Chapter 6

Energy stores and transfers

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

• identify changes in different energy stores
• recognise different energy transfers and interpret energy flow diagrams
• understand the meaning of energy efficiency
• apply the principle of conservation of energy

calculate potential energy and kinetic energy.

GETTING STARTED

Work with a classmate to describe the energy transfers that are taking place
in each diagram.
What do you already know about energy?
With a classmate, draw an energy mind map to include everything you
know about this topic, including the principle of conservation of energy.

Figure 6.1a: Flashlight switched on. b: Wound up toy. c: Moving radio-

controlled car. d: Bunsen burner. e: Loudspeaker in use. f: Ringing bicycle
bell. g: Solar-powered battery. h: Hair dryer.

COMETS – FRIEND OR FOE?

People have different opinions about comets, both good and bad. Some
people think comets are ‘dirty snowballs’ that brought water to our planet
which allows us to live. However, along with asteroids, comets also
threaten life on Earth. For example, the impact of an asteroid or comet
wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. It is not surprising that
comets used to be seen as warnings of disaster (Figure 6.2). However,
thanks to physics, comets are now less mysterious and we can predict their
paths. Astronomers working for Spaceguard search the skies, looking for
and tracking objects (including comets) that might collide with the Earth.
Figure 6.2: The engraving that shows Halley’s Comet in 1066. The Monk
of Malmesbury sees it as a warning of the Norman Conquest, when the
Normans invaded England.

Comets can cross our path (and collide with Earth) because their orbits are
highly elliptical (shaped like squashed circles). The speed of Earth in its
orbit around the Sun is nearly constant because its orbit is nearly circular.
The speed of a comet changes. As it moves closer to the Sun, more of the
comet’s gravitational potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy, so
it speeds up. As it gets further away from the Sun, some of its kinetic
energy transfers into gravitational potential energy, and it slows down.
Discussion questions
1 When was the Earth's last major collision with an asteroid or comet
and what happened?
2 Describe a system on Earth where energy transfers from gravitational
potential energy to kinetic energy and back again.
3 Describe the energy transfers when you throw a ball into the air and
relate this to the energy transfers for a comet orbiting the Sun.
6.1 Energy stores
Energy can be divided into energy stores and energy transfers. Energy, and
energy transfers, are involved in all sorts of activities. We will look at two
examples and see how we can describe them in terms of energy. We need to
have the idea of stores of energy.

Example 1: running
At the start of a race, you are stationary, waiting for the starter’s pistol. Energy is
stored in your toned-up muscles, ready to be released. As you set off, the energy
from your muscles gets you moving. If you are running a marathon, you will
need to make use of the energy in the longer-term stores of the fatty tissues of
your body.
The energy transfers involved are shown in Figure 6.3. Your muscles store
chemical energy. The energy is stored by chemicals in your muscles, ready to be
released at a moment’s notice. Your muscles start you moving, and you then
have kinetic energy. Running makes you hot. This tells us that some of the
energy released in your muscles is wasted as thermal energy, rather than
becoming useful kinetic energy. Fitness training helps people to reduce this
waste.

Figure 6.3a: At the start of a race, the runner’s muscles are stores of chemical
energy. b: As the runner starts to move, chemical energy is transferred to kinetic
energy and thermal energy.
Example 2: switching on a light
It is evening, and the daylight is fading. You switch on the light. Your electricity
meter starts to turn a little faster, recording the fact that you are drawing more
energy from the distant power station.
The energy changes involved are shown in Figure 6.4. Electricity is useful
because it brings energy, available at the flick of a switch. We can think of the
energy being transferred electrically. In the light bulb, this energy is transferred
by light. Every light bulb also produces thermal energy.

Figure 6.4: Switching on the light requires a supply of electricity. In the light
bulb, electrical energy is transferred by light and heating.

Naming energy
Example 1 and Example 2 highlight some of the various energy stores and
transfers. We will now take a brief look at examples of these.
A moving object has kinetic energy (ke). The faster an object moves, the
greater its kinetic energy. We know this because we need to transfer energy to an
object to get it moving.
If you lift an object upwards, you give it gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.).
The higher an object is above the ground, the greater its g.p.e. If you let the
object fall, you can get the energy back again. This is exploited in many
situations. The water stored behind a hydroelectric dam has g.p.e. As the water
falls, it can be used to drive a turbine to generate electricity. A grandfather clock
has weights that must be pulled upwards once a week. Then, as they gradually
fall, they drive the pendulum to operate the clock’s mechanism.
Fuels such as coal or petrol (gasoline) are stores of chemical energy. We know
that a fuel is a store of energy because, when the fuel burns, the stored energy is
released, usually as heat and light. There are many other stores of chemical
energy (see Figure 6.5). As Figure 6.3 shows, energy is stored by chemicals in
our bodies. Batteries are also stores of energy. When a battery is part of a
complete circuit, the chemicals start to react with one another and an electric
current flows. The current carries energy to the other components in the circuit.

