Answer sheet 1

1- Identify the five components of a data communications system.

- Sender
- Receiver
- Transmission Medium
- Message
- Protocol
2- What are the advantages of distributed processing?
- Improved Performance
- Scalability
- Load Balance
3- What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient
network?
- Reliability
- Performance
- Security
4- What are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-
point connection?
- Resource Efficiency: Multipoint connections are more resource-efficient
compared to point-to-point connections, as they enable multiple users or
devices to share the same communication channel.
- Scalability: Multipoint connections can easily accommodate a growing
number of participants without requiring a separate connection for each
user.
- Lower Bandwidth Requirements: In a multipoint connection, data is sent
once and received by multiple recipients. This reduces the overall
bandwidth requirements compared to point-to-point connections, where
the same data would need to be transmitted separately to each recipient.
- Cost Efficient

5- What are the two types of line configuration?

- Point to Point Configuration
- Multi-point Configuration
6- Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.
- Bus topology
- Star Topology
- Ring Topology
- Mesh Topology
7- What is the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex
transmission modes?
- Half-Duplex
o In half-duplex transmission mode, data can flow in only one direction at a time.
Devices on the network can either transmit or receive data, but not both
simultaneously. They share the same communication channel, and they take
turns sending and receiving data.
o When one device is transmitting data, the other(s) must listen and wait until the
transmission is complete before they can send their own data. This can introduce
a slight delay in communication, as devices need to switch between transmitting
and receiving modes.
o Half-duplex communication is common in walkie-talkies, two-way radios,
- Full-Duplex
o In full-duplex transmission mode, devices can transmit and receive data
simultaneously. Each device has its dedicated communication channel for
sending and receiving data. This mode allows for bidirectional communication
without the need to take turns.
o Full-duplex communication is more efficient and offers higher data throughput
compared to half-duplex, as there is no need to wait for a transmission to finish
before sending data in the opposite direction.

8- Name the four basic network topologies and cite an advantage of

each type.
- Bus Topology:
o Advantage: Simplicity and cost-effectiveness. A bus topology requires less
cabling compared to other topologies, making it cost-efficient for small
 networks. It is easy to set up and extend, making it a suitable choice for simple
networks with limited devices.
- Star Topology:
o Advantage: Centralized control and easy fault isolation. A star topology is easy to
manage and maintain because each device connects directly to a central hub or
switch. If a device or cable fails, it typically does not affect the rest of the
network, making it straightforward to identify and resolve issues.
- Ring Topology:
o Advantage: Equal data distribution and low latency. In a ring topology, data
travels in a circular path, ensuring that each device gets an equal opportunity to
transmit. This results in relatively low latency, making it suitable for applications
with real-time data requirements
- Mesh Topology:
o Advantage: Redundancy and fault tolerance. A mesh topology offers a high
degree of redundancy, as devices are interconnected with multiple links. If one
link or device fails, data can still find an alternative path to its destination. This
redundancy enhances fault tolerance and network reliability.

9- For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required

for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology?
- Mesh Topology: (n * (n - 1)) / 2
- Ring Topology: n
- Bus Topology: n
- Star Topology: n

10- What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication
system is a LAN or WAN?
- Geographical Coverage

One of the primary factors is the geographical scope of the network. LANs
typically cover a small, localized area, such as a single building, campus, or
a small office. In contrast, WANs span larger geographic areas, which can
 include cities, regions, countries, or even the entire globe.

- Size and Number of Devices:

LANs are designed to serve a relatively small number of devices in close

proximity, such as computers and devices within a building or campus.
WANs, on the other hand, connect a larger number of devices over a
wider area, often including multiple LANs.

11- What is the internet? What is the Internet?

- Internet (with a lowercase "i"):

The term "internet" refers to a generic concept of interconnected

networks. It is a broader term used to describe any network of
interconnected computers or devices. An internet can be a local network
within a single organization or a network connecting multiple
organizations or regions. It is not specific to the global network we
commonly refer to as the "Internet."

- Internet (with an uppercase "I"):

"Internet" with a capital "I" specifically refers to the global computer

network that connects millions of devices and networks worldwide. It is
the worldwide system of interconnected computer networks that allows
for global communication, access to information, and online services. The
Internet, as we commonly know it, is a massive and decentralized network
that connects people, organizations, and devices on a global scale.

12- Why are protocols needed?

- Communication Standardizations
- Data Integrity
- Security
- Error Handling
 13- Why are standards needed?
Standards Provide Guidelines for manufacturers, vendors, Government,
Agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today’s Marketplace and international
Communication.

14- Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many
cables are needed? How Many Ports needed for each device ?
Number of Cables =(n ∗ (n – 1))2Number of Cables =n ∗ n – 12

Number of Cables =(6 ∗ (6 – 1))2=15 Number of Cables =6 ∗ 6 – 12=15

[Equation]In a full mesh topology, each device needs to connect to every
other device. Therefore, for each device, you need "n - 1" ports. In your case,
with six devices: Number of Ports for Each Device = 6 - 1 = 5 ports

15- For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a
connection fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology where each device is directly connected to every other
device, the consequences of a single connection failure are relatively limited. If one
connection fails, the devices can still communicate through alternative paths.
However, there may be a minor increase in traffic on the remaining connections,
potentially leading to slower data transfer due to rerouting.

b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub)

In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. If a single
device's connection to the hub fails, only that device is affected. The other devices
can continue to communicate without interruption.
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology.
In a bus topology, a single cable or bus connects all devices. If there is a connection
failure at any point along the bus (e.g., a cable break), the entire network can be
disrupted.
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology.
In a ring topology, data circulates in a closed loop from one device to the next. If
there is a connection failure or a device fails in the ring, it can disrupt the entire
network.
16- Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.

17- Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.

18- Performance is inversely related to delay. When you use the Internet,
which of the following applications are more sensitive to delay?
a. Sending an e-mail
E-mail applications are typically not highly sensitive to latency. While a slight delay
may not significantly impact the experience of sending an e-mail, it's generally
considered acceptable for e-mail communication.
b. Copying a file
File copying can be more sensitive to latency, especially when dealing with large
files. The time it takes to transfer a file is influenced by latency, and delays can be
 noticeable, affecting the efficiency of the file transfer process.
c. Surfing the Internet
Browsing the Internet can be sensitive to latency, particularly when loading web
pages or interactive content. Web pages often consist of multiple elements (text,
images, scripts), and each element requires a separate request to a server. High
latency can result in slow page loading, impacting the user experience.
19- Compare the telephone network and the Internet. What are the
similarities? What are the differences?
Similarities
- Protocol-Based: Both networks rely on standardized communication
protocols to facilitate data exchange. The telephone network uses
signaling and switching protocols, while the Internet uses TCP/IP and
other protocols.
Differences
- Network Infrastructure:
o Telephone Network: Historically, the telephone network used circuit-
switched infrastructure, which allocated dedicated communication
channels for calls. Modern telephone networks increasingly use
packet-switching for data services.
o Internet: The Internet is packet-switched, meaning data is divided into
packets and transmitted independently. This approach is more
efficient for handling diverse data types.

Answer sheet 2
1- List the three traditional switching methods. What are the most
common today?
- Circuit Switching: In circuit switching, a dedicated communication
path is established between two devices for the duration of their
conversation. This method was commonly used in traditional
telephone networks.
- Message Switching: Message switching involves sending entire
messages from one node to another. Each message is treated as an
independent unit, and there is no dedicated path for communication.
- Packet Switching: Packet switching divides data into smaller packets
and routes them independently from source to destination. Each
packet can take a different path through the network. This method is
the foundation of modern computer networks, including the internet.

Packet switching is the most common switching method used today,

particularly in data networks. It is the basis for the functioning of the
internet and most other computer networks.

2- Compare and contrast a circuit switched network and a packet-

switched network.
Circuit-Switched Network:
- Inefficient for Data: Circuit switching is not efficient for data
transmission, as it reserves a fixed bandwidth for the entire duration
of the call, even during periods of silence or when no data is being
transmitted.
- Dedicated Connection: In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated
communication path is established between the sender and the
receiver for the duration of the call. This path remains exclusively
reserved for the two parties for the entire conversation.

Packet-Switched Network:
- Packetization: In a packet-switched network, data is divided into
 packets before transmission. Each packet is labeled with source and
destination information and is sent independently into the network.
- Shared Resources: Packet-switched networks share network
resources and allow multiple users and applications to use the same
network infrastructure simultaneously. Bandwidth is allocated on-
demand.
- Efficient for Data: Packet switching is highly efficient for data
transmission, as it optimizes the use of available bandwidth by
sending packets only when there is data to transmit. It is well-suited
for a wide range of applications, including voice, video, and data.
- Robustness and Redundancy: Packet-switched networks are typically
more robust and fault-tolerant, as packets can take different paths to
reach their destination. This redundancy helps ensure reliable data
transmission.
3- What is the role of the address field in a packet traveling through
a datagram network?
In a datagram network, the address field in a packet plays a crucial role in
ensuring that the packet is correctly delivered to its intended destination. The
address field contains information that specifies the destination address of
the packet and may also include the source address.

