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Signal Processing,
Perceptual Coding and
Watermarking of Digital
Audio:
Advanced Technologies and
Models

Xing He
SRS Labs Inc., USA
Senior Editorial Director: Kristin Klinger
Director of Book Publications: Julia Mosemann
Editorial Director: Lindsay Johnston
Acquisitions Editor: Erika Carter
Production Editor: Sean Woznicki
Typesetters: Milan Vracarich, Jr.
Print Coordinator: Jamie Snavely
Cover Design: Nick Newcomer

Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com

Copyright © 2012 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the
names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the
trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

He, Xing.
Signal processing, perceptual coding, and watermarking of digital audio: advanced technologies
and models / by Xing He.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: “This book focuses on watermarking, in which data is marked with hidden ownership
information, as a promising solution to copyright protection issues and deals with understanding
human perception processes and including them in effective psychoacoustic models”-- Provided by
publisher.
ISBN 978-1-61520-925-5 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-61520-926-2 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-60960-
790-6 (print & perpetual access) 1. Signal processing--Digital techniques. 2. Sound--Recording
and reproducing--Digital techniques. 3. Sound recordings--Security measures. 4. Digital water-
marking. I. Title.
TK5102.9.H42 2012
621.382’2--dc22
2011003217

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in
this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Dedication

To Mom, Dad and My Wife

Table of Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................vii

Chapter 1
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics.............................. 1
1.1 Simple Introduction of the Ear................................................................. 1
1.2 Properties of the Human Auditory System............................................... 3
1.3 The Masking Phenomena.......................................................................... 6
1.4 Temporal Masking.................................................................................. 12

Chapter 2
Introduction of Digital Watermarking................................................................... 14
2.1 Motivation and Goals............................................................................. 14
2.2 Watermark Applications.......................................................................... 15
2.3 Elements of a Watermarking System...................................................... 17
2.4 Organization of the Rest of the Book..................................................... 18

Chapter 3
Novel Applications of Digital Watermarking....................................................... 20
3.1 Error Detection, Concealment and Recovery......................................... 21
3.2 Quality of Service in Multimedia Communications............................... 23
3.3 Subjective Signal Quality Measurement................................................ 25
3.4 Bandwidth Extension.............................................................................. 26
3.5 Security/ Air Traffic Control / Secret Communication........................... 28

Chapter 4
Literature Review of Selected Watermarking Schemes........................................ 32
4.1 LSB Coding............................................................................................ 32
4.2 Patch Work.............................................................................................. 33
4.3 Quantization Index Modulation.............................................................. 34
4.4 Echo Coding / Hiding............................................................................. 37
4.5 Phase Coding.......................................................................................... 41
4.6 Fragile Watermarking............................................................................. 43
4.7 Spread Spectrum Coding........................................................................ 44
Chapter 5
Principles of Spread Spectrum.............................................................................. 46
5.1 Theory of Spread Spectrum Technology in Communication................. 46
5.2 Spread Spectrum for Audio Watermarking............................................. 49
5.3 Analysis of Traditional SS Watermarking Systems................................ 51
5.4 Problems of Traditional SS Watermarking Systems............................... 54

Chapter 6
Survey of Spread Spectrum Based Audio Watermarking Schemes...................... 56
6.1 Basic Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum................................................ 56
6.2 Time Domain Spread Spectrum Watermarking Scheme........................ 57
6.3 Spread Spectrum Watermarking with Psychoacoustic Model
and 2-D Interleaving Array............................................................... 59
6.4 An Improved Spread Spectrum Method................................................. 61
6.5 Novel Spread Spectrum Approach.......................................................... 63
6.6 Enhanced Spread Spectrum Watermarking for AAC Audio................... 64
6.7 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum.................................................... 65
6.8 Limits of Traditional Spread Spectrum Method..................................... 66

Chapter 7
Techniques for Improved Spread Spectrum Detection......................................... 68
7.1 Matched Filter Approach........................................................................ 68
7.2 Savitzky-Golay Smoothing Filters......................................................... 70
7.3 Cepstrum Filtering.................................................................................. 71
7.4 Spectral Envelop Filtering...................................................................... 71
7.5 The Linear Prediction Method................................................................ 72
7.6 De-Synchronization Attacks and Traditional Solutions.......................... 73

