.

Therefore,

ρ1v1dA1 = ρ2v2dA2 = constant (4)

In words, the mass of fluid per unit time passing through any section of a stream tube is constant.
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It may be noted that v1 and v2 are normal to the respective areas dA1 and dA2.
Let us now consider a conduit in Fig. 1b. The conduit may be considered as assemblage
of a number of small stream tubes. The mass flow rate in the conduit may be obtained by
integration of Eq. (4)

∫𝐴 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 = ∫𝐴 𝜌2 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2 (5)

1 2

Where 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the velocities normal to the small areas 𝑑𝐴1 and 𝑑𝐴2
If the mass density is constant over cross-sections, Eq. (5) becomes

𝜌1 ∫ 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 = 𝜌2 ∫ 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2
𝐴1 𝐴2

or 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑀 (6)

In which 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the mean velocities oveer the entire sections 1 and 2 respectively and 𝐴1
and 𝐴2 are the cross-sectional areas of the conduit at these sections.

The quantity 𝜌𝑉𝐴 is known as the mass flow rate (M) in kg/s.

If the fliud is incompressible, the mass density is constant and 𝜌1 = 𝜌2.

Therefore, 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑄 (7)

The product of 𝑉𝐴 is known as discharge. Dischatge is the volume rate of flow at any
section. It is expressed in cubic meter per second (cumecs) or litre per second.
1 cumec = 1000 ltr/s.
2.1.1 Applications

 Rivers
 Circulatory system
 Respiratory system
 Air conditioning system

2.2 General energy equations

The dynamic equation describing fluid motion may be obtained by applying Newton’s
second law of motion to fluid particle. Applying the law in x-direction

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (8)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 is the resultant force acting on the fluid particle, m is the mass and 𝑎𝑥 is the
acceleration.

The force may be due to gravity (𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 , pressure (𝐹𝑝 )𝑥 , viscosity (𝐹𝑣 )𝑥 , turbulence (𝐹𝑡 )𝑥
and compressibility (elasticity) (𝐹𝑒 )𝑥 . However, when the volume changes are small, the last force
may be neglected.
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Thus,

(𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑝 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑣 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑡 )𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (9)

Similar equations can be written in x and y – directions.

When the values for various quantities are substituted in Eq. (9), the equations obtained as
Reynolds equations.
For low Reynolds number, the force due to turbulent can be neglected and Reynolds
equations become what are known as Navier – Stokes equation.

(𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑝 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑣 )𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (10)

If the flow is assumed to be ideal, the force due to viscosity is omitted, thus,

(𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑝 )𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (11)

The energy equations which take into consideration only the gravity forces and the pressure
forces are known as the Euler’s equations.
2.3 Derivation of the Bernoulli equation from energy principles
Assumptions

 The fluid is ideal and incompressible

 The flow is steady and continuous
 The flow is along the streamline i.e. it is one – dimensional
 The velocity is uniform over the cross section and is equal to the mean velocity
 The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity forces and pressure forces

Let us consider a flow through a stream tube shown in Fig. 2. The fluid enters the tube at
the end A and leaves at the end B. In a small interval dt of time, the weight of fluid entering the
tube at A is equal to (𝛾𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝐴1 ) where 𝑑𝐴1 is the differential area of the tube at A. in the same
interval of time, the weight of the fluid leaving the tube at B is (𝛾𝑑𝑠2 𝑑𝐴2 ) where 𝑑𝐴2 is the
differential area of the tube at B. the movement of fluid between AA and BB is equivalent to
moving fluid between A’A’ and B’B’. The remainder of fluid between A’A’ and BB may be looked
upon as stationary.

Fig. 2: Stream tube

The work done associated with the displacement of fluid mentioned above may be
computed from the product of the forces 𝑝1 𝑑𝐴1 and 𝑝2 𝑑𝐴2 with the displacement 𝑑𝑠1 and 𝑑𝑠2
respectively.
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𝑝1 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝑠1 𝑝1
Work done per unit weight at A = = (12)
𝛾𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝐴1 𝛾

𝑝2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑑𝑠2 𝑝2
Work done per unit weight at B = = (13)
𝛾𝑑𝑠2 𝑑𝐴2 𝛾

The law of conservation of energy states that energy entering the control volume plus
work done = energy leaving the control volume.
Thus
𝑉2 𝑝 𝑝2 𝑉2
1
(2𝑔 + 𝑧1 ) + ( 𝛾1 − 2
) = (2𝑔 + 𝑧2 ) (14)
𝛾

Where subscript 1 and 2 refer to ends A and B respectively

𝑝1 𝑉2
1 𝑝2 𝑉2
2
Or + 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 = + 2𝑔 + 𝑧2 (15)
𝛾 𝛾

𝑝 𝑉2
Or + 𝑧 + 2𝑔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾

The equation states that the sum of the pressure, potential and kinetic energy per unit
weight remains constant. (N-m/N or m)
2.3.1 Bernoulli equation for real fluid
The Bernoulli equation was derived on the assumption that the fluid is ideal. However,
the equation may be used for real fluids provided it is modified to take into account the frictional
resistance caused due to viscosity. The modified equation for real fluid is given below:
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿 (16)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Where 𝐻𝐿 is the loss of energy (or head) from section 1 to 2.

Furthermore, in real fluid the velocity is not uniform over the cross-section and
consequently the velocity head is expressed in terms of mean velocity is not correct. To account
for the non-uniformity of velocity, the velocity head calculated on the basis of mean velocity must
be multiplied by a correction factor 𝛼 known as the kinetic energy velocity factor.

∫ 𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑣 3
Thus, 𝛼 = = 𝐴 ∫ (𝑉) 𝑑𝐴 (17)
𝑉3𝐴

The value of the energy correction factor 𝛼 may be obtained from Eq. (17) if the
expression for the velocity distribution across the section is known. The value of 𝛼 is always greater
than unity. For laminar flow in pipes, its value is 2, whereas for turbulent flow in pipes, its value
ranges from 1.01 from 1.10, depending on the velocity distribution. The value of 𝛼 is usually to be
unity in turbulent flow, unless mentioned otherwise.
The modified form of the Bernoulli equation taking into account the energy correction
factor, 𝛼 is

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑧1 = + 𝛼2 + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿 (18)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
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Ex (1): Two and half cumecs (2500 l/s) of water flow through a 50 cm diameter pipe. Calculate
the mean velocity. If the diameter is reduced to 25cm, what would be the mean velocity?
Solution

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 2.5
𝑉= = = 12.73 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 𝜋⁄4 ∗ (0.50)2

𝑄 2.5
𝑉= = = 50.92 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 𝜋⁄4 ∗ (0.25)2
Ex (2): Oil of specific gravity 0.75 flows through a 15 cm diameter pipe under a pressure of 98.1
kN/m2. If the datum is 3m below the centre of the pipe and the total energy with respect to the
datum is 20 N-m/N, calculate the discharge.
Solution: Total energy per N of oil with respect to the datum
= pressure energy + Kinetic energy + elevation energy

𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻 = +𝑧+
𝛾 2𝑔

98.1 𝑉2 𝑉2
20 = + + 3 = 13.33 + +3
9.81 × 0.75 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉 = 8.48𝑚/𝑠

But discharge 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴

𝑄 = 8.48 × 𝜋⁄4 × 0.152 = 0.15𝑚3 /𝑠

Ex (3): In the pipe shown in Fig. 3, 0.5m3/s of water flows from point A to B. The diameters of
the pipe at A and B are 30cm and 60cm respectively. If the pressure head at A is 7m of water, find
the pressure head at B. Neglect losses.
Solution: The energy grade line (EGL) is horizontal. The hydraulic grade line (HGL) slopes
upward as the velocity head decreases from A to B.