4- What is the role of the address field in a packet traveling through

a virtual-circuit network?
In a virtual-circuit network, packets are associated with a specific virtual
circuit, and the address field is used to identify the virtual circuit rather than
the ultimate destination of the packet.

5- A path in a digital circuit-switched network has a data rate of 1

Mbps. The exchange of 1000 bits is required for the setup and
teardown phases. The distance between two parties is 5000 km.
Answer the following questions if the propagation speed is 2x
108 m/s:

Given:

- Data rate (R) = 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps

 - Data exchanged during setup and teardown phases (S) = 1000 bits
- Distance (D) = 5000 km = 5,000,000 meters
- Propagation speed (c) = 2 x 10^8 m/s

a- What is the total delay if 1000 bits of data are exchanged during the
data transfer phase?
- Transmission Delay (Td): Td = (Data Size / Data Rate) = (1000 bits /
1,000,000 bps) = 0.001 seconds = 1 millisecond
- Propagation Delay (Pd): Pd = (Distance / Propagation Speed) =
(5,000,000 meters / 2 x 10^8 m/s) = 25 milliseconds
- Total Delay (T1): T1 = Td + Pd = 1 ms + 25 ms = 26 milliseconds
b- What is the total delay if 100,000 bits of data are exchanged during
the data transfer phase?
- Transmission Delay (Td): Td = (Data Size / Data Rate) = (100,000
bits / 1,000,000 bps) = 0.1 seconds = 100 milliseconds
- Propagating 100,000 bits of data still incurs the same propagation
delay as calculated in part (a).
- Total Delay (T2): T2 = Td + Pd = 100 ms + 25 ms = 125 milliseconds
c- What is the total delay if 1,000,000 bits of data are exchanged during
the data transfer phase?
- Transmission Delay (Td): Td = (Data Size / Data Rate) = (1,000,000
bits / 1,000,000 bps) = 1 second
- Propagation delay remains the same as calculated in part (a).
- Total Delay (T3): T3 = Td + Pd = 1 s + 25 ms = 1.025 seconds

d- Find the delay per 1000 bits of data for each of the above cases and
compare them. What can you infer?
- For 1000 bits of data (T1): the delay per 1000 bits is 26 ms.
- For 100,000 bits of data (T2): the delay per 1000 bits is 125 ms / 100
= 1.25 ms.
- For 1,000,000 bits of data (T3): the delay per 1000 bits is 1.025 s /
1000 = 1.025 ms.
6- Transmission of information in any network involves end-to-end
 addressing and sometimes local addressing (such as VCI). Table
2.1 shows the types of networks and the addressing mechanism
used in each of them.

Table 2.1

7- Answer the following questions:

a. Why does a circuit-switched network need end-to-end addressing
during the setup and teardown phases? Why are no addresses needed
the data transfer phase for this type of network?
In a circuit-switched network, the setup and teardown phases require end-to-end
addressing for the following reasons:
- Setup Phase: During the setup phase in a circuit-switched network, a
dedicated communication path (circuit) is established between the
two communicating parties. This circuit needs to be uniquely
identified by an address to ensure that the network knows which
parties are involved and can allocate resources accordingly. The end-
to-end addressing is necessary to specify the source and destination
of the call, allowing the network to route the call appropriately.
- Teardown Phase: End-to-end addressing is needed during the
teardown phase to inform the network that the dedicated circuit is
no longer required and should be released. It ensures that the
network can correctly identify the circuit that needs to be
disconnected. Without this addressing, the network wouldn't know
which circuit to tear down.
- Data Transfer Phase: During the data transfer phase in a circuit-
switched network, no additional addresses are needed because the
dedicated circuit has already been established. The network knows
the path for communication, and data can flow smoothly without the
need for addressing in each packet.
b. Why does a datagram network need only end-to-end addressing
during the data transfer phase, but no addressing during the setup and
teardown phases?
In a datagram network, addressing is structured differently, and it needs end-to-end
addressing only during the data transfer phase, not during the setup and teardown
phases. This is because:
- Data Transfer Phase: Datagram networks, such as the Internet, use
end-to-end addressing for packets during the data transfer phase.
Each packet is addressed with the source and destination IP
addresses, allowing it to traverse the network and reach its intended
destination. Addressing during this phase is essential to ensure
proper routing and delivery of data.
- Setup and Teardown Phases: Datagram networks do not require
addressing during the setup and teardown phases because they
operate on a connectionless basis. There is no need to establish and
release dedicated circuits. Instead, each packet is treated
independently, and the network infrastructure does not need specific
addressing for these phases. Datagram networks rely on the
destination address within the data packets to determine the route
and reachability.