Figure 6.5: Some stores of chemical energy – bread and peanut butter, petrol,
batteries. Our bodies have long-term stores of energy in the form of fatty tissues.
An electric current is a good way of transferring energy from one place to
another. When the current flows through a component such as a heater, it gives
up some of its energy.
Uranium is an example of a nuclear fuel, which is a store of nuclear energy. All
radioactive materials are also stores of nuclear energy. In these substances, the
energy is stored in the nucleus of the atoms – the tiny positively charged core of
the atom. A nuclear power station is designed to release the nuclear energy
stored in uranium.
If you stretch a rubber band, it becomes a store of strain energy. The band can
give its energy to a paper pellet and send it flying across the room. Strain energy
is the energy stored by an object that has been stretched or squashed in an elastic
way (so that it will spring back to its original dimensions when the stretching or
squashing forces are removed). For this reason, it is also known as elastic
energy. The metal springs of a car are constantly storing and releasing elastic
energy as the car travels along, so that the occupants have a smoother ride. A
wind-up clock stores energy in a spring, which is the energy source needed to
keep its mechanism operating.
If you heat an object so that it gets hotter, you are giving energy to its atoms.
The energy stored in a hot object is called internal energy. We can picture the
atoms of a hot object jiggling rapidly about – they have a lot of energy. This
picture is developed further in Chapter 9.
If you get close to a hot object, you may feel thermal energy coming from it.
This is energy travelling from a hotter object to a colder one. The different ways
in which this can happen are described in Chapter 11.
It is important not to confuse internal energy and thermal energy. The internal
energy of an object is the total kinetic and potential energies of the particles it is
made of. The internal energy of an object will be higher if these particles are
moving faster (higher kinetic energy) or they are further apart (bigger potential
energy). Heating an object (giving it more thermal energy) raises its internal
energy and this can raise its temperature or change its state (from water to steam,
for example). Steam has more internal energy than boiling water even though
they are at the same temperature. The particles (water molecules) in steam have
more potential energy than water molecules in boiling water because they are
further apart. Thermal energy spreads out from a hot object.
Very hot objects glow brightly. They are transferring energy by light. Light
radiates outwards all around the hot object.
Another way in which energy can be transferred to an object’s surroundings is
by sound. An electric current transfers energy electrically to a loudspeaker.
Energy is transferred to the surroundings as sound and thermal energy (see
Figure 6.6).

Energy stores, energy transfers

Imagine that energy is like money. The amount of money you have determines
what you can buy. The amount of energy you have determines what you can do.
Let us imagine that the amount of money I have is fixed (I cannot earn any or
spend it). Some of my money is stored in my bank account, some in my wallet
and some down the back of my sofa. I can transfer (move) money between these
stores but the total money I have does not change.
Energy stores are potential energy. Energy can also transfer between stores, but
the total amount of energy never changes. So, energy can be stored or it can be
transferred.
Table 6.1 lists energy under two headings: energy stores and energy transfers.
Energy stores Energy transfers
kinetic energy (k.e.) electrical
gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.) thermal (heat)
chemical energy radiation (such as light)
mechanical (such as sound, which is a
elastic (strain) energy way of transferring vibrational kinetic
energy)
nuclear energy
internal energy
electrostatic energy
Table 6.1: Energy can be classified as stores or transfers.
Figure 6.6: At a major rock concert, giant loudspeakers transfer sound to the
audience. Extra generators may have to be brought on to the site to act as a
source of energy to power the speaker systems. Much of the energy supplied is
wasted as thermal energy, because only a fraction of the energy is transferred by
sound.