Fig. 3
𝑄 0.5
𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = = = 7.07 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐴 𝜋⁄4 × 0.32
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𝑄 0.5
𝑉2 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = = = 1.77 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐴 𝜋⁄4 × 0.62
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A and B

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
7.072 𝑝2 1.772
7 + 19.62 + 3 = + 19.62 + 8
𝛾

𝑝2
= 4.39𝑚
𝛾
Ex (4): Fig.4 shows a pipe of 8cm diameter working as a syphon. Find the velocity of flow,
discharge and the absolute pressure at B if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 10m of water.
Neglect losses.

Fig. 4

1.8m
A m

3.0m
DIA
Datum Line
C

Solution: Taking the datum line at the level of point C and applying Bernoulli’s equation to points
A and C.

𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐶 𝑉𝐶2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐶
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
The pressure at points A and C is atmospheric, which is taken as zero. Since the area of the vessel
is very large, the velocity 𝑉𝐴 may be taken as zero.
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𝑉𝐶2
Thus, 0 + 0 + 4 = 0 + +0
2𝑔

𝑉𝐶 = √4 × 2 × 9.81 = 8.86 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝜋⁄4 × 0.08 × 0.08 × 8.86 = 0.0445 𝑚3 /𝑠

Pressure at B is obtained by applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A and B, taking 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶,

𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐵
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑝𝐵 8.862
4+0+0= 6+ +
𝛾 19.62
𝑝𝐵
= −6 𝑚 (𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚)
𝛾
Absolute pressure at B = Atmospheric pressure – vacuum pressure
= 10 – 6 = 4 m of water
= 4 x 9.81 = 39.24 kN/m2 absolute
Problems
1. Oil flows through a pipe of 45 cm diameter. The pipe contracts from 45 cm diameter at
point A to 30 cm diameter at point B. At B, it bifurcates into two branches consisting of
pipes of 20 cm and 15 cm diameters (Fig. 5). If the velocity at A is 3 m/s. calculate the
discharge at A, and velocities at B and C. The velocity at D is 5 m/s.

Fig. 5

2. What is continuity equation? Derive this equation from one-dimensional incompressible

flow.
A pipe 20 cm diameter is carrying water with the mean velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the
discharge. If the pipe bifurcates into two pipes of 10 cm diameter each, find the velocity
in the 10 cm diameter pipe.
3. Define (a) Hydraulic gradient, (b) Energy gradient. Can hydraulic gradient line lie below
the axis of the conduit?
4. What are the different forms of energy in a fluid? Explain each of them.
Water is flowing with a velocity 20 m/s and under a pressure of 294.3 kN/m2. If the height
above the datum is 40m, calculate the total energy of 1 N of water.
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5. Calculate the discharge through the pipe line shown in Fig. 6. Also find pressure at point
A and B. the depth of water in the reservoir is 5m. Neglect losses.

Fig. 6

3. ELEMENT OF IRROTATIONAL FLOW THEORY

Translational, rotational and irrotational flows

3.1 Introduction:

For better understanding of the theory of irrotational fluid flow, there is need to introduce the
basic types of fluid motions.

Basically, fluids undergo two types of motion. These are:

a) Translation
b) Rotation

Figure 3.1: Translation and rotation of fliud

 The two types of motion may occur simultaneously.

 Because fluid elements may be in constant motion, it is preferable in fluid dynamics to
describe motion of fluid elements in terms of rates.

In particular,

a) velocity (rate of translation)

b) Angular velocity (rate of rotation).

Translation and rotation are easily understood since they are commonly observed in the
motion of solid particles such as billiard balls.
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Figure 3.2: Difference between rotational and irrotational flow

3.2 Translation:

The rate of translation vector is described mathematically as the velocity vector.

The rate of translation in a Cartesian coordinate is given as:

⃗ = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑧
𝑉 (3.1)

3.3 Rate of rotation

The rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a point is defined as the average rotation rate of two
initially perpendicular lines that intersect at that point.

Figure 3.3: Rate of rotation

Refer to figure (3.3above).

At time 𝑡1 , line a and line b are initially perpendicular, intersecting at point P.

At time 𝑡2 , line a has rotated by angle 𝛼𝑎 and line b by an angle 𝛼𝑏 .
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𝛼𝑎 +𝛼𝑏
The average rotation angle is thus (3.2)
2

The rate of rotation = the time derivative of this average rotation angle. It can be shown that:
𝑑 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑏 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔= ( )= ( − ) (3.3)
𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Rate of rotation vector in Cartesian coordinates in three-dimension
1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔
⃗ = ( − )𝑖 + ( − )𝑗 + ( − )𝑘 ⃗ (3.4)
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Thus;

A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid elements do not rotate about their own mass centres.
And it is rotational if the fluid elements rotate about their own mass centres.

Fluid flow can be rotational or irrotational. If, as you travel in a closed loop, you add up all the
components of the fluid velocity vectors along your path and the end result is not zero, then the
flow is rotational.

To test whether a flow has a rotational component, you can put a small object in the flow and let
the flow carry it. If the small object spins, the flow is rotational; if the object doesn’t spin, the flow
is irrotational.

For example, look at the water flowing in a brook. It eddies around stones, curling around
obstacles. At such locations, the water flow has a rotational component.

Some flows that you may think are rotational are actually irrotational. For example, away from the
centre, a vortex is actually an irrotational flow! You can see this if you look at the water draining
from your bathtub. If you place a small floating object in the flow, it goes around the plug hole,
but it does not spin about itself; therefore, the flow is irrotational.

On the other hand, flows that have no apparent rotation can actually be rotational. Take a shear
flow, for example. In a shear flow, all the fluid is moving in the same direction, but the fluid is
moving faster on one side. Suppose the fluid is moving faster on the left than on the right. The
fluid isn’t moving in a circle at all, but if you place a small floating object in this flow, the flow on
the left side of the object is slightly faster, so the object begins to spin. The flow is rotational.

Ex (3.1): A steady, two-dimensional velocity field is given by

⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣) = (0.5 + 0.8𝑥)𝑖 + (1.5 − 0.8𝑦)𝑗
𝑉
Where the lengths are in units of m, time in s and velocities in m/s

Calculate,

a) rate of translation
b) rate of rotation
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Assumptions:
1. The flow is steady

2. The flow is two-dimensional (no z-component and no variation of v or u with z.)

The rate of translation is given by Eq. Thus

The rate of translation: 𝑢 = (0.5 + 0.8𝑥) 𝑣 = (1.5 − 0.8𝑦) 𝑤 = 0

The rate of rotation is found from Eq(3.4)

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔
⃗ = ( − )𝑖 + ( − ) 𝑗 + ( − ) 𝑘⃗
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

In this example 𝑤 = 0 everywhere, and since neither 𝑢 nor 𝑣 vary with 𝑧, the only non-zero
component of rotation rate is in the 𝑧-direction. Thus
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1
⃗⃗ = 2 (𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦) ⃗𝑘 = 2 (0 − 0)⃗𝑘 = 0
The rate of rotation: 𝑤

In this case, there is no net rate of rotation of the fluid particles as they move about.

3.4 Vorticity and Rotationality

The vorticity vector, 𝜁 (some use the Greek letter omega, 𝜔 or Ω) is defined mathematically as the
⃗.
curl of the velocity vector, 𝑉

⃗ ×𝑉
The vorticity vector is given as: 𝜁 = ∇ ⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑉
⃗) (3.5)

𝜁 − 𝑧𝑒𝑡𝑎

The rate of rotation vector 𝜔

⃗ is equal to half of the vorticity vector.