c. Why does a virtual-circuit network need addresses during all three

phases?
Virtual-circuit networks require addresses during all three phases (setup, data
transfer, and teardown) because they combine elements of both circuit-switched
and datagram networks
8- Fig. 2.1 shows a switch (router) in a datagram network. Find the
output port for packets with the following destination addresses:

a- Packet 1:7176
b- Packet 2: 1233
c- Packet 3: 8766
d- Packet 4: 9144

Fig. 2.1
9- Fig. 2.2 shows a switch in a virtual circuit network. Find the
output port and the output VCI for packets with the following
input portand input VCI addresses:

a- Packet 1: 3, 78
a. Packet 2: 2, 92
b. Packet 3: 4, 56
c. Packet 4: 2, 71
10- Answer the following questions:
a. Can a routing table in a datagram network have two entries with the
same destination address? Explain.
b. Can a switching table in a virtual-circuit network have two entries with
the same input port number? With the same output port number?
With the same incoming VCis? With the same outgoing VCis? With the
same incoming values (port, VCI)? With the same outgoing values
(port, V Cl)?

Answer sheet 3
1- List the layers of the Internet model.

The commonly referenced model is the TCP/IP (Transmission Control

Protocol/Internet Protocol) model, which consists of four layers. These layers,
from the bottom to the top, are:

1. Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

 Responsible for the physical connection between devices on the same

network.

 Deals with hardware addressing, such as MAC (Media Access Control)

addresses.

 Examples of protocols at this layer include Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

2. Network Layer:

 Manages the routing of data packets between devices across different

networks.

 Key protocol at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP).

 Performs logical addressing using IP addresses.

3. Transport Layer:

 Ensures end-to-end communication and reliability of data transfer.

 Key protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for
reliable communication and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for faster,
connectionless communication.

4. Application Layer

:  Provides network services directly to end-users or applications.

 Encompasses various protocols for specific applications, such as Hypertext

Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file
transfer, and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email.
2- Which layers in the Internet model are the network support layers?

1. Link Layer (Network Interface Layer):

 The lowest layer responsible for the physical connection and data link
control on the local network.

 It deals with hardware addressing, such as MAC (Media Access Control)

addresses.

 Examples of protocols at this layer include Ethernet and WiFi.

2. Network Layer:

 This layer manages the routing of data packets between

3- Which layer in the Internet model is the user support layer?

1. Application Layer:

• Provides network services directly to end-users or applications.

• Encompasses various protocols for specific applications, such as Hypertext

Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file
transfer, and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email

4- What is the difference between network layer delivery and transport layer
delivery?

1. Location in the Networking Stack:

 Network Layer Delivery:

1- Occurs at the third layer of the OSI model or the Internet layer in the
TCP/IP model.

2- Involves the routing of packets between devices across different networks.

 Transport Layer Delivery:

1- Occurs at the fourth layer of the OSI model or the Transport layer in the
TCP/IP model.

2- Involves end-to-end communication between applications on different

devices.

2. Responsibility:
 Network Layer Delivery:

1- Responsible for logical addressing using IP addresses.

2- Manages the logical path determination and packet forwarding based on

IP routing.

 Transport Layer Delivery:

1- Ensures reliable data transfer between end systems.

2- Manages end-to-end communication, error recovery, and flow control.

3. Protocols:

 Network Layer Delivery:

1- Primarily involves the Internet Protocol (IP).

 Transport Layer Delivery:

1- Involves protocols like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for reliable,

connection-oriented communication, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for
faster, connectionless communication.

4. Unit of Data:

 Network Layer Delivery:

1- Deals with packets of data.

 Transport Layer Delivery:

1- Manages segments of data. 5. End-to-End vs. Intermediate Node:

 Network Layer Delivery:

1- Focuses on routing data between intermediate nodes (routers) in the

network.

 Transport Layer Delivery:

1- Focuses on end-to-end communication between the source and

destination devices.

5- What is a peer-to-peer process?

In the context of networking and communication, a peer-to-peer (P2P)
process refers to a decentralized communication model where two or more
devices (peers) share resources or information directly with each other,
without the need for a centralized server or hierarchy. In a peerto-peer
network, each device can act as both a client and a server, with the ability to
initiate communication and respond to requests from other peers.

6- How does information get passed from one layer to the next in the
Internet model?

In the Internet model, information is passed from one layer to the next
through a process known as encapsulation. Each layer in the model adds its
own header (and sometimes trailer) to the data it receives, forming a new
unit of information at that layer. This unit is then passed down to the lower
layer, where it becomes the payload for the new layer's header. This process
of encapsulation and decapsulation allows each layer to perform its specific
functions independently, providing a modular and flexible architecture.

