BIOLOGY | MIDTERMS - 2ND SEM  Roots do not bear Buds

 Roots do not bear nodes and internodes.

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS  Roots have unicellular root hairs

MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS

 Morphe= Form +
Logos= Study
 Study of form
and feature
 Root
 Stem
 Leaf
 Inflorescence
→ Flower
 Fruit
 Seed 1. Region of root cap:
- The tender apex of the root is protected with a multicellular
like structure called root cap.
- The cells of the root cap secrete mucilage for lubricating the
passage of root through the soil.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS - In many hydrophytes like Pistia and Eichhornia, root cap is
Annuals Complete their life cycle in one year or replaced by root pocket.
one growing season or few weeks to a
few months. eg. Mustard, corn, wheat, 2. Region of cell division or meristematic region:
rice, lettuce, peas, watermelon, beans, - It is a small region about 1mm in length.
zinnia and marigold - This is the growing part of the root and is protected by the
Biennials Complete their life cycle in two years root cap.
growing (vegetative and storing food in - It is made up of thin walled, compactly arranged
the first year, flowering and fruiting in meristematic cells which have the power of division.
second year). eg. Radish, Turnip, Carrot. - This region helps in longitudinal growth by the addition of
Onion and Cabbage new cells

Perennials Survives for several years. Generally the 3. Region of elongation:

top portion of the plant dies back each - It lies just above the meristematic region.
winter and regrows the following spring - The cells of this region are newly formed and they elongate
from the same root system. eg. rapidly.
Mango,Guava and Banana - This increases the length of the root.
- The cells of this region help in the absorption of mineral
salts

4. Region of root hair or root absorption:

- Surface of this area is covered with numerous root hairs.
- The cells of the outer layer known as piliferous layer or
epiblema
produce root hair.
- The root hairs are elongated, single celled, tubular
structures which remain in contact with soil particles.
- The root hairs increase the surface area of absorption.
- They are short lived and are replaced by new root hairs
after every 10 to 15 days and is responsible for absorption of
water.
MORPHOLOGY OF ROOT
5. Region of maturation or cell differentiation:
Characteristics: - It forms the major part of the root.
 Radicle comes out/arise from the seed coat in the form - The outermost layer of this region has thick walled
soft structure and move toward the soil. impermeable cells.
 Non Green, underground - The enlarged cells undergo differentiation to form different
 (+) Geotropic types of primary root tissue like cortex, endodermis, xylem,
 (-) phototropic phloem, etc. This region helps in fixation of plant body into
 (+) hydrotropic the soil and also in conduction of absorbed substances.
- Lateral roots also develop from this region of the root.
TYPES OF ROOT

MODIFICATIONS
Tap root Adventitious Root
1. Storage of food 1.Storage of food
2. Respiration 2. Support
3. Special functions
Modified tap root for storage: Modified Adventitious roots for storage :
Fusiform roots SIMPLE TUBEROUS ROOTS
These root are thicker in the middle and tappered on both - These roots become swollen and do not assume a definite
ends. In this type of loots both hypocotyl root help in storage shape.
of food. eg. Radish. - They are always borne singly
- These roots arise from the nodes of the stem and enter in the
soil. e.g. sweet potato or shakarkand (Ipomoea batatas).
Conical roots FASCICULATED TUBEROUS ROOTS:
These roots are thicker at their upper side and tapering at - A cluster of adventitious roots of some plants become thick
basal end. eg. Carrot. and fleshy due to the storage of food.
- These are known as fasciculated tuberous roots, as there are
many tuberous roots at the base of the stem. E.g. Dahlia and
Asparagus.
Napiform
These roots become swollen and spherical at upper end and
tappered like a thread at their lower end. eg. Turnip (Brassica
rapa), Sugarbeet
Tuberous root
Such roots do not have regular shape and get swollen & fleshy
at any portion of roots eg, Mirabilis.
Modified tap root for Respiration: Modified Adventitious roots for Mechanical Support
 Halophyte or mangrove grove in oxygen deficient marshy 1. Stilt roots or brace roots
area. Some branches of tap root in these plant grow - When root arises from lower nodes and enter in soil
vertically & comes out from soil in the form of conical obliquely, known as stilt roots eg Maize, Sugarcane, Pandanus
spikes. (screwpine)
 These roots are called pneumatophores through which air
entered inside the plant. eg. Rhizophora, Heritiera,
Sonaratia and other mangrove plant
1. Prop root or pillar roots
- when root arises from branches of plant and grows
downward towards soil. It function as supporting stem for the
plant. eg. Banyan.

