The Interpreter and Translator Trainer

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Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training

Translators

Amparo Hurtado Albir

To cite this article: Amparo Hurtado Albir (2007) Competence-based Curriculum Design
for Training Translators, The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 1:2, 163-195, DOI:
10.1080/1750399X.2007.10798757

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The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 1(2), 2007, 163-195

Competence-based Curriculum Design for

Training Translators
Amparo Hurtado Albir
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Translated from Spanish by Roland Pearson

Abstract. This article situates the concept of translation competence

and its acquisition in the context of recent competence-based ap-
proaches to teaching and learning in general in higher education. It
begins with the challenges posed by present-day curricula, the re-
form of university systems and corresponding changes in teaching
requirements, in particular with reference to the European Higher
Education Area. It then outlines the basic concepts of competence-
based training, following Lasnier (2000), and proceeds to apply
the concept specifically to translator training, building on the
holistic and dynamic models of translation competence developed
by the PACTE research group over recent years. The teaching and
learning approach adopted is a translation task-based approach,
organized in teaching units. Issues such as the establishment of ob-
jectives, task design, sequencing and assessment are all addressed.
Finally, the entire approach is illustrated with a practical example.
The course module chosen as an illustration is an introductory
module to translation into students’ A language or mother tongue,
structured around six categories of competences, each with their
own teaching and learning objectives and curricular content.

Keywords. Curriculum design, Competence-based training, Translation

competence, Translation teaching, Translation task-based approach.

1. Present-day curriculum challenges for training

translators
Formal training of translators and interpreters is at a relatively early stage;
it emerged with the consolidation of the translator and interpreter profession
after the Second World War, but it lacks the curriculum research tradition of


The Geneva École de Traducteurs et d’Interprètes was established in 1941; a department
of translation and interpreting was set up at the École des Hautes Études Commerciales
in Paris in 1949 and the École Supérieure d’Interprètes et de Traducteurs in 1957; in

ISSN: 1750-399X © St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester

164 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

other disciplines with a longer academic standing. Bearing this in mind, by

necessity we have to respond to three key questions pertinent to all teaching
contexts: what to teach (objectives and content), how to teach (methods and
materials) and with what result (assessment).
As regards written translation, teaching approaches vary between more
traditional ones in which the problems tackled arise randomly based on the
texts selected, the impact on contrastivity (Comparative Stylistics, Compara-
tive Textology) or on theoretical content, and approaches based on more
current proposals which, in my opinion, establish a firmer basis for curriculum
design that is more in accordance with the needs of training translators (see in
particular Delisle 1980, 1993; Hurtado Albir 1999a; Kiraly 2000, González
Davies 2003, Kelly 2005).
In addition to the abovementioned deficit in research tradition, one has
to add the challenges faced by higher education today, challenges which,
clearly, translation teaching also faces. To my way of thinking, these chal-
lenges break down into three categories:

(1) Adapting teaching to a model that is comparable and recognizable

at an international level, and able to respond to the demands that
arise from growing mobility in both academic and professional
spheres. This requirement is particularly pertinent in the context
of the European Union.
(2) Adapting teaching to a model that adheres more to the demands
of society and the job market. With this in mind, we should
take into account that in the employment world the notion of
‘professional competence’ is used to refer to the combination of
knowledge, skills and attitudes that guarantee job efficiency in
any given professional field. This notion originates from Work
Psychology (McClelland 1973; Boyatzis 1982, 1984; Spencer
et al. 1994; etc.) and is used in the sphere of human resources.
Various competence models have been developed accordingly and
constitute one of the management tools used in human resources,
known as ‘competence management’.
(3) Adapting teaching to new pedagogical models. On the one hand,
this is a response to new social challenges: training that develops
the necessary competences to perform well in the job market; and
training that guarantees autonomous, multi-purpose and continu-
ous or lifelong learning which can be adapted to a constantly

Heidelberg a department of interpreting was set up in 1936, and a centre for training
translators at Germersheim in 1946, etc.

See Hurtado Albir (1995, 1999a: 15-28), where an overall picture is given of teaching
translation and interpreting.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 165

changing world. On the other hand, this is a response to new

pedagogical trends that call for an integrated model for teaching,
learning and assessment. Within this context, a new pedagogical
model has emerged known as ‘competence-based training’.

2. Competence-based training

Competence-based training (CBT) is a logical continuation of objectives-

based learning, the latter developed since the 1960s. I believe that the
fundamental advances represented by CBT compared to this forerunner are:
greater transparency of professional profile in study programmes, greater
emphasis on the outcome of learning, more flexibility and a greater integra-
tion of all aspects of a curriculum.
In CBT, competences are the main yardstick for developing guidelines
in curriculum design: learning objectives are defined according to com-
petences, discipline-related contents are assigned by competences, but the
competences also act as a guide for sequencing teaching units, establishing
learning activities and assessment.

2.1 The fundamentals of CBT

CBT proposes an integrated model for teaching, learning and assessment

which gives a great deal of importance to formative assessment and reconciles
earlier approaches such as cooperative learning, problem-based learning and
task-based learning. The foundations on which CBT is based can be found
in the theories of cognitive constructivist and socioconstructivist learning,
which have operationalized research carried out in the last twenty years with
the objective of providing more meaningful learning for the student.
Lasnier (2000:158 ff.) points out the following inter-related principles
inherent to CBT:

• Overall approach. An overall approach that conceives com-

petence as a whole and which advocates overall tasks.
• Construction. Promotes activating previously acquired skills and
constructs new learning.
• Alternation. There is an alternation from overall or general to
specific and vice versa.
• Application. Learning is acquired through doing (by doing, you
learn)
• Distinction. A distinction is made between content and process.
• Meaningfulness. Students are presented with authentic and
motivating situations.
166 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

• Coherence. Coherence is established between teaching, learning,

assessment and competence.
• Integration. All elements in the learning process are seen as
inter-related and related to competence; the student develops
competence by drawing on its component parts in an integrated
manner.
• Iteration. The student is exposed a number of times to the same type
of task related to a given competence and to the same discipline-
related content.
• Transfer. There is transfer between tasks and contexts which
encourages the use of knowledge and skills learned in other
contexts.