1 ⃗
⃗ = 1 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑉
⃗ = 2 ⃗∇ × 𝑉
The rate of rotation vector is given as:𝜔 ⃗)=𝜁 (3.6)
2 2

Thus, vorticity is a measure of rotation of a fluid particle. Specifically, vorticity is equal to twice the
angular velocity of a fluid particle.

Figure 3.4: Relation between vorticity vector and angular velocity vector

Note: If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that happens to occupy
that point in space is rotating. The flow in that region is called rotational.
Likewise, if the vorticity is zero, the fluid particles there are not rotating, the flow in that region is
called irrotational.
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Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate end over end as they move along in
the flow.

For example, fluid particles within the viscous boundary layer near a solid wall are rotational (and
thus have nonzero vorticity) while the fluid particles outside the boundary layer are irrotational
(their vorticity is thus, zero).

• Rotation of fluid elements is associated with wakes, boundary layers, flow through
turbomachinery (fans, turbines, compressors etc.) and flow with heat transfer.

• The vorticity of a fluid element cannot change except through the action of viscosity, non-
uniform heating (temp gradients) or other non-uniform phenomena.

• If a flow originates in an irrotational region, it remains irrotational until some non-uniform

process alters it.

• If a region of flow can be approximated as irrotational, the equations of motions are greatly
simplified.

3.5 Vorticity vector in Cartesian coordinates

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁=( − )𝑖 + ( − )𝑗 + ( − )𝑘 ⃗ (3.7)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

If the flow is two-dimensional in the xy–plane, the z–component of velocity is zero and
neither u nor v vary with z. The vorticity reduces to

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁 = ( − ) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑘 (3.8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Note that if a flow is two-dimensional in the 𝑥𝑦–plane, the vorticity vector must point in either
the 𝑧- or the - 𝑧-direction

Figure 3.5: Direction of vorticity vector

Ex (3.2): A steady, two-dimensional velocity field is given by

⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑥 2 𝑖 + (−2𝑥𝑦 − 1)𝑗

𝑉
Is this flow rotational or irrotational?
 16

Solution:

The flow is two-dimensional. Eq(3.8) is valid. Thus

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁 = ( − )𝑘 ⃗ = (−2𝑦 − 0)𝑘
⃗ = −2𝑦𝑘
⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The vorticity is non-zero, therefore this flow is rotational

Problems:

1. Is the flow field given by 𝑉⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣) = (𝑈0 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑖 + 𝑏𝑦𝑗 rotational or irrotational?
2. Explain the relationship between vorticity and rotationality.
3. A general equation for a steady, two-dimensional velocity field that is linear in both spatial
directions (𝑥 and 𝑦 ) is given by
𝑉⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣) = (𝑈 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦)𝑖 + (𝑉 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦)𝑗
Where 𝑈 and 𝑉 and the coefficients are constants.
Calculate the vorticity vector. In which direction does the vorticity vector point?
Under what condition will the vorticity vector be in the clockwise direction?
4. A cylindrical tank of water rotates in solid-body rotation, counter-clockwise about its
vertical axis at an angular speed 𝑛̇ = 360𝑟𝑝𝑚. Calculate the vorticity of fluid particles
in the tank.
5. A cylindrical tank rotates about its vertical axis. A PIV system is used to measure the
vorticity field of the flow. The measured value of vorticity in the z–direction is −55.4 rad/s
and is constant to within ±0.5% everywhere that it is measured. Calculate the angular speed
of rotation of the tank in rpm. Is the tank rotating clockwise or counter-clockwise about
the vertical axis?
6. A cylindrical tank (Fig. P6) of radiu𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 0.35𝑚 rotates about its vertical axis. The tank
is partially filled with oil. The speed of the rim is 2.6 m/s in the counter-clockwise direction
(looking from the top), and the tank has been spinning long enough to be in solid-body
rotation. For any fluid particle in the tank, calculate the magnitude of the component of
vorticity in the vertical z–direction.

Fig. P6
 17

4.0 STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL

4.1 Stream function

Stream function Ψ (psi) is a function which described the form of pattern of flow. Let P(x, y) be
a movable point in the plane of motion of a steady two-dimensional flow (Fig. 4.1). Let the width
normal to the plane of a paper be unity. The discharge across OP is a function of the position of
point (P(x, y). Discharge per unit width perpendicular to the plane OP is defined as stream function
(Ψ). Thus, Ψ = f(x, y)

Where f stands for ‘a function of’ (The sign convention used is that the flow rate from left to
right of OP is positive).

Stream function has the unit of cumecs per metre (m3/s/m)

Figure 4.1

Fig. 4.1 (a) shows two stream lines with stream function Ψ and Ψ + dΨ. Since no fluid can cross
a streamline, the flow occurring between two streamlines must remained unchanged. Let the
velocity component at point P(x, y) in the x and y direction be u and v respectively. These
components can be expressed in terms of stream function Ψ. Supposing that the point P is
displaced by a small distance dy in the y direction. The flow rate across dy is given by:

𝜕Ψ
𝑑Ψ = udy or u = 4.1
𝜕𝑦

Likewise, considering the flow rate across dx

𝜕Ψ
v=− 4.2
𝜕𝑥
The minus sign appears because the velocity acts downward.
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
[Note: if the flow from right to left is assumed to increase, u = − 𝜕𝑦 and v = ]
𝜕𝑥

The differential equation of streamline may be obtained from Fig. 4.2 (b). If dx and dy are the
components of the differential distance ds, and u and v are the velocity components in x and y-
directions.
 18

𝑣 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑑𝑥 (4.3)
𝑢

Or 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0 (4.4)

Substituting the values of u and v in terms of stream function Ψ using 4.3 and 4.4

𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑑𝛹 = 0

Where 𝑑𝛹 represents the total differential

Therefore for a streamline, Ψ = constant (4.5)

Eq. (4.5) indicates that the general equation of a streamline in a flow pattern is obtained by keeping
the stream function Ψ as constant. Differential streamlines will be obtained by changing the
numerical value of the constant.

Ex (4.1): A stream function is defined by the expression 𝛹 = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 . Calculate the

components of velocity and the velocity at point 𝑃(𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 1).

Solution:

𝜕𝛹 𝜕
𝑢= = (2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 ) = −3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

At P(y = 1), we get 𝑢 = −3

𝜕𝛹 𝜕
Similarly, 𝑣 = − 𝜕𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 (2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 ) = −4𝑥

At P(x = 3), we get 𝑣 = −12

The resultant velocity, V is the vectorial sum of the component u, v.

𝑉 = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = √(−3)2 + (12)2 = 12.37𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

4.2 Velocity potential function

For irrotational flow, another mathematical function called velocity potential ɸ (phi) is commonly
used. The velocity potential function is a function of x and y such that its partial derivative with
respect to displacement in any chosen direction is equal to the velocity component in that
direction.

Thus

𝜕ɸ
=𝑢 4.6
𝜕𝑥
and
 19

𝜕ɸ
=𝑣 4.7
𝜕𝑦

The sign convention is that ɸ increases with an increase in x and y.

The velocity potential is a mathematical concept. Unlike stream function, which represents a
physical phenomenon (the volume rate of flow), it does not represent any physical phenomenon.
Although velocity potential is an imaginary concept, it is quite useful in the analysis of flow
problems. When the velocity potential function ɸ is equated to a series of constants, a family of
curves is obtained. Each such curve represents a constant potential ɸ. These curves are called
equipotential lines. These curves are orthogonal to streamlines. The orthogonality can be proved
as follows: Let ɸ (x, y) be the equipotential function. The total differential is given by:

𝜕ɸ 𝜕ɸ
𝑑ɸ = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 (4.8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕ɸ 𝜕ɸ
Substituting the values of 𝜕𝑥 and 𝜕𝑦 from Eq.(4.7 & 4.8)

𝑑ɸ = udx + vdy

Since ɸ is constant along the equipotential line

𝜕ɸ 𝜕ɸ
𝑑ɸ = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
This condition gives (𝑑𝑥 ) = − 𝑣 = 𝑚 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)

𝑑𝑦
For streamline, the slope (𝑑𝑥 ) is given by

𝑑𝑦 𝑢
( ) = = 𝑚1 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑣

Thus, 𝑚𝑚1 = −1

This is the condition for orthogonality of curves. Hence the equipotential lines and streamlines are
orthogonal to each other. These two families of curves form a pattern of flow which is known as
flow net.