2. Butteress root
- Such roots appear from the basal part of stem and spread in
difierent directions in the soil. eg. Ficus, Bombax, Terminalia. It
is a characteristic characteristic feature of tropical rain forest.
3. Climbing roots
- These roots arise from nodes and helps the plant in climbing,
eg. Money plant (Pothos), Betel, Black pepper, Techoma.

Modified Adventitious roots for Special Functions

1. Foliar roots or Epiphyllous roots
- When roots arise from leaf they are called as follar rots. eg.
Bryophyllum, Bignonia.
2. Sucking or haustorial roots or Parasitic roots
- In parasitic plant roots enter in the stem of host plant to
absorbed nutrition from host. eg. Dendrophthoe, Cuscuta,
Tap Roots or True Roots:
- It develops from radicle and made up of one main
and other sub branches.
- The primary roots and its branches constitute tap root
system. e.g. Dicot roots
- Presence of a tap root system is a characteristic feature
dicotyledonous plants. The tap root normally grows
vertically downwards to a lesser or greater depth, while
secondary and tertiary roots grow obliquely downwards
or some grow horizontally outwards.
- All lateral branches are produced in acropetal
i.e., the older and longer branches are near the base
the younger and shorter ones are near the apex of the
main root.

Adventitious roots :
 In some plants, after sometime of the growth of tap
root which arises from radicle, stops and then roots,
develop from other part of plant, which are branched
or unbranched, fibrous or storage, are known as
adventitious roots and constitute fibrous root system.
e.g. Monocot roots.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOT

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
- The normal functions of the roots are fixation
anchorage of the plant body.
- absorption of water and minerals from the soil
conduction of absorbed materials up to the base of the stem.

SECONDARY FUNCTIONS
 In some plants roots perform certain special functions and such roots undergo necessary modifications. Some roots become
fleshy or swollen for the storage of food materials eg. carrot radish, asparagus, sweet potato,Dahlia, etc.
 After becoming green some roots manufacture food by photosynthesis e.g, Tinospora, Trapa, Orchids etc
 Some roots help in exchange of gases (respiration) e.g. Rhizopora, Sonneratia etc.
 In parasitic plants like Cuscuta, adventitious roots penetrate the host stem to obtain food and water.
 Sometimes roots also take part in vegetative reproduction e.g. Sweet potato,
 Aerial roots absorb moisture from the air eg. Orchids.Thus modified roots perform differen* functions.