Of all of these, integration is the key principle for CBT and all the other
principles are directed towards it. This is a three-way integration: (1) integra-
tion of the components which make up each competence; (2) integration of
the various competences which define a given profile; and (3) integration of
teaching, learning and assessment. As we shall see later, one of the funda-
mental strategies needed to achieve this integration is integrating tasks.

2.2 Competences

The concept of competence is still being developed, with a variety of defini-

tions in circulation. In my opinion, one of the most complete definitions is
that put forward by Lasnier: “A competence is a complex know how to act
resulting from integration, mobilization and organization of a combination
of capabilities and skills (which can be cognitive, affective, psycho-motor or
social) and knowledge (declarative knowledge) used efficiently in situations
with common characteristics” (Lasnier 2000:32; emphasis added).
I would like to highlight two concepts in this definition: know how to act
and integration. Inherent to the concept of know how to act is that, firstly, a
competence is not mere know how, it is not limited to operative knowledge.
Secondly, know how to act emphasizes the point that all know how can only
be acquired through doing. Thirdly, know how to act implies that this is
not just applying know-how but rather applying it efficiently. Furthermore,


All quotes from other languages have been translated into English and the original
text given as a footnote. “Une compétence est un savoir-agir complexe résultant de
l’intégration, de la mobilisation et de l’agencement d’un ensemble de capacités et
d’habiletés (pouvant être d’ordre cognitif, affectif, psychomoteur ou social) et de con-
naissances (connaissances déclaratives) utilisées efficacement, dans de situations ayant
un caractère commun.”
Amparo Hurtado Albir 167

a competence is an integration of various types of capabilities and skills

(cognitive, affective, psychomotor or social) and declarative knowledge
(know what).
Therefore we could say that competence includes: know (a combination of
specific discipline knowledge), know how (skills to solve practical problems),
and know how to be (skills of an affective or social nature).

2.3 General and specific competences

CBT distinguishes between specific (or discipline-related) competences and

general (or transversal) competences. Specific competences are those inher-
ent to each discipline and which accordingly define a given profile. General
competences are those that can be applied to all disciplines.
As regards general competences, I would like to mention the Tuning
project (Tuning Educational Structures in Europe), carried out between 2000
and 2004, on education structures and study programme contents in the light
of the reform of higher education in Europe (see González and Wagenaar
2003, 2005). This project includes three categories of general competences
in its questionnaire: instrumental, interpersonal and systemic (González and
Wagenaar 2003:70 ff.).
Instrumental competences operate as mediators to achieve a given goal
and can be cognitive, methodological, technological or linguistic. Interper-
sonal competences include skills that allow one to interact well with other
people, whether individuals or groups. Systemic competences include skills
and abilities related to understanding a whole system; they include the abil-
ity to plan changes to make improvements in whole systems and to design
new systems.


Lasnier establishes the difference between skills (a simple know how which includes
declarative knowledge) and capabilities (a combination of skills, a reasonably complex
know how which includes skills and declarative knowledge).

Concerning the characteristics of declarative and operative (or procedural) knowledge,
see Anderson (1983), Pozo and Postigo (1993), etc. Pozo and Postigo (1993:49), basing
their ideas on Wellington (1989), point out a third type of knowledge, explicative knowl-
edge, which is related to know why and which identifies theoretical knowledge. Some
scholars (Paris et al. 1983, 1984) also propose conditional knowledge (which consists
of know when and why to use declarative and operative knowledge) which is of great
importance for teaching.

This is a pilot programme which was drawn up within the framework of the Socrates
project, 2000 to 2004. The programme was coordinated by the Universidad de Deusto
(Spain) and the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (Holland) with the participation of 135 Eu-
ropean higher education institutions from 27 countries.
168 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

INSTRUMENTAL INTERPERSONAL SYSTEMIC

COMPETENCES COMPETENCES COMPETENCES
- Capacity for analysis - Critical and self- - Capacity for applying
and synthesis critical abilities knowledge in practice
- Capacity for organiza- - Team work - Research skills
tion and planning - Interpersonal skills - Capacity to learn
- Basic general - Ability to work in - Capacity to adapt to
knowledge an inter-disciplinary new situations
- Grounding in basic team - Capacity for gen-
knowledge of the - Ability to commu- erating new ideas
profession nicate with experts (creativity)
- Oral and written in other fields - Leadership
communication in the - Appreciation of - Understanding of
native language diversity and multi- cultures and customs
- Knowledge of a sec- culturality of other countries
ond language - Ability to work in - Ability to work
- Elementary computing an international autonomously
skills context - Project design and
- Information manage- - Ethical management
ment skills commitment - Initiative and entrepre-
- Problem solving neurial spirit
- Decision-making - Concern for quality
- Will to succeed

Table 1. Generic competences according to the Tuning Project (González and

Wagenaar 2003:72-73)

3. Translation competence and how it is acquired

Based on the above, each discipline must take into consideration general
competences and determine those which are specific. Before deciding on
which competences are specific to translation training, one first needs to
consider what the characteristics inherent to translation competence (TC)
are and how this competence is acquired.

3.1 Translation competence

There is no research tradition in translation studies regarding TC which is

comparable to that found, for example, in communicative competence. The
term began to be used in the discipline in the mid-1980s, and although few


Questions relating to translation competence and how it is acquired are dealt with in
more detail in Hurtado Albir (2001:376-408).
Amparo Hurtado Albir 169

specialized studies have been carried out, it was only in the 1990s that
various proposals were put forward concerning how TC functions.

Proposed models

The majority of the models put forward focus on describing the components
that make up TC. This is the case for Lowe (1987), Bell (1991), Hewson
and Martin (1991), Nord (1991, 1992), Pym (1992), Kiraly (1995), Presas
(1996), Hurtado Albir (1996), Hatim and Mason (1997), Hansen (1997),
Risku (1998), Neubert (2000), Kelly (2002) and Gonçalves (2003, 2005),
to name but a few. There are also some specific contributions concerning
TC for inverse translation (A-B), (Beeby 1996, Campbell 1998, Martínez
Mélis 2001), which have a bearing on the characteristic traits of translating
into a foreign language.
The disparity of criteria about how TC functions highlights, on the one
hand, just how complex a concept it is to describe and, on the other, the wide
range of corresponding subcomponents.