7- What are headers and trailers, and how do they get added and removed?

1. Headers:

 Definition: Headers are blocks of information added to the beginning of a

data unit. They contain control information necessary for the communication
process.

 Addition (Encapsulation): Each layer in the networking stack adds its own
header to the data received from the layer above. For example:

1- The Application layer adds a header to the data, creating a message.

2- The Transport layer adds a header to the message, creating a segment.

3- The Internet layer adds a header to the segment, creating a packet.

4- The Link layer adds a header to the packet, creating a frame.

 Removal (Decapsulation): At the receiving end, the process is reversed.

Each layer removes its own header to extract the data from the received
unit.

2. Trailers:

 Definition: Trailers are similar to headers but are added at the end of a
data unit. They are less common than headers and are often used for error-
checking purposes.
 Addition (Encapsulation): In some protocols, a trailer may be added at the
end of the data unit. For instance, the Link layer in some protocols might add
a trailer containing error-checking information.

 Removal (Decapsulation): If a trailer is used, it is removed at the

appropriate layer during the decapsulation process.

8- What are the concerns of the physical layer in the Internet model?

1. Transmission Medium

2. Signal Encoding

3. Synchronization

4. Physical Topology

5. Line configuration

6. Transmission Mode

9- What are the responsibilities of the data link, network, and transport
layers in the Internet model?

1. Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

• Responsible for the physical connection between devices on the same

network.

• Deals with hardware addressing, such as MAC (Media Access Control)

addresses.

• Examples of protocols at this layer include Ethernet and WiFi.

2. Transport Layer:

• Ensures end-to-end communication and reliability of data transfer.

• Key protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for
reliable communication and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for faster,
connectionless communication.

10- What is the difference between a port address, a logical address, and a
physical address?

1. Port Address:
• Definition: A port address is a numeric value used to identify specific
processes or services on a device. It is part of the transport layer addressing.

• Usage: Port addresses are used in the transport to distinguish between

different applications or services running on the same device. Ports allow
multiple applications to use the network simultaneously.

2. Logical Address:

• Definition: A logical address is an address assigned to a device at the

network layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model). In the context of the Internet
model, it typically refers to an IP (Internet Protocol) address.

• Usage: Logical addresses are used for identifying devices on a network. IP

addresses, which are logical addresses, allow devices to communicate across
different networks by providing a globally unique identifier for each device.

3. Physical Address:

• Definition: A physical address, also known as a hardware address or MAC

(Media Access Control) address, is a unique identifier assigned to the
network interface card (NIC) of a device.

• Usage: Physical addresses are used at the data link layer to identify
devices on the same local network. They are essential for communication
within a local network segment.

11- Name some services provided by the application layer in the Internet
model. Application layers enables the user to access the network It provides
user interfaces and support for services such as email.

12-How do the layers of the Internet model correlate to the layers of the OSI
model?

1. Application Layer (Internet Model) - Layer 7 (OSI Model):

• The Application layer in the Internet model is similar to the Application

layer in the OSI model. Both are responsible for providing network services
directly to end-users or applications.

2. Transport Layer (Internet Model) - Layer 4 (OSI Model):

• The Transport layer in the Internet model corresponds to the Transport
layer in the OSI model. Both layers are responsible for end-to-end
communication, flow control, error detection, and segmentation of data.

3. Internet Layer (Internet Model) - Layer 3 (OSI Model):

• The Internet layer in the Internet model aligns with the Network layer in
the OSI model. Both layers are responsible for logical addressing, routing,
and forwarding of packets between devices on different networks.

4. Link Layer (Internet Model) - Layer 2 (OSI Model):

• The Link layer in the Internet model is equivalent to the Data Link layer in
the OSI model. Both layers deal with framing, addressing at the local network
level, and managing access to the physical medium.

13- Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:

a) Provides access for the end user.

b) Flow control.

c) Interface to transmission media.

d) Error correction and retransmission

e)Route selection.

f) Defining frames.

g) Reliable process-to-process delivery.

h)Providing user services: application layer.

i) Transmission of bits across the medium.

j) Route determination.

14- In Fig. 3.1, computer A sends a message to computer D via LANl, router
Rl, and LAN2. Show the contents of the packets and frames at the network
and data link layer for each hop interface.

15- In Fig. 3.1, assume that the communication is between a process running
at computer A with port address i and a process running at computer D with
port address j. Show the contents of packets and frames at the network,
datalink, and transport layer for each hop