Energy can be transferred from one store to another, even within the same
object.
For example, when you climb a hill, you are transferring energy from your
chemical store to your gravity (or g.p.e.) store. Here are four different ways in
which energy can be transferred:
• By a force (mechanical working). If you lift something, you give it
gravitational potential energy – you provide the force that lifts it.
Alternatively, you can provide the force needed to start something moving
 – you give it kinetic energy. Firing a catapult (Figure 6.7) is another
example of a mechanical transfer. When energy is transferred from one
object to another by means of a force, we say that the force is doing work.
This is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

Figure 6.7: When a catapult fires a ball, energy is transferred from the elastic
store of the catapult to the kinetic store of the ball. If the ball is fired vertically
upwards, energy from the kinetic energy store is transferred to the g.p.e. store,
until there is nothing left in the kinetic energy store. The ball stops moving
upwards and starts falling, with energy transferring from the gravitational store
back to the kinetic store

• By heating (thermal working). We have already seen how thermal energy

spreads out from hot objects. No matter how good the insulation, energy is
transferred from a hot object to its cooler surroundings. This is discussed in
detail in Chapter 11.
• By radiation (light). Light reaches us from the Sun. That is how energy is
 transferred from the Sun to the Earth. Some of the energy is also transferred
as infrared and ultraviolet radiation. These are examples of
electromagnetic radiation (see Chapter 15).
• By electrical currents (electrical working). An electric current is a
convenient way of transferring energy from place to place. The electricity
may be generated in a power station many kilometres away from where the
energy is required. Alternatively, an electrical current transfers energy from
the chemical energy store of a flashlight battery to the internal energy of a
bulb. This increased internal energy store of the bulb is transferred to the
surroundings via light radiation. This is covered in Chapter 18.

Questions
1 What name is given to the energy of a moving object?
2 What do the letters g.p.e. stand for? How can an object be given g.p.e.?
3 What energy is stored in a stretched spring?
4 Explain why steam is likely to lead to a more serious skin burn than
boiling water.
5 Look at the list of energy stores shown in Table 6.1. For each, give an
example of an object or material that stores this energy.
6 Look at the physical clues in the left column of Table 6.2 and write down
which energy store is changing.

Physical clue Which energy store is changing?

material changing shape
object changes speed
chemical reaction
change of temperature
nuclear fission or fusion
distance between objects changes

Table 6.2
6.2 Energy transfers
We have already mentioned several examples of energy transfers. Now we will
look at a few more and think a little about how energy is transferred between
stores during events and processes, and how these transfers can be represented
by energy flow diagrams.
Striking a match is an example of an event while burning is a process. An event
is something that happens or takes place, often at a specific time and place. A
process is a series of actions or steps, often taking place over a long period of
time. Climbing a mountain would be an example of a process, while falling over
would be an event. Sometimes, it is difficult to tell the difference between an
event and a process. The important thing to remember is that energy is only
transferred or changed during events and processes; in other words, when
something happens.
Figure 6.8 shows scuba divers using flashlights during a dive at night. The
transfer of energy to the lightbulbs is a process. The chemical energy stored in
the battery is transferred electrically through the wires to the light bulbs, which
increases its store of internal energy. The lamp transfers (useful) energy by light
to the surroundings as well as by heating, which is wasted. The divers would be
in serious danger if their flashlight ran out of charge. They cannot replace or
recharge their batteries under water. They need their flashlights to be efficient so
that most of the chemical energy is transferred usefully by light and very little is
wasted as thermal energy. A more efficient flashlight will produce light for a
longer time.
Figure 6.8: Divers using flashlights.

The energy stores and transfers in a flashlight can be represented by the flow
diagram in Figure 6.9. The blue boxes show the energy stores (and where those
stores are) and the green boxes with arrows show the energy transfers.

Figure 6.9:The energy stores and transfers associated with a battery-powered

lamp. The stores are indicated by blue boxes and the transfers by the green boxes
with arrows.

A device called a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) is a source of

energy used in space probes. The Apollo missions and the Mars Curiosity rover
used them (Figure 6.10). They are ideal for remote places where batteries,
generators or solar cells are not practical. Also, because the devices have no
moving parts, they are more reliable than alternatives and require very
little maintenance.

Figure 6.10: Mars Curiosity rover.

The energy transfers in an RTG are another example of a process. In an RTG, a

container seals a radioactive source (usually plutonium-238). The radioactive
source produces thermal energy, raising the internal energy of the fuel.
Thermocouples pass through the walls of the container, with the inner end of
each thermocouple kept hot by the fuel while the outer end is connected to a heat
sink so that it stays cold.
Heat or thermal energy moves along the thermocouple from the hot end to the
cold end (down a temperature gradient). The temperature difference at the
junction of the two metals produces a voltage.
The nuclear energy in the fuel changes store several times. It transfers from the
nuclear store to the internal energy store of the fuel. It then transfers as thermal
energy as it moves along the thermocouples. At the junction of the two metals, it
transfers as electrical energy.
nuclear energy (store) → internal energy (store) → thermal energy
 (transfer) → electrical energy (transfer)
These energy changes can be represented in the energy flow diagram in Figure
6.11.