The PACTE holistic model

Proposed TC models, although based on observations of how translators

work, are not based on empirical studies which collect and analyze data to
describe TC components and how they relate to each other. Furthermore,
there is no study on TC taken as a whole. This is precisely the aim of the
PACTE research group: to conduct empirical-experimental research on TC
and how it is acquired.
The first version of this model was presented in 1998 (PACTE 1998,
2000). Based on an exploratory study in 2000 with six translators, we
proceeded to revise the model (PACTE 2003). In the 2003 model, TC is
considered as expert knowledge consisting of an underlying system of de-
clarative and to a large extent operative knowledge necessary to be able to
translate. Therefore, TC is not basically declarative knowledge (know what,
easy to express in words, acquired through exposition, the process of which
is essentially controlled), but rather operative or procedural knowledge: know
how, difficult to express in words, acquired through practice and mostly
processed automatically.
TC is seen as comprising five sub-competences (bilingual, extralinguistic,


Orozco (2000:113) points out that there have only been two partial attempts at opera-
tionalizing translation competence: Lowe (1987) and Stansfield et al. (1992).

The PACTE research group currently includes: Allison Beeby, Mónica Fernández,
Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Willy Neunzig, Patricia
Rodríguez and Lupe Romero.
170 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

translation knowledge, instrumental and strategic) as well as some psycho-

physiological components.

Figure 1. Translation competence according to the PACTE holistic

model (2003)

In this model, bilingual subcompetence comprises the essentially operative

knowledge necessary for communicating in the two languages: pragmatic,
sociolinguistic, textual and lexical-grammatical knowledge. Extralinguistic
sub-competence comprises essentially declarative knowledge which relates
to the world in general and to specific areas: bicultural, thematic and ency-
clopaedic knowledge. Translation knowledge sub-competence comprises
essentially declarative knowledge concerning principles that govern transla-
tion (translation units, types of problems, processes, methods and procedures
used) and professional considerations (types of briefs and the receiver).
Instrumental subcompetence comprises essentially operative knowledge
related to using documentary sources and information and communication
technology (ICT) applied to translation.
Strategic subcompetence comprises the operative knowledge necessary
to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process. It has a central role
since it controls the translation process and serves to: (a) plan the process
and manage the translation project (choosing the most appropriate method);
(b) evaluate the process and partial results obtained according to the final
Amparo Hurtado Albir 171

purpose being sought; (c) activate the various sub-competences and compen-
sate for their deficiencies; and (d) identify translation problems and employ
procedures to solve them.
Finally, the psycho-physiological components consist of: cognitive
components such as memory, perception and attention; attitudinal aspects
such as intellectual curiosity, perseverance, thoroughness, a critical spirit,
knowledge and confidence in one’s own capabilities, knowing the limits of
one’s own capabilities, motivation, etc.; and skills such as creativity, logical
reasoning, analysis and synthesis.
All of these sub-competences intersect to make up TC and form part of
all translation acts. However, strategic competence occupies a central posi-
tion because it affects all the others as it serves to correct deficiencies and
controls the entire process.

3.2 The acquisition of translation competence

No Translation Competence model would be complete without taking into

consideration the successive stages of acquisition, especially when applied
to teaching; hence the need to research the process of how TC is acquired.

Models

The acquisition of Translation Competence has been covered by only a few

studies; of these I would like to mention particularly studies by Harris and
Sherwood, Toury, Shreve, and Chesterman.
Harris (1973, 1977, 1980) and Harris and Sherwood (1978) point out that
all bilingual speakers have an innate ability for ‘natural translation’ which
would be one of the fundamental bases of TC. Toury (1995:241-258) puts
forward a model of the conversion process that a bilingual speaker under-
goes before becoming a translator in which feedback from the social sphere
(‘socialization’) plays a crucial role. Shreve (1997) sees TC as a specializa-
tion of communicative competence, the development of which represents a
continuum between natural translation and constructed translation (profes-
sional translation). Chesterman (1997:147-167), for his part, refers to the
five stages put forward by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986): novice, advanced
beginner, competence, proficiency and expertise.10
Although there are some empirical studies which compare the performance
of a professional translator and a translation student (see, for example, Jääskel-
äinen 1987, 1989; Tirkkonen-Condit 1990; Jääskeläinen and Tirkkonen-Condit

10
Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) identify five stages but without assigning them precise
names. Here I have used the names for each stage as suggested by Chesterman (1997).
172 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

99; Seguinot 99; and Lorenzo 999), there has been no empirical study
of the TC acquisition process as a whole.

The PACTE dynamic model

In the model proposed by the PACTE group, TC acquisition is seen as a

process of reconstructing and developing TC subcompetences and psycho-
physiological components. From this perspective, it is seen as a process of
restructuring and development ranging from novice knowledge (pre-
translation competence) to expert knowledge (translation competence).

Figure 2. The acquisition of translation competence according to the

PACTE dynamic model (2000)

This process is characterized by the following: () it is dynamic and cycli-

cal and requires learning competence (learning strategies), as in all learning
processes; () it involves a restructuring and development made up of declara-
tive knowledge and operative knowledge; (3) the development of operative
knowledge and, consequently, strategic competence is of key importance.


See Orozco (000) and Orozco and Hurtado Albir (00), where instruments are
proposed for measuring the process of acquiring translation competence in written
translation, and then validated in pilot studies.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 173

4. Competence-based training for translators. The

translation task-based approach
From a teaching perspective, the question that needs to be asked is how to
operationalize these proposals.