MORPHOLOGY OF STEM

Characteristics :
 Stem is a part of plant which lies above from surface of soil
 (-) geotropic.
 (+) Phototropic.
 It has nodes and internodes.
 Branches, leaf, flower bud and bracts are developed from nodes
 Stem arises from plumule.
 The young stem is green and is capable of performing photosynthesis.
 MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
Underground modification: (for Aerial modification (Epiterranean stem) : Sub-aerial modification:
storage and vegetative propagation)
1. RHIZOME 1. STEM TENDRIL 1. RUNNER:
- prostrate, dorsiventral thickened - It is a modification of stem in which - These are special, narrow,
brownish stem, which grows axillary bud modifies to form a thin, wiry, green,horizontal or prostrate branches
horizontally under the surface of the and highly sensitive structure called tendril which develop at the base of erect
soil. - Tendrils help the plant to attach itself to shoots called crowns.
- It shows distinct nodes and the support and climb They are found in - Many runners arise from each erect
internodes. It possesses a terminal bud plants with weak stem. The tendrils are shoot. They spread in different
and axillary buds in the axil of each leafless, coiled structures with sensitive directions and bear new crowns above
scale leaf present at the node. adhesive glands glands for fixation. and and tufts of adventitious roots
- Rhizome remains dormant under the - An example of axillary tendril is Passiflora below at certain intervals.
soil and at the onset of favorable (Passion flower). - Each runger has one or more nodes.
conditions; the terminal bud grows - In Vitis apical bud is modified into tendril The nodes bear scale leaves and axillary
into the aerial shoot which dies at the and further growth is resumed by-axillary buds,- eg., Doob grass (Cynodon
end of the favorable season. bud. dactylon), Hydrocotyl (Centella
- Growth of rhizome takes place - In Cucurbita, extra axillary bud is modified asiatica),
horizontally with the help of the lateral into tendril, while in Antigonon, floral bud Oxalis, etc.
bud This type of Thizome is called is tendrillar.
sympodial rhizome - e.g ginger
(Zingiber officinale), turmeric
(Curcuma domestica), Canna= In some
plants, growth of rhizome occurs with
the help of terminal bud. These are
called monopodial rhizomes - e.g.
Lotus, Pteris
2. TUBER: 2. THORN: 2. STOLON
- Tubers are actually the swollen ends - Thorn is a hard, pointed usually straight - Stolon is a slender lateral branch that
or tips of special swollen underground structure produced by modification of arises from the base of the main axis.
branches, due to the storage bf foo axillary bud - Initially stolon grows upwards like an
(carbohydrate like starch).The tubers - Leaves, branches and flowers are ordinary branch branch and then bends
show nodes and internodes bear scale developed on thorns at the nodes, down and touches the soil where its
leaves with axillary buds, commonly indicating that it is a modified stem. terminal bud gives rise to a new shoot
called as eyes - It provides protection against browsing and adventitious roots.
- Under favorable conditions these animals, - e.g. Citrus, - eg. Jasmine, Mentha, and Colocasia
eyes sprout and produce aerial shoots Bougainvillea, Duranta etc.
- Thus tubers helps in vegetative  In Carrisa, apical bud is modified into
propagation. Tubers do not produce thorn.
adventitious roots, thus they differ
from rhizomes e.g. potato (Solanum
tuberosum).
BULB 3. PHYLLOCLADE: 3. OFFSET:
- It is a condensed, disc like - The phylloclade or cladophyll is a stem - It is commonly called the runner of
underground stem, which itself does which gets transformed into leaf like aquatic plants
not store food material. structure. - It is shorter and thicker than runner
- The upper surface of disc like stem is - The phylloclade is green, flattened - It helps in the vegetative propagation
slightly conical and bears centrally structure with distinct nodes and in aquatic plants, eg water hyacinth or
placed apical bud and many internodes. jalkumbhi (Eichhomia) and Pistia
concentrically arranged overlapping - It is thick, fleshy and succulent, in
scale leaves. Opuntia or Nagphani, cylindrical in
- Inner scale leaves or leaf bases store Casuarina and Euphorbia tirucalli and
food and are thick and fleshy, while ribbon like in Muehlenbeckia.
outer few scaly leaves remain thin and - In xerophytes, leaves get modified into
dry and are protective in function. spines or get reduced in size to check the
- Lower surface of disc-like stem loss of water due to transpiration and thus
produces adventitious roots stem takes up the function of leaf ie.
- The discoid stem with compactly photosynthesis.
arranged fleshy leaves above and
fibrous roots below is commonly called
bulb.
- It is almost spherical. When the fleshy
scale leaves surround the apical bud in
the form of concentric rings, it is called
tunicated bulb e.g. onion.
- Sometimes they may partially overlap
each other by their margins only, such
bulbs are called scaly bulbs eg. garlic.
4. CORM: 4. CLADODE: 4. SUCKER:
- Corm is a short, stout, fleshy, - These are green branches of limited - Sucker is a runner like non-green
upright and thickened underground growth (usually one internode long) which branch which develops from the axil of
stem. have taken up the function of scale leaf in thesunderground part of
- It bears many buds in the axils of photosynthesis stem.
scale leaves which develop into - True leaves are reduced to scales or - It grows horizontally below the soil for
daughter corms. spines, e.g. Asparagus some distance and comes above the
- At the bases or even from sides of soil obliquely and produces green
stem adventitious roots develop. leaves to form aerial shoots.
- Corm is a condensed form of - The sucker can, therefore, be called
rhizome growing vertically, e.g., Arbi underground runner, - e.g,
(Colocasia), zaminkand Chrysanthemum, mint (Pudina).
(Amorphophallus etc.)
5. BULBILS:
- When axillary bud becomes fleshy and
rounded due to storage of food, it is called
bulbils.
- It gets detached from the plant, falls on
ground and develops into a new plant, eg.
Dioscora.