Figure 6.11: The energy flow diagram for the RTG. The blue boxes represent
stores and the green boxes are the transfers.

Shooting an arrow is an event, but a rocket launch is a process. The rocket in

Figure 6.12 is lifting off from the ground as it carries a new spacecraft up into
space. Its energy comes from its store of chemical energy (tanks of liquid
hydrogen) and oxygen. When the hydrogen fuel burns in oxygen, its store of
chemical energy is released.
The rocket is accelerating, so we can say that its kinetic energy is increasing. It
is also rising upwards, so its gravitational potential energy is increasing. In
Figure 6.12, you can see light coming from the burning fuel. You can also
imagine that large amounts of thermal energy and sound energy are transferred
into the atmosphere.
Figure 6.12: This rocket uses rocket motors to lift it up into space. Each rocket
motor burns about one tonne of fuel and oxygen every minute to provide the
energy needed to move the rocket upwards.

These energy changes could be represented as an energy flow diagram as before

or as an equation:
 chemical energy → k.e. + g.p.e. + thermal energy + light energy + sound
energy

Question
7 What energy transfers are going on in the following? In each case, write
an equation to represent the energy transfer.
a Coal is burned to heat a room and to provide a supply of hot water.
b A student uses an electric lamp while she is doing her homework.
c A hair dryer is connected to the mains electricity supply. It blows hot
air at the user’s wet hair. It whirrs as it does so.

ACTIVITY 6.1

Energy changes
Examine some devices that transfer energy. Some ideas are shown in
Figure 6.1 in the ‘Getting Started’ box.
• In pairs, examine each of the devices you are provided with. For each
of them, describe what energy transfers are going on in the device.
• With your partner, decide how to record and present the energy
transfers you have described for each device.
• Compare your answers with the answers of other members of the class
and correct or add to your own answers.
6.3 Conservation of energy
When energy is transferred from one store to another, it is often the case that
some of the energy ends up as unwanted energy. The energy transfers in a light
bulb were shown in Figure 6.9. The bulb transfers light (which we want) and
heat (which is not wanted).
This is an example of a very important idea, the principle of conservation of
energy:
In any energy transfer, the total amount of energy before and after the
transfer is constant.
This tells us something very important about energy: it cannot be created or
destroyed. The total amount of energy is constant. If we measure or calculate the
amount of energy before a transfer, and again afterwards, we will always get the
same result. If we find any difference, we must look for places where energy
may be entering or escaping unnoticed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.1

A car burns 3 × 105 J of fuel (chemical energy) per second. It has 1.3 × 105 J
of kinetic energy and gains 0.7 × 105 J of gravitational potential energy as it
goes up a slope. How much energy transfers away from the car through
thermal energy transfer? Assume that acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2.
Step 1: Write down what you know, and what you want to know.
input energy:
chemical energy = 3 × 105 J
output energy:
kinetic energy = 1.3 × 105 J
gravitational potential energy = 0.7 × 105 J
thermal energy transferred = ?
Step 2: Write down any equations or useful principles.
According to the principle of conservation of energy, the total
input energy should equal the total output energy.
 Step 3: Apply the principle to this problem and substitute known values to
solve the problem.
chemical energy = k.e. + g.p.e. + thermal energy
3 × 105 J = 1.3 × 105 J + 0.7 × 105 J + thermal energy
= 1.0 × 105 J transfers away from the car through thermal e
Answer
1.0 × 105 J transfers away from the car as thermal energy.

Question
8 A light bulb is supplied with 60 J of energy each second.
a How many joules of energy are transferred from the bulb each second?
b 4 J of energy are transferred from the lamp each second as light. How
many joules of energy are transferred each second by heating?

Sankey diagrams
An effective way to represent the principle of conservation of energy is by using
a Sankey diagram. The rocket motor we saw earlier (Figure 6.12) does
mechanical work to transfer chemical energy into k.e. and g.p.e. (energy stores
that we do want), while heat, light and sound transfer energy to the internal
energy store of the surroundings (an energy store that we do not want to
increase). This is shown in Figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13: The energy changes going on as a rocket like that in Figure 6.12
accelerates upwards. Chemical energy in the fuel is released when it burns in
oxygen and is transferred into three other energy stores.