Chapter 8
A Psychoacoustic Model Based on the Discrete Wavelet Packet Transform....... 75
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 76
8.2 Wavelet Transform Analysis................................................................... 78
8.3 An Improved Wavelet-Based Psychoacoustic Model............................. 79
8.4 Experimental Procedures and Results.................................................... 91
8.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 98

Chapter 9
A High Quality Audio Coder Using Proposed Psychoacoustic Model............... 102
9.1 Structure of Proposed Perceptual Audio Coder.................................... 102
9.2 Quantization and Huffman Coding....................................................... 104
 9.3 Evaluation of Proposed Audio Coder................................................... 110
9.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 113

Chapter 10
A Novel Spread Spectrum Digital Audio Watermarking Scheme...................... 115
10.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 115
10.2 Watermark Design, Insertion and Detection....................................... 119
10.3 Experimental Procedures and Results................................................ 126
10.4 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 131

Chapter 11
Further Improvements of the Watermarking Scheme......................................... 134
11.1 Diagram of Proposed Enhanced Watermark System.......................... 135
11.2 Encoder of the Proposed Enhanced Watermark System..................... 136
11.3 Decoder of Proposed Enhanced Watermark System........................... 137
11.4 Discussion about the Savitzky-Golay Smoothing Filter..................... 140
11.5 Evaluation of the Proposed Enhanced Watermark System................. 145
11.6 More Watermarking Systems Comparison......................................... 148
11.7 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 150

Chapter 12
A Fast and Precise Synchronization Method for Digital Audio
Watermarking...................................................................................................... 152
12.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 152
12.2 The Synchronization Problem in Watermarking and
Traditional Solutions.................................................................... 153
12.3 A Fast and Efficient Synchronization Method.................................... 159
12.4 Experimental Results.......................................................................... 164
12.5 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 173

Chapter 13
Conclusion and Future Trends............................................................................ 177
13.1 Conclusion of the Book...................................................................... 177
13.2 Future Trends...................................................................................... 179

Compilation of References............................................................................... 182

About the Author.............................................................................................. 188

Index................................................................................................................... 189
 vii

Preface

The availability of increased computational power and the proliferation of the In-
ternet have facilitated the production and distribution of unauthorized copies of
multimedia information. As a result, the problem of copyright protection has at-
tracted the interest of the worldwide scientific and business communities. The most
promising solution seems to be the watermarking process where the original data
is marked with ownership information hidden in an imperceptible manner in the
original signal. Compared to embedding watermarks into still images, hiding data
in audio is much more challenging due to the extreme sensitivity of the human
auditory system to changes in the audio signal. Understanding of the human percep-
tion processes and including them in effective psychoacoustic models is the key to
successful watermarking. Aside from psychoacoustic modeling, synchronization is
also an important component for a successful watermarking system. In order to
recover the embedded watermark from the watermarked signal, the detector has to
know the beginning location of the embedded watermark first.
In this book, we focus on those two issues. We propose a psychoacoustic model
which is based on the discrete wavelet packet transform (DWPT). This model
takes advantage of the flexibility of DWPT decomposition to closely approximate
the critical bands and provides precise masking thresholds, resulting in increased
extent of inaudible spectrum and reduction of sum to signal masking ratio (SSMR)
compared to the existing competing techniques. The proposed psychoacoustic
model has direct applications to digital perceptual audio coding as well as digital
audio watermarking.
For digital perceptual audio coding, the greater extent of inaudible spectrum
provided by the psychoacoustic model results more audio samples to be quantized
to zero, leading to a decreased compression bit rate. The reduction of SSMR on the
other hand, allows a coarser quantization step, which further cuts the necessary bits
for audio representation in the audible spectrum areas. In other words, the audio
compressed with the proposed digital perceptual codec achieves better subjective
quality than an existing coding standard when operating at the same information
rate, which is proven by the subjective listening test.
viii