Functions of Stem: - The leaves develop from the nodes.

- The primary functions of stem are to produce and support - Their main function is photosynthesis and food making,
lateral appendages such as branches, leaves, flowers and axillary buds are found in its axil.
fruits, conduction of water and minerals to different parts of - All the leaves of a plant is known as phyllome. Axillary bud
shoots and transport food to all plant parts. later develops into a branch. Leaves originated from shoot.
- Stem may, however, get modified to perform additional or - Apical meristem and are arranged in acropetal order
functions such as storage of food and water, proliferation and
propagation, = procuring support for climbing, perennation 1. LEAF BASE OR HYPOPODIUM:
i.e. to tide over unfavorable conditions • The part of leaf attached to the stem or branch is known as
- Synthesis of food (photosynthesis). leaf = It may assume different shapes in different plants.
- In some leguminous plants, the leaf blade may become
MORPHOLOGY OF LEAF swollen is called pulvinus.
Characteristics = In monocots, the leaf base expands into a sheath covering
 The leaf is a lateral generally flattened structure borne on the stem partially or completely.
the stem. - Leaves of some plants possess a pair of lateral outgrowths
 The leaves develop from the nodes. at the on either sides of axillary bud. These outgrowths are
 Their main function is photosynthesis and food making, called stipules and such leaves are called stipulate leaves.
axillary buds are found in its axill - The leaves without stipules are called exstipulate leaves.
 All the leaves of a plant is known as phyllome. Axillary bud Stipules are usually green
later develops into a - The main functions of stipules are to protect the bud and
branch. Leaves carry out photosynthesis
originated from
shoot. 2. PETIOLE OR MESOPODIUM:
 Apical meristem - Petiole is the part of leaf connecting the lamina with the
and are arranged in branch or stem.
acropetal order. - Leaves that possess petiole are called petiolate and leaves
without petiole are called non-petiolate or sessile leaves.
PARTS Of LEAF: - Petiole is usually cylindrical, but may be hollow (Papaya),
tubular or flattened.
Characteristics - Function of petiole is to raise the lamina to expose it to
- The leaf is a lateral generally flattened structure borne on light and air and to help in conduction
the stem.
3. LAMINA OR EPIPODIUM: - These tendrils help the plant to climb up on some support.
- This is the largest, most important, green and flattened part - In pea (Lathyrus), entire leaf is tendrillar, in sweet pea
of the leaf. (Pisum sativum) terminal leaflets are tendrillar,
- It plays a vital role in photosynthesis, gaseous exchange and
transpiration. LEAF HOOKS
- The leaf is known as dorsiventral when its ventral surface is - In Bignonia unguis-cati (Cat's nail), the terminal three
structurally different from dorsal surface, e.g. dicotyledonous leaflets get modified into three stiff curved & pointed hooks
leaves. which look like cat's nail.
- The leaves having both similar surfaces are called - They cling to bark of tree (support) and help the plant for
isobilateral. Such leaves found in monocot plants. climbing. Bignonia is an elegant hook-climber.

4. LEAF VENATION : PHYLLODE

- The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina is - In some plants, petiole becomes flat, green and leaf like and
known a venation. performs photo synthesis. This is known as phyllode.
- The veins are in fact conducting strands of lamina. - For example, in Acacia auriculiformis, the normal leaf is
- They are concerned with the conduction of water, mineral compound and falls off soon.
salts and food and - The petiole gets modified into phyllode. This is xerophytic
form the structural framework of the lamina. adaptation to reduce transpiration

PHYLLOTAXY
- Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on the stem and
branches.

ALTERNATE PHYLLOTAXY
- In this type, single leaf arises at each node.
- The leaves arise laterally on the stem or branches, e.g.,
Sunflower, Mango, China rose, Mustard etc.