At the beginning of Chapter 1 you were introduced to the Ancient Egyptians and
their pyramids. The Egyptians built their pyramids by dragging limestone blocks
up ramps and Figure 6.14 shows the Sankey diagram for this. By doing
mechanical work, they transferred energy from the chemical energy store in their
bodies to the (useful) gravitational potential energy gained by the blocks. At the
same time, some of their store of chemical energy is transferred, by heating, to
the (useless) internal energy of the surroundings. This heat came from their
bodies and because of friction between the blocks and the ramp.
Figure 6.14: A Sankey diagram for blocks being dragged up a ramp.

Energy efficiency
Most wasted energy is transferred away as heat. There are two main reasons for
this.
When fuels are burned (perhaps to generate electricity, or to drive a car), heat is
produced. Any kind of engine needs a difference in temperature to create
movement. Thermal energy transfers from the hot part to the cold part of the
engine and kinetic energy is produced. But no matter how well insulated the hot
part is, it will transfer thermal energy to the surroundings. Or, the cold part has
to be cooled to maintain (keep) the temperature difference. So, power stations
produce warm cooling water and cars produce hot exhaust gases.
Friction is often a problem when things are moving. Lubrication can help to
reduce friction and no doubt the Egyptians lubricated the ramps to make it easier
for the blocks to be dragged up them. A streamlined car design can reduce air
resistance. But it is impossible to eliminate (remove) friction entirely from
machines with moving parts. Friction generates heat.
Another common wasted energy transfer is sound. Noisy machinery, loud car
engines and so on, all transfer sound to the atmosphere. However, even loud
noises contain very little energy, so there is little to be gained (in terms of
energy) by reducing noise.
It is important to make good use of the energy resources available to us. This is
because energy is expensive, supplies are often limited, and our use of energy
can damage the environment. So we must use resources efficiently. Here is what
we mean by efficiency:
Efficiency is the fraction (or percentage) of energy supplied that is usefully
transferred.
Be careful, the word, ‘efficiency’ is often used in everyday life, but often it is
used to mean quickly, which is not the same as the scientific meaning.
Table 6.3 shows the typical efficiencies for some important devices. You can see
that even the most modern gas-fired power station is only 50% efficient. Half of
the energy it is supplied with is wasted.
Device Typical efficiency
electric heater 100%
large electric motor 90%
washing machine motor 70%
gas-fired power station 50%
diesel engine 40%
car petrol engine 30%
steam locomotive 10%
Table 6.3: Energy efficiencies. Most devices are less than 100% efficient
because they produce waste heat. An electric heater is 100% efficient because all
of the electrical energy supplied is transferred to thermal energy. There is no
problem with waste here.

Questions
9 a In what way is energy usually wasted?
b Name another way in which energy is often wasted.
10 Give three reasons why it is important not to waste energy.

Making better use of energy

Figure 6.15 shows a Sankey diagram that represents energy flows in the whole
of the UK in a typical year. Most of the energy flowing in to the UK comes from
fuels, particularly coal, oil and gas. Energy is wasted in two general ways: when
it is changed into electricity, and while it is being used (for example, in light
bulbs).
Figure 6.15: Energy flows in the UK in the year 2000. All numbers are ×1018 J.
A large proportion of the energy supplied by fuels is wasted in energy transfer
processes and during its final use. Some of this waste is inevitable, but better
insulation and more efficient machines could reduce the waste and
environmental damage, and save money.

Figure 6.16 shows one way to make more efficient use of electricity. We use
light bulbs to provide us with light. The lower light bulb is a filament lamp; the
other one is an energy-efficient lamp. The Sankey diagrams show the energy
each light bulb transfers each second. The diagram shows that each of the two
bulbs produces the same amount of light. However, because it wastes much less
energy as heat, the energy-efficient lamp requires a much smaller input of
energy and is more efficient.
Figure 6.16: Each of these two light bulbs provides the same amount of light.
The energy-efficient lamp wastes much less energy as heat.

Try not to mix stores and transfers on the same Sankey diagram. Figures 6.13
and 6.14 shows energy stores while Figure 6.16 shows transfers. Figure 6.16
shows the energy used by the light bulbs per second. Energy transferred per
second is known as power and is something you will meet in Chapter 8. This
highlights an important difference between stores and transfers. Transfers are a
flow of energy.

Energy becoming dissipated

We have seen that energy changes are usually less than 100% efficient. Energy
escapes and is wasted as heat. This means that objects and their surroundings are
warmed (and gain some internal energy). It is very difficult to get that energy
back. We say that energy tends to be dissipated (spread out) during an energy
transfer.
Think about, for example, a battery in a flashlight. It is a convenient, compact
store of energy. Once it has been used, some of its energy has been changed to
light which is then absorbed by the surfaces it falls on, causing them to warm
slightly (raising their internal energy). The rest of the energy is dissipated as
thermal energy in the components of the electric circuit in the flashlight.