It may be noted that the stream function Ψ exists in both rotational and irrotational flow, whereas
the velocity potential ɸ exists only in irrotational flow. The velocity potential satisfies the condition
of irrotationality as proved below:

Recall, the rate of rotation 𝜔 is given by Eq.(3.3)

1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔= ( − )
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Substituting the values of u and v

 20

1 𝜕 𝜕ɸ 𝜕 𝜕ɸ
𝜔= [ ( )− ( )]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕 2ɸ 𝜕 2ɸ
𝜔= [ − ]=0
2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
This proves that for the existence of velocity potential, the flow must be irrotational. That is the
reason why it is called potential flow.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
In irrotational flow, as 𝜔 = 0, = 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥

The stream function Ψ satisfies the continuity equation and is applicable to both rotational and
irrotational flow. The potential function applies only to irrotational flow.

A relationship between the stream function and the velocity potential may be obtained from their
definitions.

𝜕ɸ 𝜕𝛹
𝑢= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕ɸ 𝜕𝛹
𝑣= =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

By substituting the values of u and v in terms of Ψ in Eq.(3.3)

1 𝜕 𝜕𝛹 𝜕 𝜕𝛹
𝜔= [ (− )− ( )]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Or

1 𝜕 2𝛹 𝜕 2𝛹
−𝜔 = [ + ]
2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
This equation is well known poisson’s equation. For an irrotational flow, since 𝜔 = 0,

𝜕 2𝛹 𝜕 2𝛹
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Which is the Laplace’s equation in Ψ. In other words, the Laplace’s equation in Ψ is satisfied for
irrotational flow.

It can also be shown that velocity potential ɸ function satisfies Laplace’s equation in ɸ.

Thus,
𝜕 2ɸ 𝜕 2ɸ
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Furthermore, by substituting the values of u and v in the continuity equation
 21

𝜕 𝜕𝛹 𝜕 𝜕𝛹
( )− ( )=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
or
𝜕 2𝛹 𝜕 2𝛹
− =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
This will be true if Ψ is a continuous function and its second derivatives exits. Thus, any function
Ψ which is continuous is a possible case of fluid flow since equation of continuity is satisfied.
However, Ψ or ɸ that satisfies Laplace’s equation represents an irrotational flow.

Ex (4.2): A stream function Ψ in a two dimensional flow is given by

𝛹 = 4𝑥𝑦
Show that the flow is irrotational, and find the corresponding velocity function (ɸ).

Solution:

From Eqs.(4.1 & 4.2)

𝜕Ψ 𝜕
u= = (4𝑥𝑦) = 4𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕Ψ 𝜕
v=− = (4𝑥𝑦) = −4𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
But continuity equation for two dimensional flow is given as

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Thus,
𝜕(4𝑥) 𝜕(−4𝑦)
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
As the continuity equation is satisfied, the flow is possible. Now, substituting the values of u and
v in Eq.(3.3)

1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕(−4𝑦) 𝜕(4𝑥)
𝜔= [ − ]= [ − ]=0
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

As the rotation is zero, the flow is irrotational

Now, using Eq.(4.6)

𝜕ɸ
= 𝑢 = 4𝑥
𝜕𝑥

ɸ = ∫ 4𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑓1 (𝑦)

Where 𝑓1 (𝑦) is a function of y.

 22

Similarly,

𝜕ɸ
= 𝑣 = −4𝑦
𝜕𝑦

ɸ = ∫ −4𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑦 2 + 𝑓2 (𝑥)

Where 𝑓2 (𝑥) is a function of x or a constant

The complete expression of ɸ is obtained by combining Eqs

ɸ = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 + 𝐶

Where C is a constant

Problems:

1. Explain the meaning and use of velocity potential. Show that for the velocity potential to
exist, the flow must be irrotational.
Show that the stream function 𝛹 = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 satisfies the continuity equation.

The velocity components in a two dimensional flow are expressed as

𝑦3 𝑦3
𝑢= + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑥𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 −
3 3
Show that this flow represents a possible case of irrotational flow.

2. Show that the velocity potential ɸ = 𝑐(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) represents a continuous motion and find
the corresponding form of stream function.

3. Prove that Laplace’s equation

𝜕2 ɸ 𝜕2 ɸ
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0 is satisfied for irrotational flow.
𝜕𝑥 2

4. If the stream function is 𝛹 = (𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 ), determine the x and y component of the

velocity at points (1, 3) and (3, 3). Also determine discharge passing through through
these two points.

5. The x and y components of velocity in a two dimensional field are

𝑦3 2 2
𝑥3
𝑢= + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 −
3 3
Show that the flow is steady and irrotational
Also determine expression for Ψ and ɸ.
 23

5.0 SOURCE AND SINKS

In radial flows, the stream lines are radial. If the flow is radially outwards from the centre, it is
known as a source Fig. 5.1a. On the other hand if the flow is radially inwards towards the centre,
it is called a sink Fig. 5.1b. In radial flows, the velocity vector passes through the origin and it is a
function of the angle θ only. The tangential component of the velocity vector (𝑣𝜃 ) is zero.

The strength of the source (or sink), q, is equal to the rate of flow per unit width (perpendicular
to the plane of paper). It is obvious that as the stream lines spread with an increase in radial
distance, the radial velocity decreases. Further, radial velocities will be the equal at the same radial
distance from the centre.

Fig. 5.1

It is conventional to take q as positive for a source and as negative as s sink.

(a) Source
For a source
𝑞
𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 5.1
𝑣𝜃 = 0

There is singularity at the centre of the source since when 𝑟 → 0, 𝑣𝑟 → ∞.

However, this singularity is not of practical importance because in practical problems, we are
generally interested in the flow fields outside the centre of the source.

The stream function Ψ can be obtained in Cartesian coordinates as for the rectilinear flow, but it
is more convenient to use polar coordinates for radial flow problems.

𝑞
𝛹 = ∫( ) 𝑟𝑑𝜃 − ∫(0)𝑑𝑟 + 𝐶
2𝜋𝑟

Or
𝑞𝜃
𝛹 = 2𝜋 + 𝐶 (5.2)

If the stream function Ψ = 0 it is represented by x-axis (i.e. 𝛹 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 0), Eq.() becomes
 24

𝑞𝜃
𝛹 = 2𝜋 (5.3)

It can be shown that the velocity potential is given by

𝑞
ɸ = (2𝜋) log 𝑒 𝑟 (5.4)

(b) Sink
In the case of a sink, since the flow pattern is exactly opposite to that of a source,
𝑞𝜃
𝛹 = − 2𝜋 (5.5)
The velocity potential

𝑞
ɸ = − (2𝜋) log 𝑒 𝑟 (5.6)

Ex (1): A source with strength is 0.2𝑚3 /s and a vertex strength of 1m2 /s are located at the
origin. Determine the equation for velocity potential and stream function.
𝑞
𝜓 = 2𝜋 -------------- Source

−𝑞
𝜓= -------------- sink
2𝜋
𝑞
𝜙 = (2𝜋) ln 𝑟 --------source
𝑞
𝜙 = − (2𝜋) ln 𝑟 -----sink
Where r = any radius
q=strength for the vortex flow

Velocity potential for source

0.2 0.2
𝜙= ln 𝑟 𝜓= 𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
Velocity potential for vortex
1 1
𝜙 = − 2𝜋 𝜃 𝜓 = − 2𝜋 ln 𝑟
 25

6.0 OPEN CHANNELS FLOW

An open channel is a passage at which liquid is subjected to atmospheric pressure only. Flow
through open channel represents flows through channels which are open to the atmosphere i.e.
with a free surface. A free surface is a surface having atmospheric pressure. Thus a liquid flowing
through a channel under atmospheric pressure is known as flow through open channels. Typical
examples include rivers, canals, storm water drains, flows over spillways and overland flows
(runoff).