Digital audio watermarking applications will benefit from the proposed psy-
choacoustic model from two perspectives: a) It can embed more watermarks to the
inaudible spectrum, which results to a watermark payload increase and b) It hiding
higher energy watermarks to the audible spectrum areas possible, which leads to
improved robustness and greater resiliency to attacks and signal transformations
than existing techniques, as proven by the experimental results.
We finally introduce a fast and robust synchronization algorithm for watermark-
ing which exploits the consistency of the signal energy distribution under varying
transformation conditions and uses a matched filter approach in a fast search for
determining the precise watermark location. The proposed synchronization method
achieves error free sample-to-sample synchronization under different attacks and
signal transformations and shows very high robustness to severe malicious time
scaling manipulation.
 1

Chapter 1
Introduction of Human
Auditory System and
Psychoacoustics

This chapter reviews the background of human auditory system (HAS) and psycho-
acoustics.

1.1 SIMPLE INTRODUCTION OF THE EAR

The ear consists of three separate parts, the outer, middle, and inner ears as shown
in Figure 1 (Wikipedia, 2009).
The outer ear consists of the head, the pinna, and the external auditory canal.
The main function of the pinna is to locate the source of the sound, especially at
high frequencies. Auditory canal is where the sound travels through to hit the tym-
panic membrane. The outer ear offers frequency directivity by shadowing, shaping
and diffraction. Different people localize sound differently due to considerable

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-925-5.ch001

Copyright ©2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 1. Diagram of the ear

variations in the pinna. A generalized summary of such ability for average listener
is modeled by the “Head Related Transfer Functions” (HRTF’s) or “Head Related
Impulse Responses” (HRIR’s).
The air-filled middle ear is composed of the eardrum (tympanic membrane),
the opening of the eustachian tube and the 3 small bones (ossicles), including the
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) (Bharitkar, et al. 2006). The
sound vibrations in the ear canal are transmitted to the tympanic membrane, which
causes movement of the malleus, incus and stapes. Then stapes footplate pushes
on the oval window, causing the movement of the fluid within the cochlea in inner
ear. Here the whole ossicles act as an amplifier, transmitting the sound vibrations
and passing them through to the fluid-filled inner ear.
The inner ear is constituted of the cochlea, containing the organ of corti, two
membranes (basilar membrane and tectoral membrane) and the associated fluids
and spaces (Bharitkar, et al. 2006). The cochlea is lined with tiny hair cells, which
create nerve signals when the sound reaches cochlea.

2
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

1.2 PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN AUDITORY SYSTEM

Psychoacoustic modeling is important in audio coding and watermarking to ensure

changes to the original signal remain imperceptible. Compared to the human visual
system (HVS), the HAS is much more sensitive, which makes the audio watermarking
more challenging than image watermarking (Cox et al., 2002). The HAS can detect
signal with a range of frequency greater than 103:1 and with power greater than 109:1
(Painter et al., 2000). Understanding how the HAS perceives sound important for
the development of a successful audio watermarking system.
Although exact models of the HAS do not exist today, great progress has been
made in the field of psychoacoustics to model human auditory perception as well
as the time-frequency analysis capabilities of inner ear. The main property of audio
perception lies in the masking phenomena which includes pre masking and post
masking (explained later in section 1.4). Another issue in audio perception is the
absolute threshold of hearing which is illustrated as follows.

1.2.1 Absolute Threshold of Hearing

In psychoacoustics the intensity of a sound is measured in terms of Sound Pressure

Level (SPL). The SPL gives the level of sound pressure in decibels (dB) in reference
to the internationally defined reference level p0 = µPa, or 2 × 10−5 N / m 2 (New-
ton per square meters), which corresponds to the threshold of audibility at 1000 Hz.
This level is given by SPL = 20 log10 (p / p0 ) dB, where SPL is the measured
Sound Pressure Level, p is the sound pressure of the stimulus reaching the ear, in
Pascals [Newton per square meters (N/m2)] (Spanias, et al. 2007).
While the HAS is highly sensitive compared to HVS, it has its own limits. The
HAS cannot perceive the sound if its SPL is below some threshold. Such threshold
is called absolute threshold of hearing, which determines the energy for a pure tone
that can be detected by the HAS in noiseless environment. The absolute threshold
of hearing is a non-linear function varies according to the audio frequency and can
be approximated by

T (f ) =
2 (1.1)
3.64(f / 1000)−0.8 − 6.5e −0.6( f /1000−3.3) + 10−3 (f / 1000)4 (dB ) SPL

and it is depicted in Figure 2 (Painter et al., 2000)

In Figure 2 (Zwicker et al., 1990), we can see that the HAS is most sensitive to
the audio with frequency range around 2 kHz to 5 kHz and not sensitive to audio

3
 Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 2. The absolute threshold of hearing

with frequency greater than 10 kHz. The area below the absolute threshold of hear-
ing is called the quiet zone and the audio signal that falls into quiet zone is not
perceptible.