4.1 Starting point: learning objectives and translation task-based

training

The starting point of my proposal for competence-based translator training

is my previous research on learning objectives and translation task-based
training.
Following the arguments proposed by Delisle (1980, 1993) for advances
in the design of learning objectives and an active methodology, I have focused
my research into teaching on the design of learning objectives and on the
search for a distinct methodological framework (Hurtado Albir 1983, 1984,
1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1999a). My proposal for a translation task-based
approach is not a purely methodological framework, but also a framework
for curriculum design. This proposal was first put forward in the early 1990s
(Hurtado Albir 1992) and served as the basis for a research project I headed
from 1995 to 1997 at the Universitat Jaume I, Castellón (Spain). The ob-
jective was to establish learning objectives and a methodology specific to
language, translation and interpretation training for translators and inter-
preters on Spanish undergraduate programmes. The results of this research
were published in Enseñar a traducir (Teaching How to Translate) (Hurtado
Albir 1999a) and have since been used in a number of teaching projects. The
continuation of this line of research appears in the series Aprender a traducir
(Learning to Translate), launched in 2004, and which includes text books
aimed at students (see Brehm 2004, Gamero 2005, Borja 2006).

Theoretical Framework

This proposal is situated, as is any teaching proposal, within a dual theo-

retical framework: a discipline-based framework (translation studies) and a
pedagogical framework.
The translation studies framework begins with an integrated conception
of translation (the communicative practice we wish to teach), which is con-
sidered as a textual, communicative and cognitive activity, and translation
studies (the discipline that studies this practice), which combines textual,
communicative-socio-cultural and cognitive approaches (see Hurtado Albir
2001). Furthermore, translation competence (the knowledge and skills needed
to carry out this practice) and the acquisition of translation competence are
conceived holistically and dynamically according to the PACTE models.
As regards the pedagogical framework, the point of departure is the
174 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

conception of cognitive-constructivist learning and of an open and integrated

curriculum design. The objective here is the involvement of teachers and
students when it comes to taking decisions, to include the different axes of the
educational process and to plan objectives and contents so that they are coher-
ent with the decisions taken concerning methodology and assessment.12

TRANSLATION STUDIES PEDAGOGICAL

FRAMEWORK FRAMEWORK

Translation TC Learning Teaching

Translation
Competence Acquisition Theory Theory

Integrating conception: PACTE holistic PACTE dynamic Cognitive- Open and integrating curriculum.
textual, communicative model model constructivist Translation-task approach
and cognitive activity

Figure 3. Theoretical framework for a translation task-based approach

(Hurtado Albir 2005, 2006)

Learning objectives. Categories

In previous studies, I proposed four categories of learning objectives inherent

to translation: methodological, contrastive, professional-instrumental, and
textual (Hurtado Albir 1996, 1999a). Each of these is linked to different TC
sub-competences, although they are all interrelated and govern the acquisi-
tion of Translation Competence.
Methodological objectives are related to the principles and strategies that
one has to be able to monitor so as to work through the translation process and
be able to arrive at appropriate translation solutions. Contrastive objectives
are related to the search for solutions to fundamental differences between
the two languages involved in the process. Professional-instrumental objec-
tives are related to knowledge of the job market, the use of documentary
sources and a whole array of tools that are useful to the translator (digital
or hard-copy support materials, etc.). Finally, textual objectives are related
to solving the various translation problems posed, depending on the text;
the notion of genre is central to their design, insofar as it constitutes a basic
classification tool for grouping texts with a variety of different uses in each
specialized area.

12
For a discussion of the pedagogical framework, see in particular Hurtado Albir (2005,
2006).
Amparo Hurtado Albir 175

These learning objectives vary depending on the level, directionality and

area of specialization. Each branch of translation teaching – direct translation
(B-A), inverse translation (A-B), legal translation, technical translation, etc.
– thus has its own methodological, contrastive, professional-instrumental
and textual objectives. Enseñar a traducir (Hurtado Albir 1999a) proposes
general, specific and intermediate learning objectives for the different materi-
als used that are directly involved in training translators.

The translation task-based approach

Starting from the assumption that the premises of a task-based approach, used
in language teaching and in other disciplines,13 are particularly pertinent to
teaching translation, I proposed a translation task-based approach (Hurtado
Albir 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1999a).14 Drawing on Zanón’s enumeration
of the characteristics of the task (1990), I defined the translation task as “a
unit of work in the classroom, representative of translation practice, formally
directed towards learning how to translate and designed with a specific
objective, structure and sequence”15 (Hurtado Albir 1999a:56). The transla-
tion task thus becomes the foundation for constructing teaching units and
curriculum design.
Enseñar a traducir (Hurtado Albir 1999a) proposes examples for drawing
up a teaching unit following these guidelines. Each unit is structured into
different learning tasks which pave the way for the final task(s).

UNIT:
OBJECTIVE(S):
UNIT STRUCTURE
TASK 1:
TASK 2:
TASK 3:
TASK ...
FINAL TASK

Table 2. Teaching unit structure (Hurtado Albir 1999a)

13
I would particularly like to point out contributions by Candlin and Murphy (1987),
Nunan (1989), Hutchinson (1991), Ribe and Vidal (1993), Estaire and Zanón (1994) and
Willis (1996).
14
The task-based approach is also used in González Davies (2003, 2004).
15
“una unidad de trabajo en el aula, representativa de la práctica traductora, que se dirige
intencionalmente al aprendizaje de la traducción y que está diseñada con un objetivo
concreto, estructura y secuencia de trabajo”.
176 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

So, for example, the teaching unit ‘Developing a critical spirit’, which
focuses on the methodological objective ‘Developing a critical spirit’, in
Introduction to translation B-A (Hurtado Albir 1999b), consists of the fol-
lowing tasks:

• Detecting literalisms: identifying literalisms in translations with-

out seeing the original text.
• Comparative translation: comparing different translations of the
same source text to identify accuracy and errors.
• Proofing a translation: proposing new solutions for a draft transla-
tion that contains errors in the target language.
• Correcting a translation: identifying translation problems and
mistakes and proposing new solutions.
• The final task, consisting of producing a reasoned translation:
translating a text, identifying problems and justifying proposed
solutions.