Fig. 6.1: Open channel sections

6.1 Applications of open channel flow

 Measuring the discharge in a river or canal

 Designing a canal to carry a given amount of water
 Estimating the area of submergence due to construction of a dam.
 Estimating the amount of sediment carried by a channel.
 Studying the spread of pollutants in a river.

6.2 Classification of channels

 Prismatic channel – cross section and bed slope do not change along the length of the
channel e.g. a laboratory flume laid at a constant bed slope and uniform cross section.
 Non – prismatic channel – if there is a change in cross section and bed slope along the
length of the channel e.g. a river with varying cross section.
 Natural channel – rivers and streams are natural channels. These have irregular cross
section. Flow depth is difficult to define in a natural channel.
 Artificial channel – man made channels are artificial. E.g. Irrigation canals, sewage pipes,
aqueducts etc. they have regular cross sections like triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal and
circular
 26

 Rigid boundary channel – a channel is said to be rigid boundary if the materials on the
bed and sides of the channel is not easily movable. E.g. concrete lined canal, metal flume.
 Mobile boundary channel – a channel is said to be mobile if the material on the bed and
sides of the channel is loose and easily movable due to the flow of water. Analysis of mobile
boundary channel is more complicated due to sediment erosion, deposition and the
resulting additional resistance to flow.

6.3 Wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean depth

6.3.1 Wetted perimeter, P is the perimeter of channel which remains in contact with the flowing
water at any section.

Fig. 6.2: Rectangular, circular and trapezoidal channels respectively

i. For rectangular channel, the depth of water in the channel is d.

𝑃 = 𝑏 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 6.1

ii. Circular channel running full

𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟 6.2
iii. Trapezoidal channel
𝐷𝐸 = 𝑛𝑑; 𝐴𝐷 = √𝑑 2 + 𝑛2 𝑑 2 = 𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 6.3

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐶 + 2 × 𝐸𝐷 = 𝑏 + 2 × 𝑛𝑑 6.4

𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑇 = 𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑 6.5

𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐷𝐴

𝐶𝐷 + 2𝐴𝐷 [∴ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶)

𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 6.6

6.3.2 Hydraulic mean depth, R (Hydraulic radius) is the ratio of the cross sectional area of
flow and wetted perimeter.

i. Rectangular section
 27

𝐴 𝑏𝑑
𝑅= = 6.7
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑑
ii. Circular section
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑅= = 6.8
2𝜋𝑟 2
iii. Trapezoidal section

1
𝐴= × (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠) × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
1 1
= (𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑 + 𝑏) = × 2(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑) × 𝑑 = (𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑
2 2
(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑
𝑅= 6.9
𝑏 + 2𝑑√1 + 𝑛2
6.4 Classification of flow in open channel

The flow in open channel is classified in to the following types:

(a) Steady and unsteady flow

(b) Uniform flow and non – uniform flow
(c) Laminar flow and turbulent flow
(d) Subcritical flow, critical flow and super critical flow

6.4.1 Steady and unsteady flow

A flow is said to be steady if the flow characteristics (such as depth of flow, velocity and flow rate)
at any given point in the open channel do not change with time.

Fig. 6.3: Steady and unsteady flow

Mathematically,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑄
= 0, = 0, =0 6.10
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Where v = velocity of flow

y = depth of flow
Q = discharge
 28

A flow is said to be unsteady if the flow characteristics at any point in the open channel changes
with time.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑄
≠ 0, 𝜕𝑡 ≠ 0, 𝜕𝑡 ≠ 0 6.11
𝜕𝑡

6.4.2 Uniform and non-uniform flow

The flow is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, cross section and velocity of flow are
constant for a given length of the channel.
Mathematically,
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
= 0, = 0, 6.12
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
It is said to be non – uniform if

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
≠ 0, ≠0 6.13
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Non uniform flow is further classified as

 Gradually varied flow (GVF)

 Rapidly varied flow (RVF)

6.4.2.1 Gradually varied flow (GVF)

When the depth of flow changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the flow is said to be
gradually varied flow. The flow upstream of the dam is treated as GVF.

6.4.2.2 Rapidly varied flow (GVF)

A flow is said to be RVF if the depth of flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel.
E.g. flow over weir.

Fig. 6.4: GVF and RVF

 Determination of the depth of flow and velocity at different locations in GVF is easier
than RVF as pressure distribution in GVF is assumed to be hydrostatic and is a function
of flow depth.
 The pressure distribution in RVF is not hydrostatic and thus experimental observations
are required for the determination of the depth of flow.
 29

6.4.3 Laminar and turbulent flow

Renold’s number in an open channel is defined as

𝜌𝑉𝑅
𝑅𝑒 = 6.14
𝜇

Where 𝜌 = density of the liquid

𝑉 = mean velocity of the flow
𝑅 = hydraulic radius

The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if the Renold’s number is less than 500.
Turbulent if the Renold’s number is greater than 2000.
If the Renold’s number lies between 500 and 2000, the flow is transitional flow.

Note: Water is the liquid in open channel in most cases, thus

𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜇 = 0.001 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2

For a flow depth of 1m with a velocity of 1 m/s

1000 × 1 × 1
𝑅𝑒 = = 1000 × 1000
0.001
= 106 > 2000

Therefore for all practical cases, the flow through open channel is turbulent.

6.4.4 Discharge through open channel

6.4.4.1 Chezy’s formula

Consider uniform flow in an open channel as shown in Fig. 6.4. as the flow is uniform, the velocity,
area and depth of flow are constant for a given length of the channel. Consider section A-A and
B-B in the direction of flow.

Let A = area of flow of water

L = Length of channel
i = slope of the bed
V = mean velocity of flow
P = wetted perimeter
f = frictional resistance/unit velocity/unit area

The weight of water between sections A-A and B-B

𝑊 = 𝑤 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝑤𝐴𝐿 6.15
Where w = specific weight of water
 30

Component of W in the direction of flow = 𝑊 sin 𝑖 = 𝑤𝐴𝐿 sin 𝑖 6.16

Frictional resistance against the flow of water
= 𝑓 × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
= 𝑓 × 𝑃𝐿 × 𝑉 2 6.17

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The following forces are acting on water between sections A-A and B-B:

(i) Pressure force at section A-A

(ii) Pressure force at section B-B
(iii) Component of weight of water along the direction of flow
(iv) Frictional resistance against the flow of water

The pressure forces at the two sections are equal as the depth of water at the two sections are
the same. The pressure forces cancel each other as they are equal and opposite. As the flow is
uniform, the velocity of flow is constant. Hence, there is no acceleration acting on the water
and the resultant forces acting in the direction of flow is zero.

