Atomic Structure and its history
Dalton's Atomic Theory (Early 19th century): In the early 19th
century, John Dalton formulated the atomic theory based on
experimental observations.
Dalton proposed that:
All matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles
called atoms.
Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
Compounds are formed by the combination of atoms in simple
whole-number ratios.
Discovery of Electrons (Late 19th century
In the late 19th century, experiments such as cathode ray tube
experiments conducted by scientists like J.J. Thomson led to the
discovery of electrons.
Thomson's experiments showed that cathode rays (streams of
electrons) were negatively charged particles present in atoms.
Rutherford's Nuclear Model (Early 20th century)
: Ernest Rutherford, based on his gold foil experiment, proposed a
new model of the atom.
His experiment involved bombarding a thin gold foil with alpha
particles and observing their deflection. Rutherford concluded
that most of the atom's mass and positive charge is concentrated
in a small, dense nucleus, while electrons orbit the nucleus at a
distance.
Bohr's Model of the Atom (Early 20th century): Niels Bohr
expanded on Rutherford's model by incorporating ideas from
quantized energy levels. Bohr proposed that electrons orbit the
nucleus in discrete energy levels or shells. Electrons can move
between these energy levels by absorbing or emitting specific
amounts of energy.
Bonds
1. Ionic Bonds:
Structure: Ionic bonds form between atoms when one or
more electrons are transferred from one atom to another. This
results in the formation of ions - positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions.
Properties:
Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling
points due to the strong electrostatic attractions between
oppositely charged ions.
They are often soluble in water and form electrolytes when
dissolved, conducting electricity.
Ionic compounds tend to form crystalline structures due to
the arrangement of ions in a repeating pattern called a
crystal lattice.
They exhibit brittle behavior because when force is
applied, like charges align, causing repulsion and resulting
in the crystal breaking.
2. Covalent Bonds:
Structure: Covalent bonds form when atoms share one or
more pairs of electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration.
Properties:
Covalent compounds can exist in various physical states
(solid, liquid, gas) and have lower melting and boiling points
compared to ionic compounds.
They tend to be insoluble in water and do not conduct
electricity in their pure form (exceptions include certain
molecular compounds like acids).
Covalent compounds can exhibit a wide range of physical
and chemical properties depending on the arrangement of
atoms and the types of atoms involved in the bond.
The strength of covalent bonds varies depending on
factors such as the number of shared electrons and the
types of atoms involved.
3. Metallic Bonds:
Structure: Metallic bonds occur between atoms of metallic
elements, where outer electrons are delocalized and free to
move throughout the entire metal lattice.
Properties:
Metals generally have high electrical and thermal
conductivity due to the mobility of electrons.
They are malleable and ductile, meaning they can be easily
hammered or drawn into thin wires without breaking, due
to the ability of atoms to slide past each other while
maintaining metallic bonding.
Metals tend to have high melting and boiling points,
although these can vary depending on factors such as the
strength of metallic bonding and the presence of
impurities.
Metallic compounds often have lustrous appearances due
to the reflection of light by delocalized electrons.
GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES
Structure of Graphite & Diamond**
Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which
have giant covalent structures
Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the
differences in bonding arrangements they are physically
completely different
Giant covalent structures contain billions of non-metal atoms,
each joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds forming a giant
lattice structure
Diamond
In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons,
forming a tetrahedron
All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are
no intermolecular forces
Graphite
Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others
forming layers of hexagons, leaving one free electron per
carbon atom which becomes delocalised
The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the
layers are attracted to each other by weak intermolecular
forces
The structure and bonding in graphite
Properties of Diamond
Diamond has the following physical properties:
It does not conduct electricity
It has a very high melting point
It is extremely hard and dense
All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent
bonds around each carbon atom, so there are no freely moving
charged particles to carry the current thus it cannot conduct
electricity
The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant
lattice, so a very large amount of heat energy is needed to break
the lattice thus it has a very high melting point
Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where
extremely tough material is required
Diamond is used in jewellery due to its sparkly appearance and
as cutting tools as it is such a hard material
The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are
tipped with diamonds
Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-
tipped
Exam Tip
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral, but it is by no
means the strongest. Students often confuse hard with strong,
thinking it is the opposites of weak. Diamonds are hard, but brittle –
that is, they can be smashed fairly easily with a hammer. The
opposite of saying a material is hard is to describe it as soft.
Properties of Graphite
Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of
hexagonal-shaped forms, leaving one free electron per carbon
atom
These free (delocalised) electrons exist in between the layers
and are free to move through the structure and carry charge,
hence graphite can conduct electricity
The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the
layers are connected to each other by weak forces only, hence
the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth
Graphite thus:
Conducts electricity
Has a very high melting point
Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond
Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in
engines and in locks
It is also used to make non-
reactive electrodes for electrolysis.
C**60** fullerene
Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of
molecules that form hollow tubes or spheres
Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around
the target molecule and capturing it, making them useful for
targeted drug delivery systems
They also have a huge surface area and are useful for
trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces making them
easily accessible to reactants so catalysis can take place
Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be
used in many industrial processes
The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene
which is affectionately referred to as a “buckyball”
In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20
hexagons and 12 pentagons which produce a hollow sphere that is
the exact shape of a soccer ball
Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide
Silicon(IV) oxide (also known as silicon dioxide or silica), SiO2, is a
macromolecular compound which occurs naturally
as sand and quartz
Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms
and each silicon atom in turn forms covalent bonds
with 4 oxygen atoms
A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen
atoms, similar to diamond
Diagram showing the structure of SiO**2** with the silicon
atoms in blue and the oxygen atoms in red
Comparing Diamond & Silicon(IV) Oxide
EXTENDED
SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no
intermolecular forces so it has similar properties to diamond
It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in
water and does not conduct electricity
SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make
sandpaper and to line the inside of furnaces
Solving Balancing Equations with an Example
Balancing chemical equations ensures there are the same number of
atoms of each element on both the reactant and product sides.
Here's how to do it, along with an example:
Steps:
1. Write the unbalanced equation: This shows the starting
materials (reactants) and the products formed in a chemical
reaction, separated by an arrow.
2. Count the atoms of each element: Make a table below the
equation listing each element and the number of atoms on both
the reactant and product sides.
3. Balance the equation, element by element:
Start with an element appearing in only one compound on
each side. This simplifies adjustments without affecting
other elements.
Change the coefficient in front of the compound
containing the chosen element. Adjust it to make the
number of atoms of that element equal on both sides.
Move on to the next unbalanced element. Repeat steps 3a
and 3b until all elements are balanced.
4. Double-check your work: Ensure there are the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the balanced equation.
Example:
Let's balance the following equation where methane (CH₄) reacts with
oxygen (O₂) to produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O).
Unbalanced equation: CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
Step 1: We already have the unbalanced equation.
Step 2:
Element Reactants (CH₄ + O₂) Products (CO₂ + H₂O)
C 1 1
H 4 2
O 2 4
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Step 3:
Start with Hydrogen (H): It appears only in CH₄ and H₂O. We
need 2H on the right, so change the coefficient of H₂O to 2: CH₄ +
O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Now, we have 4H on the product side. Balance H by changing the
coefficient of CH₄ to 2: 2CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Move on to Oxygen (O): We have 2 O on the reactant side and 4
on the product side. Change the coefficient of O₂ to 2: 2CH₄
+ 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Step 4: Double-check the balanced equation:
2CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
We now have 2 C atoms, 8 H atoms, and 4 O atoms on both sides. The
equation is balanced!