 OPPOSITE PHYLLOTAXY
- In this type, two leaves arise from each node in opposite
direction. It of two types:

> DECUSSATE
- When one pair of leaf is placed at right angle to next or
lower pair of leaf, it is said to be opposite decussate
phyllotaxy. e.g.,
Calotropis, Ocimum, etc.

> SUPERPOSED
- In this type, all the pairs of leaves on the stem are
arrang e.g., Nerium, Alstoniaed one above the other, e.g.,
Jamun, Guava, etc.

WHORLED OR VERTICILLATE PHYLLOTAXY:

- In this type more than two leaves arise from each node and
form a whorl around it.

LEAF SPINES
- In some xerophytic plants like Opuntia, the entire leaf gets
modified into a small, stiff, pointed structure called spine to
check transpiration.
- Sometimes only a part of leaf such as stipules, get modified
into spines, to protect plants from grazing animals, e.g.,
Zizyphus and Acacia.

LEAF TENDRILS:
- In certain plants having weak stem, entire leaf or a part of it
gets modified into an elongated, thin, cylindrical, coiled, wiry,
sensitive sensitive structure known as tendril.
MORPHOLOGY OF INFLORESCENCE
- Arrangement of flower on floral axis is called inflorescence

Types of Inflorescence
Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence Mixed inflorescence
- Indefinite - Oldest flowers at the base or to the - The combination of characteristics of
- Definite outside. both racemose and cymose types or of
- Monopodial branching - base or to the outside two types of racemose

- In this type of inflorescence, the

peduncle terminate in a flower. In it the
older flowers are present at tip and
young buds are arranged towards. This
arrangement is called basipetal
succession.
 The main axis or stalk of a solitary inflorescence is called
the PEDUNCLE.
 and the stalk of individual flower is called PEDICEL .
 A long , simple or branched peduncle is called a RACHIS .
 The dilated or flattened peduncle is called RECEPTACLE.
 The unbranched naked peduncle developing from the
underground stem is called SCAPE or radical peduncle.
 The stage or platform on which the floral parts situated is
called THALAMUS
Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence Mixed inflorescence
1. Raceme: When peduncle (main axis) 1. Uniparous cyme / Monochasial cyme Some times flowers are arranged in both
is elongated and flowers - The peduncle ending in a flower racemose and cymose manner on same
are pedicellate. eg. Radish, characteristic producing lateral branch at a time of peduncle called mixed inflorescence.
feature of cruciferae ending in flower. ✧ Mixed spadix – Banana
Types : ✧ Cymose raceme or thyrsus – Grapes.
 Helicoid cyme – When all lateral
branches developed on the same side
on
peduncle then it is called helicoid cyme.
eg. Heliotropium, Saraca, Atropa,
Datura.
 Scorpioid cyme – In it the lateral
branch is alternately develop on left
and right side. eg. Bignonia,
 Riphidium – In monochasial cyme all
flowers are borne on same plane. eg.
Solanum nigrum
2. Corymb: In it peduncle is short and all 2. Dichasial or biparous cyme
flowers are present at same level – In it peduncle ends in a flower, from
because the lower flower has much long the basal part of peduncle two lateral
pedicel than the branches arise, which also end in a
upper one eg. Candytuft (Iberis amara).. flower, now this same arrangement
occur on these lateral branches.
eg. Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Teak,
Mirabilis, Dianthus, Nyctanthes.
3. Umbel: An inflorescence in which the – In it peduncle ends in a flower and
flower stalks of different flowers are of from the base of it many lateral
more or less equal length, arise from the branches arise which also terminates in
same point. the base of flowers stalks, flower, this arrangement now also occur
there is whorl of bracts forming the on these lateral branches.
involucre. eg. Calotropis (Madar), Nerium,
Asclepias, Hamelia.

4. Capitulum (= flower head)

- In it the growth of peduncle is retarded
and it become broad, flattened concave
or convex. On it small flowers are found.
flowers are called floret.
- If all the flower of capitulum are same ,
then it is called
homogamous. If two different type of
floret, ray floret and disc floret are
present in same inflorescence than it is
known as heterogamous.