Resolving all the forces in the direction of flow

Component of weight of water in the direction of flow – frictional resistance against the flow
=0

𝑤 ALsin 𝑖 − 𝑓 × 𝑃𝐿 × 𝑉 2 = 0 6.18

𝑤 ALsin 𝑖 = 𝑓 × 𝑃𝐿 × 𝑉 2

𝑤𝐴𝐿 𝑤 𝐴
𝑉2 = sin 𝑖 = × sin 𝑖
𝑓𝑃𝐿 𝑓 𝑃

𝑤 𝐴 sin 𝑖
𝑉=√ × 6.19
𝑓 𝑃

𝑤
But √ 𝑓 = 𝐶 = 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑧𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 6.20

𝐴
= 𝑅 = 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 6.21
𝑃
Thus,

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅 sin 𝑖 6.22

If i is very small. Then

sin 𝑖 = tan 𝑖 = 𝑖
 31

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑖 6.23

This is known as Chezy’s formula.

Discharge, Q = A x V

= 𝐴 × 𝐶√𝑅𝑖 = 𝐾√𝑖

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = 𝐴𝐶√𝑅

6.4.4.2 Manning’s equation

Manning’s formula is given as

1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 3 √𝑆 6.24
𝑛

Ex (6.1): A rectangular channel is 4.5m wide. The slope of the bed is 1 in 800. Determine the
rate of discharge when depth of water is 1.6 m. take Chezy’s constant as 60.

Solution:

𝑏 = 4.5𝑚

𝑑 = 1.6𝑚

1
𝑖=
800
𝐶 = 60

Ex (6.2): Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width 6m and a side slope 1H to
3V. The depth of flow of water is 3m and Chezy’s constant is 60. The slope of the bed of the
channel is given as 1 in 5000.

Ex (6.3): Find the rate of flow through a V-shaped channel having a total angle between the sides
as 600. Take the value of C = 50 and slope of the bed is 1 in 1500. The depth of flow is 6m.

Ex (6.4): find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at a slope of 1 in 10000 and carries
a discharge of 1000 litres/s when flowing half full. Take the value of Manning’s as 0.02.
 32

6.5 Most economical section of channels

When the cost of construction of a channel is minimum, the channel is said to be most economical
section or most efficient section. The cost of construction depends upon the cost of excavation
and lining. To keep the cost of construction minimum, the wetted perimeters, for a given
discharge, should be minimum.

Channel of most economical section can also be defined as the one in which the discharge is
maximum for a given cross-section.

6.5.1 Most economical rectangular section

Fig. 6.6: Rectangular channel

Consider a rectangular channel of width b, in which the depth of flow is d as shown in Fig. 6.6.

𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 𝑥

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑑

𝐴
𝑏=
𝑑
Putting the values of b in Eq(𝑥), we get

𝐴
𝑃= + 2𝑑
𝑑
For most economical section, P should be minimum for a given area.

𝑑𝑃
𝑖. 𝑒. =0 6.25
𝑑(𝑑)

𝑑 𝐴
( + 2𝑑) = 0 6.26
𝑑(𝑑) 𝑑

𝐴
− +2=0
𝑑2
∴ 𝐴 = 2𝑑 2

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 2𝑑 2

𝑏 = 2𝑑
 33

𝐴 𝑏×𝑑 2𝑑 × 𝑑 2𝑑 2 𝑑
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅 = = = = =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑑 2𝑑 + 2𝑑 4𝑑 2
For most economical rectangular channel:

(i) Width of channel should be twice its depth of flow

(ii) Hydraulic radius is twice the depth of flow

6.5.2 Most economical trapezoidal section

Consider a trapezoidal channel section as shown in Fig. 6.7.

Fig 6.7: Trapezoidal channel

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙

Let the side slope be 1 vertical to n horizontal

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐴= × (𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷) × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
1 1
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐴= × (𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑 + 𝑏) × 𝑑 = × (2𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑) × 𝑑
2 2
𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑

𝐴
= 𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑
𝑑
𝐴
∴𝑏= − 𝑛𝑑
𝑑
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷

𝑃 = 𝑑√1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑏 + 𝑑√1 + 𝑛2 [𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = √𝑑 2 + 𝑛2 𝑑 2 ]

𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 = − 𝑛𝑑 + 2𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 [𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒, 𝑏 = − 𝑛𝑑]
𝑑 𝑑
 34

𝐴
𝑃= − 𝑛𝑑 + 2𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 6.27
𝑑
For most economical section, P should be minimum for a given area.

𝑑𝑃
𝑖. 𝑒. =0
𝑑(𝑑)

𝑑 𝐴
[ − 𝑛𝑑 + 2𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 = 0 6.28
𝑑(𝑑) 𝑑

𝐴
− − 𝑛 + 2√1 + 𝑛2 = 0
𝑑2
𝐴
+ 𝑛 = 2√1 + 𝑛2
𝑑2
(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑
+ 𝑛 = 2√1 + 𝑛2
𝑑2
𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑
+ 𝑛 = 2√1 + 𝑛2
𝑑
𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑 + 𝑛𝑑
= 2√1 + 𝑛2
𝑑
𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑
= 2√1 + 𝑛2
𝑑
𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑
= 𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 6.29
2
𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑
= ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
2

𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

From this, it is clear that the required condition for a trapezoidal section to be most economical,
half of the top width of the channel must be equal to one of the sloping sides of the channel.

𝐴 (𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑑√1 + 𝑛2

(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑 )𝑑 𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑 √1 + 𝑛2
𝑏 + (𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑) 2

(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑 (𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑 𝑑
∴𝑅= = = 6.30
2𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑) 2(𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑) 2

For most economical trapezoidal channel, hydraulic radius should be equal to half the depth of
flow.
 35

Study “most economical circular channel” on your own.

Ex (6.5): A channel of rectangular section is to carry 20m3/s of water with a velocity of 2.5m/s.
design the most economical section for the channel. Also calculate the necessary slope of the bed
of the channel. Take C=60.

Solution:

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 = 20𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉 = 2.5𝑚/𝑠

𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑧𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝐶 = 60

𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉

20 = 𝐴 × 2.5 ≡ 𝐴 = 8𝑚2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑦ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙; 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

= 2 × 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏 = 2𝑑

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑

8 = 2𝑑 × 𝑑 = 2𝑑 2

𝑑 = 2𝑚

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 2 × 2 = 4 𝑚

𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 = 4 + 2 × 2 = 8 𝑚

𝐴 8
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = = =1
𝑃 8

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑚𝑖

2.5 = 60√1 × 𝑖

1 1
𝑖= 2
=
24 576
Ex (6.6): A most economical trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1 is to be designed to
carry a discharge of 10 m3/s at a velocity of 2m/s. calculate the dimension of the channel.

Solution:

𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑛 = 1
 36

𝑄 = 10 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑉 = 2𝑚/𝑠

𝑄 10
𝐴= = = 5 𝑚2
𝑉 2
𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙; 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

For most economical trapezoidal channel, half the top width = one of the sloping sides

𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑
= 𝑑√1 + 𝑛2
2
𝑏+2×1×𝑑
= 𝑑√1 + 1
2
𝑏 + 2𝑑
= 𝑑√2
2
𝑏 + 2𝑑 = 2.828𝑑

𝑏 = 2.828𝑑 − 2𝑑 = 0.828𝑑

1
𝐴= × (2𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑) × 𝑑 = (𝑏 + 𝑛𝑑)𝑑
2
5 = (0.828𝑑 + 1 × 𝑑) × 𝑑 = 1.828𝑑 × 𝑑 = 1.828𝑑 2

𝑑 = 1.65𝑚

𝑏 = 1.37𝑚

6.6 LOSS OF HEAD IN OPEN CHANNEL

Losses of head in open channels are analogous in every respect to losses of head in pipes. In
addition to the head loss due to friction between the moving water and the surface of the channel,
there is a loss of head wherever the velocity of water or direction of flow is changed. They are as
follows:

Fig. 6.8: Plan of transition structure

 37

(i) Continuous losses of head throughout the channel length due to friction between the
moving water and the surface of the channel. This loss is referred to as loss of head
due to friction. This is calculated by using Darcy’s or Chezy’s formula to be discussed
in “flow through pipes”.
(ii) A loss of head due to contraction where a channel changes to a smaller cross sectional
area. (Fig.) Thereby causing to an increase in velocity.
(iii) A loss of head due to expansion where a channel changes to a larger cross sectional
area causing to a decrease in velocity.
(iv) A loss of head due to obstruction of any kind in a channel such as gates, bridge piers
or submerged weirs.
Losses in head in open channels which result from changes in velocity (as in (ii), (iii)
and (iv)) may be expressed as a functions of velocity head. Thus
𝑉2
ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝑒 6.31
2𝑔
𝑉2
ℎ𝑐 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝑐 6.32
2𝑔
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝑜 6.33
2𝑔

Where V is the mean velocity in the channel having the small cross sectional area. The values of
coefficient (𝐾𝑒 , 𝐾𝑐 , 𝐾𝑜 ) are not so well established. More experimental data in the field are needed.