The following is established for each task: the objective being pursued, the
materials to be used (texts to translate, parallel texts, worksheets, correcting
and grading scales, etc.), implementing the task (activities, steps, dynamics,
etc), and assessment and comments on how the task has progressed (changes,
follow up, post-tasks).16
In my opinion, the most important advantages offered by the translation
task-based approach are as follows:

(1) It allows for simulating situations relating to the professional

world and performing authentic tasks.
(2) It provides an active methodology and bridges the gap between
content and methodology found in other theories because, through
these tasks, it sets in motion a continuous chain of activities in
which students learn by doing.
(3) A teaching approach can be achieved which focuses on going
through the processes, since learning tasks are introduced so
that the students grasp the processes that they have to activate to
solve the final task (for example, the translation of a last will and
testament).
(4) It allows students to grasp principles and also to learn to solve
problems and acquire strategies for doing so, since the learning
tasks serve the purpose of acquiring translation strategies and
learning strategies.

16
Cooperative learning, strategic teaching, problem-based learning, etc. are taken into
account in the design of tasks.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 177

(5) A teaching approach can be achieved which focuses on the

student, who is constantly performing tasks by doing, while the
teacher becomes a mere guide.
(6) A flexible curriculum design, open to changes and student par-
ticipation, is made possible. Formative assessment tasks can be
incorporated which allow students to learn to assess themselves
and gauge their own possibilities (thus becoming responsible for
their own learning and therefore more autonomous), and also
allow teachers to assess their own teaching and, consequently,
make relevant changes.

4.2 Specific competences for training translators

Taking the proposal for learning objectives as our starting point, we can
establish a new definition for learning objectives based on competences.

Competences by category

Here, I propose six categories for specific competences: methodological

and strategic, contrastive, extralinguistic, occupational, instrumental and
textual.

METHODOLOGICAL AND STRATEGIC COMPETENCES

• Competences related to the principles and strategies that have to be applied
in order to work through the translation process and to be able to reach
the appropriate translation solution for each case. They serve as a way of
grasping principles and developing skills related to translation practice.
• They develop strategic subcompetence, translation knowledge and certain
TC psycho-physiological components.

DEFINITION: Apply the methodological principles and strategies necessary

to work through the translation process appropriately.
CONTRASTIVE COMPETENCES

• Competences related to knowing the differences between the two languages

and monitoring interference.
• They develop TC bilingual sub-competence.
• They play an important role in Introduction to translation B-A (general
translation).

DEFINITION: Differentiate between the two languages, monitoring interfer-

ence when it comes to solving translation problems.
178 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

EXTRALINGUISTIC COMPETENCES

• Competences related to mobilizing encyclopaedic, bicultural and thematic

knowledge.
• They develop TC extra-linguistic subcompetence.
• They play an important role in specialized translation (thematic knowledge
from specific fields).
DEFINITION: Mobilize encyclopaedic, bicultural and thematic knowledge
to solve translation problems.
OCCUPATIONAL COMPETENCES

• Competences related to knowledge of the job market.

• They develop TC translation knowledge subcompetence (with regard to
the profession).
DEFINITION: Operate in the translation job market appropriately.
INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCES

• Competences related to using documentary sources and a whole array of

tools that are useful for the translator (in digital or paper format, etc.).
• They develop TC instrumental sub-competence.
DEFINITION: Handle documentary sources and an array of tools to solve
translation problems.
TEXTUAL COMPETENCES

• Competences related to solving a range of translation problems that arise

from different texts.
• They imply the integrated development of all TC sub-competences and of
psycho-physiological components.

DEFINITION: Solve translation problems in different genres using the ap-

propriate strategies.

Table 3. Specific competence categories in translator training

These categories of competences are applied to the various courses di-

rectly involved in training translators: Introduction to translation B-A (general
translation), Inverse translation (A-B) and the various specialized translation
courses (legal, audiovisual, literary, localization, etc.).17

17
In addition to these courses which we could consider specific to training translators,
one should add others which could be classified as ‘auxiliary’, depending on training
characteristics and level: language teaching (first or native and foreign) for translators,
Amparo Hurtado Albir 179

The aim is to establish a profile of competences and corresponding de-

scriptions for each course. I feel that these descriptions should include, as a
minimum, the following:

• The definition, which gives a overall idea of the competence. It

is drafted using an observable action verb, and as an infinitive +
complements which contextualize the competence.
• The elements which make up the competence; these act as indica-
tors for establishing assessment criteria.
• The associated discipline-related content.
• The assessment criteria.

An example of a competence-based curriculum design: Introduction to

translation B-A

Many institutions which train translators include a course similar to Introduc-

tion to translation B-A (sometimes known as General Translation) which
is taught prior to, and in preparation for, teaching different branches of
specialization in translation: legal, technical, scientific, literary, audiovisual,
localization, etc. Their general goal is to introduce the student to the basic
principles that govern translation.
Taking my learning objectives proposal for this course as a starting point
(Hurtado Albir 1996, 1999b), I have drawn up a profile of competences, a
description of the elements included in them and the associated discipline-
related content (see Appendix).18

• Apply the basic methodological principles and strategies to

work through the translation process appropriately.
• Differentiate the two languages, monitoring interference.
• Mobilize encyclopaedic, bicultural and thematic knowledge
to solve basic translation problems.
• Manage basic questions to be able to operate in the translation
job market.
• Manage basic documentation and tools to solve translation
problems.
• Solve translation problems in non-specialized texts using ap-
propriate strategies.

Table 4. Specific competences for Introduction to translation B-A

computing, documentary research, terminology, and so on.

18
This is a provisional proposal which is at an experimental stage.
180 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

4.3 Sequencing and drawing up teaching units. Translation integrating

tasks

Competences are the main criterion for sequencing teaching units, drawing
up activities and assessment.