SPECIAL TYPE OF INFLORESCENCE

Cyathium
- The bracts or the involucre become fused to form a cup shaped structure on the margin. In the central part of cup shaped
structure a single female flowers is found, which mature earlier. Due to the growth of pedicel this come out from the cup shaped
structure.
- Female flower are surrounded by large no. of small male flowers. The male flower, which lie toward centre mature earlier
than the flower which are towards periphery. This inflorescence is found in Euphorbiaceae family like Euphorbia, Poinsettia,
Pedilanthus

Hypanthodium
- In it peduncle is modified in narrow cup like structure. At the base of cup female flowers develop while towards mouth male
flower develops.
- All three types of flowers are present in this inflorescence. eg. Banyan, Peepal, Ficus species.

Bisexual Flower
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER - Both gynoecium and androecium present in the same
flower.

Unisexual Flower
- Androecium (staminate flower) or gynoecium (Pistillate
flower) any one of them are present in the flower.

Monoecious Plant
- When both male and female flowers are present on the
same plant. eg. Cocos, Ricinus, Colocasia, Zea, Acalypha.

Dioecious Plant
- When male and female flowers are present on separate
plant eg. Mulberry, Papaya

Polygamous Plant
– When unisexual (male or female), bisexual and neuter
flowers are present on the same plant eg. Mango,
Polygonum.

Characteristics
 Flower is highly condensed and modified reproductive Monocarpic Plant
shoot. – The plant which produces flowers and
 The part from where flower arise is called bract fruits only once in life eg. Pea, Mustard, Bamboo, Agave.
 Flower has short or long flower stalk which is called
pedicel. Polycarpic Plant
 The upper part of pedicel is swollen, spherical shaped or – The plants which produces flowers and fruits many times in
conical which is called thalamus /Receptacle. life, eg. Pear, Mango