Calculating efficiency
You can see from Table 6.3 that efficiency is often given as a percentage. We
can calculate the efficiency and percentage efficiency of an energy change as
follows:

KEY EQUATIONS
useful energy output
efficiency = total energy input

useful energy output

percentage efficiency = total energy input
× 100%

useful energy output

efficiency = total energy input
useful energy output
percentage efficiency = total energy input
× 100%
Efficiency is expressed as a number (no units) up to a value of 1. This number
can be multiplied by 100 to get percentage efficiency. Percentage efficiency
greater than 100% is impossible.
When the filament lamp from Figure 6.16 is supplied with 100 J of energy, it
produces 15 J of useful light. Its efficiency is thus:
useful energy output
efficiency = total energy input
15 J
= 100 J
= 0.15
useful energy output
percentage efficiency = total energy input
× 100%
15 J
= 100 J
× 100% = 15%
Similar equations can be used to calculate the efficiency and percentage
efficiency in terms of power as follows:
useful power output
efficiency = total power input
useful power output
percentage efficiency = total power input
× 100%

Questions
11 Describe the energy transfers taking place when charging a mobile phone,
including the energy that is wasted.
12 Calculate the efficiency of the energy-efficient lamp from the data shown in
Figure 6.16.
13 A tidal-power station is expected to produce 32 TJ of energy (1 TJ = 1012 J)
when the tides provide it with 100 TJ of gravitational potential energy.
What is the efficiency of the power station?
14 A tungsten-filament lamp is 4% efficient. How much electrical energy must
be supplied to the lamp each second when it produces 6 J of light per
second?

ACTIVITY 6.2

Energy changes during the pole vault

Energy is transferred between different energy stores during the pole vault.
Snapshots (labelled 1–5) of an athlete at different stages of the pole vault
are as shown in Figure 6.17. Between each snapshot, the energy is
transferred between stores.
Figure 6.17: Pole vaulter.

1 Copy and complete this table:

Main energy Additional

Snapshot Wasted energy
store energy storese
1
2
3
4
 5

2 How is the energy transferred between each store?

3 Using Figure 6.9 as a guide, draw an energy flow diagram that shows
the main energy stores and the energy transfers between them.
4 Decide whether you think the pole vault is an event or a process and
justify your answer.
5 If your teacher gives you the time to do so, compare your answers
with your neighbour and try to resolve any differences. Be prepared to
discuss your thinking with the class.

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Think about Activity 6.2. Did you find this activity easy? If you found it
difficult, you could think about energy transfers that you come across every
day (for example, the transport you use to get to and from school) and ask a
friend to check your answer.
6.4 Energy calculations
Energy is not simply an idea, it is also a quantity that we can calculate.

Gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.)

Mountaineering on the Moon should be easy (see Figure 6.18). The Moon’s
gravity is much weaker than the Earth’s, because the Moon’s mass is only one-
eightieth of the Earth’s. This means that the weight of an astronaut on the Moon
is a fraction of his or her weight on the Earth. In principle, it is possible to jump
higher on the Moon than on the Earth.

Figure 6.18: Astronauts on the Moon. The gravitational field strength on the
surface of the Moon is one-sixth of what it is on Earth. Experiments on the
Moon have shown that a golf ball can be hit much further than on Earth. This is
because it travels a much greater distance horizontally before gravity pulls it
back to the ground.

Earlier, we saw that an object’s g.p.e. depends on its height above the ground.
The higher it is, the greater its g.p.e. If you lift an object upwards, you provide
the force needed to increase its g.p.e. The heavier the object, the greater the force
needed to lift it, and hence the greater its g.p.e.
This suggests that an object’s gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.) depends on
two factors:
• the object’s weight, mg – the greater its weight, the greater its g.p.e.
• the object’s height, h, above ground level – the greater its height, the greater
its g.p.e.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.19. From the numbers in the diagram, you can see
that a change in g.p.e. is simply calculated by multiplying weight by height.
(Here, we are assuming that an object’s g.p.e. is zero when it is at ground level.)
We can write this as an equation for g.p.e.:

KEY EQUATION
change in g.p.e. = weight × change in height
ΔEp = mgΔh

Figure 6.19: The gravitational potential energy of an object increases as it is

lifted higher. The greater its weight, the greater its g.p.e.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.2

An athlete of mass 50 kg runs up a hill. The foot of the hill is 400 metres
above sea-level. The summit is 1200 metres above sea-level. By how much
does the athlete’s g.p.e. increase? Assume that acceleration due to gravity g =
10 m/s2.
Step 1: Assume that g.p.e. is zero at the foot of the hill. Calculate the
 increase in height.
Δh = 1200 m − 400 m = 800 m
Step 2: Write down the equation for g.p.e., substitute values and solve.
ΔEp = weight × change in height
= mgΔh
= 50 kg × 10 m/s 2 × 800 m
= 400 000 J
= 400 kJ
Answer
The athlete’s g.p.e. increases by 400 kJ.