Translation integrating tasks

As I have already pointed out, a key concept in Competence Based Teach-

ing is integration, and one of the main strategies for achieving integration is
integrating tasks. Lasnier (2000:148, 196) makes the distinction between: (1)
learning activities, aimed at the development of an ability, skill or discipline-
related content; (2) integration tasks, which activate all the components of
a competence; (3) integrating tasks, which activate one or more discipline-
related competences and at least one general competence and one aspect of
life experience.19 The integrating task activates the components of a com-
petence but, in addition, it integrates them because it mobilizes knowledge
(declarative, procedural and conditional) related to it.
The translation task-based approach is an ideal vehicle for achieving this
integration of tasks (learning, integration, integrating), and I am currently
working on redefining it in relation to the competence profile I have been
developing. Following this line of thought, I believe that final tasks are
comprised of integration tasks, which activate the components of a com-
petence, and translation integrating tasks, which not only activate at least
one specific competence, but also at least one general competence. Clearly,
not all tasks can be integrating, above all at the beginning of the learning
process, since it is learning and integration tasks which prepare the way for
the translation integrating tasks that are required at this point. This is the
CBT alternation principle.

Sequencing

How are the learning stages for a course sequenced? How are the various teach-
ing units in which a course has been sequenced set out? Lasnier (2000:211)
notes that didactic sequencing is “A coherent grouping of integrating tasks
and learning activities that pursue the integration of a combination of com-
petences and the appropriation of discipline-based content with common
characteristics”.20

19
Lasnier speaks of “domaines d’expérience de vie”: aspects of life experience which a
student has to exploit on a regular basis.
20
“Un regroupement cohérent de tâches intégratrices et d’activités d’apprentissage visant
l’intégration d’un ensemble de compétences et l’appropriation de contenu disciplinaire
ayant un caractère commun”.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 181

It follows that each teaching unit is structured around assigning competences

and a common discipline-related content, and combines learning tasks, in-
tegration tasks and, at least, one integrating task. The incidence of integrating
tasks will depend on the relevant stage in the learning cycle: at the beginning
there are more learning and integration tasks and fewer integrating tasks; and
at the end there are fewer learning tasks and more integrating tasks because
as the learning cycle progresses the tendency is for a greater integration of
competences and greater student autonomy.

Sequencing in Introduction to translation B-A

As regards teaching Introduction to translation B-A, I propose twelve teach-

ing units (which group the competences and the associated discipline-related
content given in the Appendix):
● The communicative aim of translation
● The importance of the target language
● The importance of the comprehension phase
● The dynamism of translation equivalence
● Linguistic differences between the two languages
● Textual differences between the two languages
● Critical spirit
● Extralinguistic knowledge; Cultural references
● Translator’s tools; Documentary sources
● The job market
● Translating different text types
● Translating texts with different registers

4.4 Assessment

The last aspect of curriculum design is assessment: obtaining information

about the learning process with a view to taking decisions. These decisions
can be to grade (summative assessment), monitor the learning process
(formative assessment) or get to know the profile of the students (diagnostic
assessment). These three different types of assessment each have different end
purposes. From the translation task-based approach perspective, formative
assessment takes on high priority in order to guarantee students’ progress
and monitor the learning process (for both student and teacher).

Assessment planning

Assessment planning requires three basic dimensions:

(a) What is assessed: the criteria related to the components of the compe-
tences, specifying the acceptability threshold and performance levels.
(b) When to assess: at which point in the learning process.
182 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

(c) How to assess: that is the assessment tasks. In the case of teaching trans-
lation, the tasks can be of various types: translation exercises (synthetic
translation, expanded translation, reasoned translation, etc.); exercises
relating to specific aspects of a translation and how it was carried out
(exercises in documentary research and use of dictionaries, etc.); ques-
tionnaires; students’ documentation records, student self-assessment
records, translation diaries, etc. Developing integrating assessment tasks
is of particular importance. To describe each task one should include
the procedure (what the students have to do) and the instruments (texts,
worksheets, exercises, correcting and grading scales, etc.).21

In our discipline we still suffer from a lack of experimentation when it comes

to assessment – there is still a long way to go. The major challenges are:

• To move forward in the area of formative assessment

• To establish procedures and instruments for assessing the process
and the translation product
• To establish a continuum between learning and assessment, using
similar tasks for learning, formative assessment and summative
assessment
• To develop assessment criteria that, by default, have to derive
from the components that make up each competence, and establish
acceptability thresholds and performance levels
• To carry out authentic assessment with real activities, similar to
those found in the professional world
• To use dynamic assessment, applying different assessment
strategies according to learning level and situation, and assessing
the same criterion at different points of the learning cycle.

In this context, of special interest is the use of the translation portfolio as an

assessment instrument (complementary or not), conceived as an individual
choice and reflection by students concerning their production (learning tasks,
integration tasks and integrating tasks).

Assessment in Introduction to translation B-A

Various assessment tasks can be used (for diagnostic, formative and sum-
mative assessment) in the Introduction to translation B-A: contrastive
problem tests; analysis of parallel texts; identification, analysis and solution
of translation problems; identification, analysis and correction of transla-
tion errors; synthetic translation; translation revision; reasoned translation
(identifying problems and justifying solutions); comparative translation

Regarding translation assessment, see Martínez Melis (2001) and Martínez Melis and
21

Hurtado Albir (2001), where various assessment tasks are proposed.

Amparo Hurtado Albir 183

(comparing and analyzing different translations of a single original text);

commented translation (commenting on problems encountered, strategies
employed, documentary sources used, etc.); a translation general knowledge
questionnaire; etc.
At this introductory stage the instructor needs to provide criteria or guide-
lines for the translation portfolio. For example, this portfolio can include a
selection of the following as regards student production (the corresponding
competence being assessed is given in brackets):

• A glossary of the most frequent literalisms (contrastive)

• A list of the most common contrastive difficulties (contrastive)
• An analysis of parallel texts (contrastive)
• Synthetic translations (methodological)
• A selection of basic translation problems (methodological)
• A selection of basic translation errors (methodological)
• A report on the most useful documentation tools (instrumental)
• A report on the translation job market (occupational)
• A list of the most difficult cultural references to negotiate and
possible solutions (extralinguistic)
• Translations (including a report on problems found, and strategies
and documentation used) (textual)

In addition, I would recommend including the following in the translation

portfolio: an introductory report justifying the student’s choice, and a final
self-assessment report on the knowledge that has been acquired.