Complete Flower Symmetry of flower

- When calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are presen
Actinomorphic / Radial / Regular – When flower is divided
Incomplete Flower by any
- Flower with one of the four whorl missing vertical plane into two equal halves, then it is called
actinomorphic
flower eg. Mustard, China rose, Datura, Chilli.
 Rosaceous – It consist of 5 or more petals. Claws are absent
Zygomorphic / Bilateral – When the flower is divided into in it
two equal halves only by one vertical plane, then it is called and limbs are spread regularly outwards. eg. Rose, Coconut.
zygomorphic flower eg. Pea, Bean, Gulmohur, Cassia.
 B. GAMOPETALOUS
 If it is divided into two equal halves, from median plane,
then it is called medianly zygomorphic, eg. Ocimum (Tulsi) Campanulate – Five petals are arranged like bell. eg.
 But if it is divided into two equal halves, by lateral plane Tobacco,
then it is Raspberry, Campanula.
called laterally zygomorphic. 
 Funnel shaped or infundibuliform – Funnel like petals
Asymmetrical / irregular arrangement eg. Datura, Railway creeper.
– When the flower cannot be divided into two equal halves
from any plane, then it is called asymmetrical flower. eg. Tubular – Petals are like tube eg. Disc florets of sunflower.
Canna.
C. AESTIVATION
INSERTION OF FLORAL LEAVES - The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral
Hypogynous condition with respect to the other members of the seme whorl is
– When petals, sepals and stamens are situated below the known as aestivation.
ovary, ovary will be superior. eg. mustard, Chinarose, Brinjal.
D. PERIANTH
Perigynous condition - When there is no distinction between calyx and corolla the
– In it thalamus grow upwardly and whorl is described as perianth.
form a cup shaped structure. Gynoecium is situated in the - Individual perianth segments are called Tepals. Green tepals
centre and other parts of flower are located on the rim of are called sepaloid and coloured tepals are called petaloid.
the thalamus almost at the same level. ovary will be half Tepals are free (polytepalous) or fused (gamotepalous). eg.
inferior eg. plum, peach, rose. Liliaceae and Graminae family.
Epigynous condition
– The margin of thalamus grows upward enclosing the ovary E. ANDROECIUM
completely and getting fused with it, the other parts of - It constitutes the third whorl of the flower and is made up
flower arises above the ovary, ovary is said to be inferior.eg. of one or more stamens. Each stamen consist of filament,
Guava, Cucumber and ray florets of sun flower and connective.
- Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two
CALYX chambers the pollensac. The pollen grains are produced in
- The outermost whorl of flower is called calyx. pollensac.
- Each member of this whorl is called sepal when all the
sepals are free from each other, then it is called poly Length of stamens :
sepalous condition eg. Mustard, Radish. > Didynamous – When four stamens are present, out of
- When the sepals are fused each other, then it is called them two are long and two are short, then it is called
gamosepalous condition eg. Cotton, Datura, didynamous. eg. Labiatae family.
> Tetradynamous – When there are six stamens and they
COROLLA are arranged in two whorls. In outer whorl, there are two
- The second whorl of flower is called corolla and each short stamens while in inner whorl, there are four long
member of it is called Petals stamens, this condition is called tetradynamous. eg.
- When all the petals are free, then it is called Cruciferae family.
polypetalous while when petals are fused, then it is
called gamopetalous. Eg. Brinjal. F. GYNOECIUM (PISTIL)
 It is the fourth and second essential whorl of the flower.
FORMS OF COROLLA  It is female part of the flower comprising of the inner
whorl of megasporophylls in the form of carpels bearing
A. POLYPETALOUS ovules.
Cruciform – 4 petals are present in it. The lower narrow part  It consists of ovary, style and stigma. Ovary is the enlarged
of petal is called claw while the outer broad part is called basal part,
limb. on which lies the elongated tube the style, the style connects
- petals are arranged crosswise. eg. Radish, Mustard. the to the stigma.
  If only one carpel is present in gynoecium this condition is
Caryophyllaceous – It consists of 5 petals the claw of petals called monocarpellary.
are  If more than one carpel is present in gynoecium this
short and the limb of petals from right angle to the claw eg. condition is polycarpellary.
Dianthus.  If all the carpels in polycarpellary / multicarpellary
condition are free, then condition is called apocarpous.
 If all the carpels are fused together, then condition is TRUE FRUIT
called syncarpous. - When the fruit is developed only from the ovary, the
G. PLACENTATION fruit is called as true fruit. eg. Mango, Coconut, Zizyphus
 The ovules are attached on ovary walls on one or more
cushion called FALSE FRUIT OR PSEUDOCARP
 The arrangement of ovule within ovary wall is known as - In some fruits, in place of ovary,
placentation. some other parts of flower like thalamus, inflorescence, calyx
 are modified to form a part of fruit. These types of fruit are
Marginal called false fruits. eg. Apple, Strawberry, Pear.
- Marginal placentation is found in unilocular ovary.
- The placenta forms a ridge along the ventral suture of the Classification of fruits:
ovary and the ovules are borne this ridge forming two rows.  Simple fruit develop from monocarpellary or
eg. Leguminosae. syncarpous ovaries of single flower i.e. one flower - one fruit
 Aggregate fruit develop from apocarps ovaries of
Parietal single flower , i.e. one flower - many fruits
-This type of placentation is found in unilocular syncarpus  Multiple fruits- develop from many flowers or entire
ovary. In it the ovule develops on the innerwall of the ovary inflorescence, i.e. many flowers - single fruit)
or on peripheral part.
- Ovary become bi or multilocular due to formation a false
septum eg. Cucurbita, Argemone, and Cruciferae family
(Mustard)

Superficial
- This type of placentation is found in multicarpellary
syncarpous gynoecium. The ovules are attached on the walls
of locule eg. Nymphea lily)..