(v) A loss of head due to bend in a channel is in addition to the loss which occurs in an
equal length of straight channel. The additional energy loss due to bend is usually given
by:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = 𝐾𝑏 6.34
2𝑔
Where 𝐾𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

6.7 SPECIFIC ENERGY

Total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight

𝑉2
=𝑧+ℎ+ 6.35
2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

ℎ = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑧 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚

𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 0

 38

𝑉2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = ℎ + = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
2𝑔

Fig. 6.10: Specific energy

The total energy, E is known as specific energy. Hence specific energy is defined as the total energy
per unit weight of liquid with respect to the channel bed.

6.7.1 Specific energy curve

The curve which shows the variation of specific energy with depth of flow is known as the specific
energy curve.

Consider a channel of a rectangular cross section through which a steady but non-uniform flow
takes place.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

𝑞 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉 =𝑏×ℎ×𝑉 6.36

𝑄 𝑏×ℎ×𝑉
𝑞= = =ℎ×𝑉 6.37
𝑏 𝑏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑞
∴𝑉= 6.38
ℎ
Putting the value of V in Eq (6.36), we have
2

𝑞
𝐸 =ℎ+( ) ℎ 6.39
ℎ
2𝑔
 39

𝑞2
=ℎ+ 6.40
2𝑔ℎ2

= 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 6.41

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Fig. 6.11: Specific energy curve

Form equation (6.40) it is clear that the specific energy of depends on the depth of flow. Fig.(6.11)
shows specific energy vs depth curve.

6.7.2 Critical depth (𝒉𝒄 )

It is the depth of flow of water in an open channel at which the specific energy is minimum. It is
denoted by ℎ𝑐 in Fig 6.11.The mathematical expression for ℎ𝑐 is obtained by differentiating E
w.r.t h and equating same to zero.

𝑑𝐸
=0 6.42
𝑑ℎ
𝑑 𝑞2
(ℎ + )=0 6.43
𝑑ℎ 2𝑔ℎ2

𝑞2 −2
1+ ×( 3) = 0
2𝑔 ℎ

𝑞2
1− =0
𝑔ℎ3

𝑞2
1=
𝑔ℎ3
 40

3
𝑞2
ℎ =
𝑔
1
𝑞2 3
∴ ℎ=( )
𝑔

When the specific energy is minimum, the depth, h is designated as ℎ𝑐

1
𝑞2 3
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) 6.44
𝑔

6.7.3 Critical velocity (𝑽𝒄 )

The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity. This is expressed as

𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔 × ℎ𝑐

6.7.4 Critical flow

The flow at which the specific energy is minimum is known as critical flow

𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔 × ℎ𝑐

𝑉𝑐
=1
√𝑔 × ℎ𝑐

𝑉𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐹𝑟 )
√𝑔 × ℎ𝑐

∴ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐹𝑟 = 1.0

6.7.5 Subcritical flow

When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical depth, the flow is known as
subcritical flow or streaming flow or tranquil flow

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐹𝑟 < 1.0

6.7.6 Supercritical flow

When the depth of flow in a channel is less than the critical depth, the flow is known as supercritical
flow or shooting flow

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐹𝑟 > 1.0

 41

Minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth

𝑞2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2

𝑞2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 +
2𝑔ℎ𝑐 2
1
𝑞2 3
ℎ𝑐 = ( )
𝑔

𝑞 2 = 𝑔ℎ𝑐3

𝑔ℎ𝑐3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 +
2𝑔ℎ𝑐2

ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 +
2
3ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
Condition for 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 for a given value of specific energy

𝑉2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔

𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 → 𝑉 =
𝑏ℎ
𝑄2
𝐸=ℎ+ 2 2
𝑏 ℎ 2𝑔

𝑄 = √(𝐸 − ℎ)2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

𝑄 = 𝑏√2𝑔(𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
𝑑
For Q to be maximum, 𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 must be maximum or 𝑑ℎ (𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) = 0

→ 2𝐸ℎ − 3ℎ2 = 0

3
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐸
2
Ex (7.1): A rectangular channel has a width 5m has a discharge capacity of 15m3/s. Calculate the
critical depth and critical velocity.

Solution:
 42

𝑄 = 15 𝑚3 /𝑠, 𝑏 = 5 𝑚, ℎ𝑐 =? , 𝑉𝑐 =?

ℎ𝑐 = 0.97𝑚, 𝑉𝑐 = 3.09𝑚/𝑠

Ex (7.2): Consider a rectangular channel of 8m wide conveying 15m3/s of water. If the depth of
flow is 1.2m, calculate the specific energy of the moving water. Also determine the critical depth,
critical velocity and minimum specific energy.

Solutions:

𝐸 = 1.34𝑚, ℎ𝑐 = 0.71𝑚, 𝑉𝑐 = 2.64 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.065𝑚

Ex (7.3): A rectangular has width 3m, specific energy 3m, calculate the maximum discharge.

Solution:

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 26.57 𝑚3 /𝑠

Ex (7.4): Calculate the depth of flow for a rectangular channel having a width of 5 m having a
discharge capacity of 20m3/s and specific energy of 4 m.

Solution:

ℎ = 3.95𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.48 𝑚

7.1 HYDRAULIC JUMP

When a supercritical flow meets a subcritical flow causing a jump in flow depth. This sudden
increase in flow depth is called a hydraulic jump.

Fig. 7.1: Hydraulic jump

7.1.1 Occurrence of hydraulic jump

 When the bed slope of an open channel changes from steep to mild slope (Fig. 7.2(a)), the
supercritical depth on the steep channel jumps to the subcritical depth on the mild slope.
 At the toe of the spillway, where the supercritical flow at the toe of the spillway meets the
supercritical flow at the downstream.
 43

 At the downstream of a sluice gate, where the supercritical flow under the gate meets the
subcritical flow in the downstream channel.