Anote on height
We have to be careful when measuring or calculating the change in an object’s
height.
First, we have to consider the vertical height through which it moves. A train
may travel 1 km up a long and gentle slope, but its vertical height may only
increase by 10 metres. A satellite may travel around the Earth in a circular orbit.
It stays at a constant distance from the centre of the Earth, and so its height does
not change. Its g.p.e. is constant.
Second, it is the change in height of the object’s centre of gravity that we must
consider. This is illustrated by the pole-vaulter shown in Figure 6.20. As he
jumps, he must try to increase his g.p.e. enough to get over the bar. In fact, by
curving his body, he passes over the bar but his centre of gravity may pass under
it.
Figure 6.20: This polevaulter adopts a curved posture to get over the bar. He
cannot increase his g.p.e. enough to get his whole body above the level of the
bar. His centre of gravity may even pass under the bar, so that at no time is his
body entirely above the bar.

ACTIVITY 6.3

Moon flight high jump

High jump Height of
Athlete Year
record / m athlete / m
men 2.45 Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) 1.95 1993
Stefka Kostadinova
women 2.09 1.80 1987
(Bulgaria)
Table 6.4

Table 6.4 lists the current world records for the high jump.
Predict what the high jump record would be on the lunar surface.
Now follow these steps to see if your prediction was correct.
1 Let us assume that the Moon has the same atmosphere as Earth, and
that the athletes can reach the same run-up speed. Imagine that the
gravitational field strength on the Moon is reduced to one sixth of the
value it has on the Earth’s surface (10 N/kg) only after the jumpers
 have lifted off the ground. Predict what you think the high jump
records would be on the Moon. Write down your working and your
answers.
2 Now assume that the centre of gravity of a person is located half-way
up their body. Through what height have these athletes moved their
centre of gravity in order to achieve their world records?
3 The athletes are doing physical work to raise their centres of mass
over the bar. Now that you know the jumpers are raising their centres
of gravity, work out a revised prediction for the records, but take care,
as there is still a potential trap for the unwary.
4 Most high jumpers now use a technique that allows their centre of
gravity to pass below the bar, by as much as 20 cm. Explain or sketch
how this is possible.
5 Can you explain why the height gained by the athlete when they jump
is not the distance between the bar and the ground?
6 Use physics to explain why successful high jumpers tend to be tall and
slim.
7 Make a case for medals being awarded to athletes who can raise their
centres of gravity through the biggest height.

Kinetic energy
It takes energy to make things move. You transfer energy to a ball when you
throw it or hit it. A car uses energy from its fuel to get it moving. Elastic energy
stored in a stretched piece of rubber is needed to fire a pellet from a catapult. So
a moving object is a store of energy. This energy is known as kinetic energy
(k.e.).
We often make use of an object’s kinetic energy. To do this, we must slow it
down. For example, moving air turns a wind turbine. This slows down the air,
reducing its k.e. The energy extracted can be used to turn a generator to produce
electricity.
This suggests that the kinetic energy of an object depends on two factors:
• the object’s mass m – the greater the mass, the greater its kinetic energy
• the object’s speed v – the greater the speed, the greater its kinetic energy.
These are combined in an equation for kinetic energy:

KEY EQUATION
1
kinetic energy = 2
× mass × speed2
1
Ek = 2
mv2

Worked Example 6.3 shows how to use the equation to calculate the kinetic
energy of a moving object. Note also that kinetic energy is a scalar quantity,
despite the fact that it involves v. It is best to think of v here as speed rather than
velocity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.3

A van of mass 2000 kg is travelling at 10 m/s.