To conclude, we are now faced with new challenges in translator training, and
this requires new curriculum solutions. My proposal for competence-based
training falls within the framework of these new requirements and attempts
to offer some answers. For me this is merely the first stage and the proposal
still needs to be completely operationalized, particularly with regard to defin-
ing assessment criteria for each competence and designing translation tasks
that allow for the assimilation of different competences.

AMPARO HURTADO
Facultat de Traducció i Interpretació, Edifici K, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain. [email protected]

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Appendix

Profile of specific competences for Introduction to Translation B-A22

1.- METHODOLOGICAL AND STRATEGIC

DEFINITION
Apply the basic methodological principles and strategies to work through
the translation process appropriately.
ELEMENTS
1. Conceive translation as a communication act directed at a text receiver.
2. Grasp the meaning of non-specialized texts in the source language, em-
ploying the appropriate strategies.
3. Produce clear non-specialized texts in the target language, devoid of
calques, employing the appropriate strategies.
4. Find the appropriate translation equivalence employing the appropriate
techniques and strategies.
5. Identify and solve basic translation problems, resorting to the appropriate
strategies.
6. Identify and correct basic translation errors, providing a justification for
the solutions.
7. Work through the various stages of the translation, performing the
necessary tasks and using the corresponding appropriate strategies for
each stage.
DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT:

1. The communicative aim of translation

1. Translation as a process of understanding and re-formulation.
2. The importance of the end purpose and the text receiver.
3. Basic strategies for grasping the information in a text and reformu-
lating it clearly in another language: putting oneself in the situation
(imagine the context of the original text), focusing more on the ideas
rather than the form, visualizing the facts set out in the text, taking on
the role of a transmitter in the target language, looking for spontaneity
in the target language, giving consideration to who the text receiver
is, etc.

2. The importance of the comprehension stage

1. The need to understand in order to translate.
2. Understanding as an interpreting process to grasp the meaning of
a text.

22
The discipline-based content is offered in summary form only.
190 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

3. Basic strategies for grasping meaning: identifying the context in

which the original text appears; identifying the main function of the
text; determining the main and secondary ideas; considering how the
information is linked together and how it develops; identifying the
main stylistic features; identifying cultural references; employing
logical reasoning; including extralinguistic knowledge; etc.

3. The importance of the target language

1. The importance of being a first-rate writer in one’s mother tongue
and taking on board the importance of clarity and formal correctness
in the target language.
2. The problems of interference and calques; problems resulting from
literal language choices in the case of closely related languages. The
need to separate the two languages.
3. Basic strategies for accurately reformulating the meaning in the
original text: not being bound by the source language; looking for
genuine means and resources in the target language; being suspi-
cious of words and structures that do not sound natural in the target
language; avoiding the use of words that are close in form to those in
the source language to avoid the pitfall of using false friends, etc.

4. Translation equivalence dynamism and its textual nature

1. The dynamism of translation equivalence. The textual and contextual
nature of translation equivalence.
2. The importance of how the text is organized and networks of trans-
lation units when it comes to looking for equivalences; interpreting
coherence and cohesion features.
3. The search for text equivalences as an analogical process carried out
in the target language.
4. The use of different translation techniques depending on the case:
adaptation, amplification vs reduction, borrowing, calque, com-
pensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent,
generalization vs particularization, linguistic amplification vs lin-
guistic compression, literal translation, modulation, substitution,
transposition and variation.
5. Basic strategies for finding equivalences: follow the logical flow of
the text rather than the words and phrases, repeat the same unit a
number of times in different ways (paraphrasing), look up options
in analogical dictionaries, etc.

5. Identifying and solving basic translation problems

1. Identifying translation problems.
2. Types of translation problems: linguistic, textual, extralinguistic or
pragmatic. Comprehension and re-formulation problems.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 191

3. Translation problem solving process. Phases: identifying the prob-

lem, defining the problem by type, choosing and applying strategies,
evaluating solutions.
4. Basic strategies for solving translation problems: planning, reading,
drafting, documenting, proofing and correcting strategies.

6. Identifying and correcting basic translation problems

1. Identifying translation errors.
2. Types of translation errors. Inadequacies that affect comprehension
of the ST. Inadequacies that affect target text production. Pragmatic
inadequacies.
3. The reasons behind translation errors: linking them to inadequacies
in one or more TC sub-competence(s)
4. Correcting translation errors.

7. The stages of the translation process

1. Orientation phase (before). Situating the text and a close reading of
the text; identifying unfamiliar linguistic and extralinguistic aspects;
detecting comprehension and reformulation problems; programming
documenting tasks, etc.
2. Development phase (during). Applying the basic strategic principles
for grasping and reformulating meaning.
3. Revision stage (after). Proofing and assessing the translation, verify-
ing: clarity of ideas; spelling, vocabulary use, morphology, syntax
and style; suitability of figures, data, lists and proper nouns, formal
aspects, etc.
2.- CONTRASTIVE
DEFINITION
Differentiate the two languages, monitoring interferences.
ELEMENTS
1. Identify differences between the two languages as regards writing conven-
tions, and lexical, morphosyntactic and textual aspects.
2. Solve translation problems deriving from differences between the two
languages.
DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT
1. Different writing conventions
1. Use of different symbols, abbreviations, upper/lower case letters,
hyphenation and punctuation rules.
2. Transfer of acronyms, toponyms, etc.
2. Lexical interference
1. How semantic fields operate differently.
2. Transfer of neologisms, idioms and polysemous words.
192 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

3. Identifying and resolving lexical false friends.

3. Morphosyntactic discrepancies
1. Differences when expressing negation, exclamation, question, simul-
taneity, conjecture, obligation, etc.
2. Structural false friends.