Fig. 7.2: Occurrence of hydraulic jump

7.1.2 Important parameters of hydraulic jump

They are:

 Flow depth
 Energy loss
 Length of the jump
 Location of jump
 Surface profile of the jump
 Amount of air entrained by the jump

7.1.3 Classification of hydraulic jump

(i) Undulating jump (𝟏 < 𝑭𝒓 < 𝟏. 𝟕): the water surface exhibits slight undulations.
Two conjugate depths are close.
(ii) Weak jump (𝟏. 𝟕 < 𝑭𝒓 < 𝟐. 𝟓): A number of small eddies and rollers are formed.
(iii) Oscillating jump (𝟐. 𝟓 < 𝑭𝒓 < 𝟒. 𝟓): The incoming jets oscillate from the bottom
to the top. It should be avoided if it is possible since it may cause erosion of the banks.
(iv) Stable jump (𝟒. 𝟓 < 𝑭𝒓 < 𝟗. 𝟎): Has many advantages. Well balanced jump and the
jump location is least sensitive to any variation in 𝑦2 .
(v) Strong jump (𝑭𝒓 > 𝟗. 𝟎): Jump is effective and should not be allowed to be greater
than 12 as the required stilling basin well be very massive and expensive.
 44

Fig. 7.3: Classification of hydraulic jump

7.1.4 Practical benefits of hydraulic jump

 Improvement of the water quality by increasing the dissolved oxygen content through
air entrained
 Dissipation of energy of water falling over a spillway or weir
 Thorough mixing of a chemical (like purifying agent) in water by introducing it
upstream of the jump
 Reducing the uplift pressure on an apron on the channel bed
 Holding back of high tail water downstream of a sluice gate in order to keep it from
getting submerged.

7.1.5 Affux

Wherever an obstruction comes across the width of a channel, the water in the upstream rises up.
This increase in water level in known as affux.

The profile of the rising water on the upstream side of obstruction is known as back water curve.

Fig. 7.2: Affux (Back water curve)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 − 1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

 45

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦2 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 − 2 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑑

7.1.6 Sequent depth

The sequent (or conjugate depth) which describes the depth on either side of a hydraulic jump can
be derived from the conservation of momentum in rectangular channels based upon the
relationship between momentum and depth of flow.

𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 − 1 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 𝐴1 ; 𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 − 2 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 𝐴2

Thus,
𝑦 𝑦2
𝜌𝑔𝑦1 21; 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 2

Summation of forces is equal to change in momentum

𝑦22 𝑦11 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 − 𝜌𝑔 = − (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
2 2 𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑚
(𝑦2 − 𝑦12 ) = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
2 𝑡
𝑔 2 𝑚
(𝑦2 − 𝑦12 ) = 𝑞(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) (𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: = 𝜌𝑞)
2 𝑡
𝑔(𝑦22 − 𝑦12 ) = 2𝑞(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑞 𝑞
𝑔(𝑦22 − 𝑦12 ) = 2𝑞 ( − ) (𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑞 = 𝑦1 𝑉1 = 𝑦2 𝑉2 )
𝑦1 𝑦2

1 1
𝑔(𝑦22 − 𝑦12 ) = 2𝑞 2 ( − )
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑔(𝑦2 + 𝑦1 )(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 2𝑞 2 ( )
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑔(𝑦2 + 𝑦1 )(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 2𝑞 2 ( )
𝑦1 𝑦2

2𝑞 2 𝑦2
𝑔(𝑦2 + 𝑦1 ) = (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 )
𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑔

2𝑞 2
𝑦22 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 =
𝑔𝑦1

2𝑞 2
𝑦22 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 − = 0 (𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑔𝑦1

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
 46

2𝑦12 𝑉12
−𝑦1 ± √𝑦12 + 4 ( 𝑔𝑦 )
1 𝑉12 2
𝑦2 = (𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: = 𝐹𝑟1 )
2 𝑔𝑦1

2𝑦2 = −𝑦1 ± √𝑦12 (1 + 8𝐹𝑟1

2)
(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒 )

𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = (√(𝟏 + 𝟖𝑭𝟐𝒓𝟏 ) − 𝟏) (𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝟐

7.1.7 Loss of energy in hydraulic jump

Loss of energy due to hydraulic jump is given by

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 3
𝐸𝐿 = ( ) 7.1
4𝑦1 𝑦2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 − 1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦2 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 − 2

𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2

Where 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are the specific energy at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝐸𝐿 = (ℎ1 + ) − (ℎ2 + )
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑉22
= ( − ) + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑞2 𝑞2
=( − ) + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
2𝑔𝑦12 2𝑔𝑦22

1 1
= 𝑞2 ( − ) − (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2𝑔𝑦12 2𝑔𝑦22

𝑞 2 𝑦22 − 𝑦12
= ( ) − (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2𝑔 𝑦12 𝑦22

𝑞2
= (𝑦 2 − 𝑦12 )−(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2𝑔𝑦12 𝑦22 2
 47

𝑔
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑞 2 = (𝑦 + 𝑦2 )𝑦1 𝑦2
2 1
𝑔 1
= (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )𝑦1 𝑦2 × (𝑦 2 − 𝑦12 )−(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2 2𝑔𝑦12 𝑦22 2

(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟑
𝑬𝑳 =
𝟒𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐

Ex (7.5): Q = 18 m3/s, rectangular channel = 3m wide

Channel – unfinished form concrete

Hydraulic jump occurs where the depth is 1m = 𝑦1

Determine:

 Velocity before jump

 Depth after jump
 Velocity after jump
 Energy dissipated in the jump
 Length of jump

Solution:

18
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 → 𝑉1 = = 6 𝑚/𝑠
3×1
𝑦1 2)
𝑦2 = (√(1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 − 1)
2

𝑉12 2
62
= 𝐹𝑟1 = → 𝐹𝑟1 = 1.92 (> 1.0 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝑔𝑦1 9.81 × 1

1
𝑦2 = (√(1 + 8 × 1.922 ) − 1) = 2.26 𝑚
2
𝑄 = 𝑦1 𝑉1 = 𝑦2 𝑉2 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛)

1×6
𝑉2 = = 2.65 𝑚/𝑠
2.26
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
𝐸𝐿 = = 0.22 𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐿𝑗 = 6𝑦2 = 13.56 𝑚

Ex (7.6): A hydraulic jump occurs in a 5 m wide rectangular channel at a flow depth of 0.5m.
Determine the downstream water surface elevation needed to cause the jump. Also calculate the
head loss due to the jump. Given Q = 19.84 m3/s.
 48

Find:

 Determine the required downstream WSEL to initiate a jump

 Determine the head loss across the jump

Solution:

19.84
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 → 𝑉1 = = 7.93 𝑚/𝑠
5 × 0.5
7.93
𝐹𝑟1 = = 3.58 (𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
√9.81 × 0.5
0.5
𝑦2 = (√(1 + 8 × 3.582 ) − 1) = 2.29 𝑚 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑊𝑆𝐿𝐸
2
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
𝐸𝐿 = = 1.25 𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2

8.0 CHANNEL CONTROL AND TRANSITIONS

8.1 Channel control

Control sections generally occur at entrances and exits to channels and at changes in channel
slopes. Obvious example of control sections are dams, weirs, and sluices. Control points are
point where there is definite relationship between discharge and depth of flow. The flow profile
proceeds upstream or downstream from control points according to whether the flow is subcritical
or supercritical. This follows from the fact that in subcritical flow, it is the downstream condition
that governs the profile. While in supercritical flow, v > √𝑔𝑦 it is upstream conditions that governs
profile.

Since the critical depth of flow depend on discharge and cross section, any well-defined
interception of the profile and critical depth line constitutes the control section. Such sections are
a limiting factor in design of a channel and can be expected to occur under the following
circumstances

 Transition from tranquil to shooting flow

 Transition from shooting to tranquil flow
 Entrance to a channel of steep slope from a reservoir
 Free out fall from a channel to mild slope
 Change in bed level or channel width
 Change in characteristics of a channel e.g. from rectangular to trapezoidal or vice versa
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8.2 Transition

At entrances and at changes in cross section and where the bottom slope changes. The structure
that conducts the liquid from upstream section to a new section is a transition. Its purpose is to
change the shape of flow and surface profile in such a manner that minimum losses result.

8.2.1 Functions of transition

a) To avoid excessive energy losses

b) To eliminate cross waves and other turbulences

c) To provide safety for the structure and water way