a Calculate its kinetic energy.
b Its speed increases to 20 m/s. By how much does its kinetic energy
increase?
Step 1: Calculate the van’s kinetic energy at 10 m/s.
Ek = 1 mv2
2
1 2
= 2
× 2000 kg × (10 m/s)
= 100 000 J
= 100 kJ
Step 2: Calculate the van’s kinetic energy at 20 m/s.
Ek = 1 mv2
2
1 2
= 2
× 2000 kg × (20 m/s)
= 400 000 J
= 400 kJ
Step 3: Calculate the change in the van’s kinetic energy.
 change in kinetic energy = 400 kJ − 100 kJ
= 300 kJ
Answer
a The van’s k.e. when travelling at 10 m/s is 100 kJ.
b The van’s k.e. increases by 300 kJ when it speeds up from 10 m/s to 20
m/s.
When the van starts moving from rest and speeds up to 10 m/s, its kinetic
energy increases from 0 to 100 kJ. When its speed increases by the same
amount again, from 10 m/s to 20 m/s, its kinetic energy increases by 300 kJ,
three times as much. It takes a lot more energy to increase your speed when
you are already moving quickly. That is why a car’s fuel consumption starts to
increase rapidly when the driver tries to accelerate in the fast lane of a
motorway.

It is worth looking at Worked Example 6.3 in detail, since it illustrates several

important points.
When calculating kinetic energy using Ek = 12 mv 2 , take care! Only the speed
is squared. Using a calculator, start by squaring the speed. Then multiply by the
mass, and finally divide by two.
When the van’s speed doubles from 10 m/s to 20 m/s, its kinetic energy
increases from 100 kJ to 400 kJ. In other words, when its speed increases by a
factor of two, its kinetic energy increases by a factor of four. This is because
kinetic energy depends on speed squared. If the speed trebled (increased by a
factor of three), the kinetic energy would increase by a factor of nine (see Figure
6.21).
Figure 6.21: The faster the van travels, the greater its kinetic energy. The graph
shows that kinetic energy increases more and more rapidly as the van’s speed
increases.

Questions
15 In the following examples, is the object’s g.p.e. increasing, decreasing or
remaining constant?
a A balloon rises in the air.
b A bird flies at a constant height on its migration route.
c A raindrop falls from the sky.
16 It is claimed that Superman can jump 200 metres vertically upwards. If he
has a mass of 100 kg, by how much does his g.p.e. increase?
17 A raindrop weighs 1 × 10-3 N. Its g.p.e. decreases by 0.8 J when it falls
from a cloud. How high was the cloud?
1
18 What does v represent in the equation Ek = 2
mv 2 ?
19 How much kinetic energy is stored by a bullet with a mass of 10.5 g
travelling at 553 m/s?
20 Usain Bolt has a mass of 86 kg. When he runs at 12 m/s, what is his kinetic
energy?
21 Which has more kinetic energy, a 2.0 g bee flying at 1.0 m/s, or a 1.0 g
wasp flying at 2.0 m/s?

REFLECTION
How easy did you find this topic?
How will you learn the different energy stores and transfers and remember
the difference between them?
If you do not know the difference between an event and a process, how are
you going to find out?

PROJECT

Choose one of the options below and either produce a short report (less
than 500 words) along with relevant illustrations or produce a short
presentation (two or three minutes), with suitable visual aids.
Option 1: Inventions for remote places
Research an invention that provides useful energy in a location without an
obvious or reliable energy supply. If you cannot track down another
invention, focus on one of the following examples.
• You should already have met the radioisotope thermoelectric
generator (RTG) earlier in the book.
• Trevor Baylis invented the wind-up radio, which worked without
batteries or access to an electrical power source.
Option 2: Efficiency
It is important to increase efficiency to reduce waste, reduce environmental
damage, and save money. Investigate efforts to improve the efficiency of
one device (for example, a light bulb, or a car) or create better insulation
for homes.
SUMMARY

Transfers between different stores of energy can occur because of an event

or process.
A collision is an event that will change the kinetic energy of a body.
Heating a body will increase its internal energy.
Changing the shape of a body will change its elastic (strain) energy.
Lifting a body will increase its g.p.e.
Burning a substance will reduce its chemical energy.
Energy can be transferred between energy stores, which can be illustrated
using an energy flow diagram.
Mechanical work can transfer g.p.e. to an object, by lifting it.
Electric currents transfer energy electrically.
Thermal energy can transfer internal energy from a hot object to a cold
object.
It is important to increase efficiency to reduce waste, reduce
environmental damage, and save money.
When a process is not 100% efficient, the wasted energy spread outs and
is not useful (usually thermal energy).
Energy is conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed; it can only transfer
from one store to another.
A Sankey diagram illustrates the principle of conservation of energy.
Efficiency is the fraction of the total energy that is useful.
change in gravitational potential energy = weight × change in height or
change in gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field
strength × change in height or ΔEp = mgΔh.
1
kinetic energy is Ek = 2
mv 2 .
When working out kinetic energy, only the speed is squared.