1.2.2 Critical Bands

In the presence of an acoustic stimulus the basilar membrane in the human inner
ear performs a short-time spatio-spectral analysis on the incoming sound. This
process is done in specific overlapping regions of the basilar membrane (Deller et
al., 1993). Experiments showed that human sensitivity to acoustic events is related
to the unevenly spaced frequency scale. The term “critical band” describes regions
of equivalent sensitivity in this frequency scale and is defined as the frequency band
within which the loudness of a band of continuously distributed sound of constant
SPL is independent of its bandwidth (Atal et al., 1984). The critical band is rated on
the so-called Bark scale. Because the critical bands are unevenly spaced, the “Bark”
scale is a nonlinear frequency scale (Deller et al., 1993). The cycles-per-second (Hz)
to Bark mapping is described by the following formula:

f f 2
z = 13 arctan(0.76 ) + 3.5 arctan( ). (1.2)
1000 1000

4
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 3. Cycles-per-second to bark mapping

where f is in Hz and z is in Bark. Barks are rounded to the nearest integer to provide
the critical band index. Figure 3 illustrates such mapping.
The critical bandwidth at each center frequency is closely approximated by

f 2 0.69
BWc ( f ) = 25 + 75(1 + 1.4( )) (1.3)
1000

The critical bands and its bandwidth is listed in Table 1 (Zwicker et al., 1991)
and shown in Figure 4.
Although critical bands notation is widely used in psychoacoustic modeling and
perceptual audio coding, there is an alternative called equivalent rectangular band-
width (ERB), which models human hearings as brick rectangular band pass filters
and provides an approximation to the bandwidths of those filters.
To convert a frequency in Hz to a frequency in units of ERB-bands, the follow-
ing formula should be used, namely

5
 Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Table 1. Standard critical bands distribution

Critical Band Index Lower Edge (Hz) Center Edge (Hz) Upper Edge (Hz)
1 0 50 100
2 100 150 200
3 200 250 300
4 300 350 400
5 400 450 500
6 510 570 630
7 630 700 770
8 770 840 920
9 920 1000 1080
10 1080 1170 1270
11 1270 1370 1480
12 1480 1600 1720
13 1720 1850 2000
14 2000 2150 2320
15 2320 2500 2700
16 2700 2900 3150
17 3150 3400 3700
18 3700 4000 4400
19 4400 4800 5300
20 5300 5800 6400
21 6400 7000 7700
22 7700 8500 9500
23 9500 10500 12000
24 12000 13500 15500
25 15500 19500

f
ERBc ( f ) = 21.4 log(4.37 + 1) (1.4)
1000

Figure 5 shows this conversion.

The bandwidth of an ERB filter centered at a given frequency f is

f
BWERB (f ) = 24.7(4.37 + 1) (1.5)
1000

It is important to note that the formula above converts a frequency (in Hz) to a
bandwidth (also in Hz), which is illustrated in Figure 6.

1.3 THE MASKING PHENOMENA

Auditory masking refers to the phenomenon where one sound becomes inaudible
due to the existence of another sound. The sound being masked is called maskee

6
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 4. Critical bandwidth at each center frequency

and the sound that masks the other sound is called masker. There are two types of
auditory masking phenomena: simultaneous masking and non-simultaneous mask-
ing, which are also referred to as frequency masking and temporal masking.