4. Textual differences
1. Differences regarding how referencing devices work: deitic, anaphoric
and cataphoric, ellipsis.
2. Differences regarding how textual connectors work: dialectic, space-
time and meta-discourse connectors.
3. Differences regarding coherence rules.
3.- EXTRALINGUISTIC
DEFINITION
Mobilize encyclopaedic, bicultural and thematic knowledge to solve basic
translation problems.
ELEMENTS
1. Identify the need to mobilize extralinguistic knowledge when
translating.
2. Identify the need to acquire further knowledge and for it to be docu-
mented.
3. Solve translation problems deriving from basic encyclopaedic and cultural
questions, using appropriate strategies.
DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT

1. Mobilizing basic extralinguistic knowledge to be able to understand

and reformulate non-specialized texts.
1. Knowledge about the author, text receivers, the client, the end purpose
of the translation, the situation described, the topic.
2. Encyclopaedic knowledge. Knowledge about the source and target
cultures.
2. Transfer of cultural references
1. Cultural references. Cultural diversity: differences regarding ecology,
religious beliefs, cultural phenomena, social organization, etc.
2. Translation techniques: adaptation, amplification (paraphrase, note),
generalization, reduction, naturalized borrowing, etc.
3. Adopting different techniques depending on the text genre and the
end purpose of the translation.
3. Mobilizing strategies to compensate for lack of extralinguistic
knowledge

1. The importance of documenting; diversity of documentary sources.

2. Planning knowledge acquisition.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 193

4.- OCCUPATIONAL
DEFINITION
Manage basic questions to be able to operate in the translation job
market.
ELEMENTS
1. Identify basic questions related to how the translation job market
works.
2. Manage basic problems posed by the job market.
DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT

1. Different types of translators

1. Areas where they can be employed: translators in public administra-
tion (national or international) and private institutions (publishing
houses, the media, etc.); self-employed translators.
2. Types of translators: legal/sworn, technical, scientific, literary, au-
diovisual, etc.

2. The different translation briefs

The different possible end purposes of a translation: covering the same func-
tion as the original, information purposes only, to accompany the original
text, adapting, etc.

3. Professional tasks
The different tasks performed by a translator: translation of a variety of texts,
editing texts, proofing and correcting texts, project management, acting as an
intercultural mediator, etc.

4. Translation institutions
The different institutions involved in the translation business: translation as-
sociations and bodies; translation agencies, etc.
5.- INSTRUMENTAL
DEFINITION
Manage basic documentation and tools to resolve translation problems.
ELEMENTS
1. Identify the main documentary sources and computing tools, and under-
stand the function of each.
2. Identify the role of parallel texts.
3. Assess the quality of parallel texts and basic documentary sources.
4. Use standard parallel texts and documentary sources and computing tools
to solve basic translation problems using the appropriate strategies.
194 Competence-based Curriculum Design for Training Translators

DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT

1. Basic documentary sources

1. Reference works in each of the languages: defining dictionaries,
standard usage dictionaries, dictionaries specializing in difficulties,
encyclopaedic dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms,
dictionaries specializing in neologisms, slang, colloquial expressions,
and idioms, etc.; manuals or reference works regarding spelling
conventions or standard grammar and language use, style manuals,
studies on culture and civilization, encyclopaedias, etc.
2. Bilingual reference works: comparative grammars, general bilingual
dictionaries, dictionaries specializing in slang, colloquial expressions,
idioms, etc.
3. Evaluating documentary sources.

2. Basic computing tools

Word processors, digital support dictionaries, web pages, search engines,
electronic corpora, etc.

3. Parallel texts
The role of parallel texts; conditions they need to meet; the array of formats
(hard copy, audiovisual, electronic).

4. Basic documenting strategies

Planning queries; following an order of queries that aid searches; careful and
critical use of bilingual dictionaries; in-depth use of monolingual or analogical
dictionaries, dictionaries specializing in areas of doubts regarding language
use, style manuals, etc.
6.- TEXTUAL
DEFINITION
Solve translation problems in non-specialized texts using the appropri-
ate strategies.
ELEMENTS
1. Identify the range of translation problems depending on the text.
2. Solve translation problems arising from a range of non-specialized texts
using the appropriate strategies.
3. Solve translation problems in texts with different registers using the ap-
propriate strategies.
DISCIPLINE-RELATED CONTENT

1. The array of translation problems according to text

1. Different texts: types, genres and discourses. The hybrid nature of
texts: multifunctionality; intertextual hybridization.
2. Different functioning in each language.
Amparo Hurtado Albir 195

3. Different translation problems depending on the text type and genre:

problems of a linguistic, textual, extralinguistic or pragmatic nature.
4. Need to employ the most appropriate strategies in each case: mobilize
extralinguistic knowledge, develop creativity, apply logical reasoning,
use parallel texts, etc.

2. The translation of different text types

1. The translation of narrative texts. Features: situate subjects, facts or
objects in time; time connectors. Genres: children’s stories, history
books, biographies, etc.
2. The translation of descriptive texts. Features: present and charac-
terize subjects, objects or situations in space; space connectors.
Genres: tourist guides, descriptions of houses (in interior design
magazines), etc.
3. The translation of conceptual texts. Features: analyze or synthesize
concepts, without making judgements; dialectic and meta-discourse
connectors. Genres: essays on translation studies, linguistics, etc.
4. Translation of argumentative texts. Features: evaluate concepts and
beliefs; dialectical and meta-discourse connectors; linear develop-
ment of an argument and contrasting argument (counter-argument).
Genres: letter to the editor of a newspaper, opinion article, etc.
5. The translation of instructional texts. Features: form behaviour
(opinion, action, reaction); instructional text types with or without
option. Genres: recipes, prospectus, instruction manuals, commercial
advertisements, etc.

3. The translation of texts with different registers

1. Translation problems deriving from tenor. Identifying different tenors
(vulgar, informal, formal, serious) and elements which characterize
these features. Different text conventions in each language.
2. Translation problems deriving from the text mode. Identifying the
different written modes (written to be read to oneself, aloud, to be
read as if it were not written, etc.) and elements which characterize
these features. Different text conventions in each language.
3. Translation problems deriving from the text field. Identifying the vari-
ous fields and the elements that characterize them. Solving problems
posed by the complexity of information in the text and because of the
use of terminology. The importance of documentation and acquisition
of thematic knowledge.