1.3.1 Simultaneous Masking

Standard critical bands distribution (Table 1) happens when two or more sounds are
present at the same time and the weaker signal is rendered imperceptible because of
the presence of the stronger signal, in another words, the weaker signal is masked by
the stronger signal. Whenever there is a stimuli, it creates a masking threshold and
makes inaudible any signal that falls below the masking curve. Figure 7 (Zwicker
et al., 1990) shows the masking thresholds of five pure tones at 0.07 kHz, 0.25
kHz, 1 kHz, 4 kHz and 8 kHz. The broken line is the absolute threshold of hearing.
There are many types of simultaneous masking and the mainly three simplified
paradigms of simultaneous masking are noise-masking-tone(NMT) (Scharf, 1970),
tone-masking-noise(TMN) (Hellman, 1972), and noise-masking-noise(NMN)
(Akansu, et al. 1996).

7
 Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 5. Frequency in Hz to ERB bands conversion

In the noise-masking-tone scenario, a narrow band noise with bandwidth of 1

Bark masks the tone within the same critical band, when the intensity of the tone is
below certain dB of the intensity of the masking noise. The difference of the intensity
between the maker (noise) and the maskee (tone) is called the signal masking ratio
(SMR), which becomes the smallest when the frequency of the tone is close to the
center frequency of the noise. Typically, the SMR for noise masking tone is about
4 to 5 dB, which means when the tone signal has intensity 4 or 5 dB less than the
intensity of the noise in the same critical band, the tone will become inaudible. An
example is illustrated in Figure 8 where a 410 Hz pure tone with 76 dB SPL (sound
pressure level) is rendered inaudible by the band limited noise centered at 410 Hz
with 80 dB SPL (Spanias, et al. 2007).
The tone masking noise case, on the other hand, is the phenomena where the
noise signal becomes inaudible or masked by the excitation of a tone signal in the
same critical band. Studies showed that the general minimal SMR for a tone to mask
noise is about 21 to 28 dB. Figure 9 shows an example of tone masking noise case
where the 1 Bark narrow band noise centered at 1 kHz is masked by a 1 kHz pure

8
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 6. ERB bandwidth at a given frequency

Figure 7. Frequency masking thresholds of pure tones at 0.07 kHz, 0.25 kHz, 1 kHz,
4 kHz and 8 kHz

tone, note however, the intensity of the noise is 24 dB less than that of the tone
(Spanias, et al. 2007).
In the noise masking noise scenario, a narrow band noise is masked by another
narrow band noise. One study showed that wide band noises can produce about 26
dB SMR in the noise masking noise case.

9
 Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 8. Noise masking tone example

1.3.2 Asymmetry of Masking

As it can be easily seen from Figure 9 and Figure 10, noise is much more effec-
tive as masker, creating much higher SMR compared to tone signal. It is easy for
narrow band noise to render a tone signal in the same critical band inaudible with
barely 4 dB SMR. However, in order to mask the narrow band noise at the same
critical band, a tone signal has to have the intensity 21 to 28 dB higher than that of
the noise signal.

1.3.3 Spread of Masking

An excitation signal can not only create simultaneous masking effect and render
other weaker audio signal in the same critical band inaudible, but can also create
such masking effect across nearly critical bands. This phenomenon is called the
spread of masking.
This effect is often approximately modeled by a triangular spreading function
with slopes of 25 and 10 dB per Bark. A general formula of such approximation
can be expressed as (Painter et al., 2000)

10
Introduction of Human Auditory System and Psychoacoustics

Figure 9. Tone masking noise example

SFdb (x ) =
(1.6)
15.81 + 7.5(x + 0.474) − 17.5 1 + (x + 0.474)2

Where x has units of barks an has units of dB.

1.4 TEMPORAL MASKING

A strong stimuli can not only generate simultaneous masking, but also create mask-
ing effects even before its onset or after its present. Such masking phenomenon is
called non-simultaneous masking or temporal masking. The masking phenomenon
before a sound onset is called pre-masking and the one after its presence is called
post-masking.
Figure 10 (Painter et al., 2000) illustrates the non-simultaneous masking property
of the HAS. Note that although pre-masking lasts only several milliseconds, post-
masking can last up to 200 milliseconds.

11
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It is well to remember that the best nourished person is the one who
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with nuts or nut butter A glass of milk or a cup
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 MENU I MENU II
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For "Choice of Menus," see p. 683.

Transcriber notes:
P. 831. 'o' changed to 'of'.
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