Axile
- It is found in multicarpellary syncarpous gynoecium.
- The fusion margin of carpels grown inward and meet in the Type of Simple fruits:
centre the ovary.
- Thus an axis forms in the centre of ovary, thus ovary Drupe
becomes multichambered. - It is a simple fleshy fruit. It is developed from
- The ovules are born at the central axis. Number of these monocarpellary or multi carpellary, syncarpous ovary.
chambers are equal to the number of carpel eg. Potato, China - The pericarp has three distinct layers Epicarp forms the skin
rose,Onion, Lemon, Orange, Tomato. of the fruit.
- Mesocarp is fibrous / pulpy Endocarp is hard and stony.
Free central
- This type of placentation is found in syncarpous Berry: It is a simple fleshy fruit. It is derived from
gynoecium. monocarpellary or
- In it, the ovary is unilocular and the ovules are borne on the ploycarpellary syncarpous ovary.
axis in the centre of the ovary. septum are absent in ovary. - Here Epicarp forms the skin Meso carp and endocarp forms
Placentation is axile in beginning. the pulp and in the pulp the seeds remain scattered
- After sometimes walls of chamber destroy and only
ovulated central axis left. eg. Primrose, Dianthus Pome
(Caryophyllaceae). - It is a simple fleshy false fruit.
- The edible part of the fruit is the fleshy receptacle.
Basal
- The ovary is unilocular and a single ovule is borne at the Capsule
base of ovary. eg. Marigold, Sunflower (Asteraceae family) - It is simple dry dehiscent fruit.
- It is derived from polycarpellary syncarpous superior ovary.
MORPHOLOGY OF FRUIT - At maturity the fruit splits open Loculicidal Septicidal
- Fertilized and ripened ovary is fruit.
- A Fruit consist of (i) Pericarp (fruit wall), (ii) seed. Legume
- The seeds are protected inside fruit. But in some fruits. - It is simple dry dehiscent fruit. It is derived from
seeds are not found like in grapes, banana and such type of monocarpellary ovary. Here the fruit splits along both the
fruits are seedless fruit. sutures
- If a fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary it is
known as parthenocarpic fruit. Cypsela
- It is a simple, dry and indehiscent fruit. It is derived
from bicarpellary, syncarpous supireour ovary. It is
and single seeded fruit.
 B. Tissue level of organization: In this, the cells performing
Schizoczrpic fruits the same functions are arranged into tissues. Examples:
- These are dry fruits developed from syncarpous ovary. Dry Coelenterates and Ctenophores.
fruits that exhibit both dehiscent and indehiscent feature. At
maturity they break up into indehiscent one seeded bits. C. Organ level of organization: In this type, the tissues are
Lomentum grouped together to form organs and the organs are
– Opens into single seeded mericarps. E.g. Mimosa. associated to form organ systems. Each system performs a
Cremocarp specific physiotogieal function. Examples: All higher animals
- It is a Schizoczrpic fruit. At maturity it splits into two one (from Platyhelminthes to chordates).
seeded indehiscent mericarp.Aggregate fruits: Single flower
produces many fruits in clusters. Each tiny fruit is called  Organ systems of different animals show complexities.
fruitlet. Examples:
> Digestive system of cnidarians and Platyhelminthes is
 A bunch of fruitlets is called Etaerio. These fruits are incomplete i.e. it has only a single opening
developed from polycarpellary apocarous ovary. which serves as both mouth and anus. Complete digestive
> Etaerio of drupes: It is a cluster of drupe type of fruits. E.g. system has 2 openings i.e. mouth and anus.
Raspberry (Rubus)
> Etaerio of follicles: It is a cluster of follicle types of fruits.  Circulatory system is of 2 types: Open and closed.
E.g. Champaka, > In open type, blood is pumped out through heart. Cells and
> Etaerio of berries: Cluster of berry type of fruits E.g. tissues are directly bathed in it.
Custard apple > In closed type: Blood is circulated through vessels.

Multiple fruits: develop from entire inflorescence. 2. Body Plan

Sorosis  Animals have three types of body plans.
– develops from spike or spadix inflorescence. E.g. 1. Cell Aggregate Plan: In this, the body consists of
Jack fruit (yellow perianth is edible), Pineapple (swollen aggregation of cell. It is usually found in Sponges.
fleshy rachis is edible), Mulberry. 2. Blind sac Plan: In this, the body has a single cavity with one
opening to the outside. The single opening act as both mouth
Syconus – develops from hypanthodium inflorescence. E.g. and anus.
Ficus (Thalamus is edible) 3. Tube within a tube plan: In this, the body has two tubes;
one formed by the body wall and other formed within it by
MORPHOLOGY OF SEED the digestive tract.
 Seed- The fertilized ovules:
 Seeds are covered by seed coat and enclose partially 3. Body Symmetry
developed sporophytic plant.  Based on symmetry, animals are two types: Asymmetrical
 Seeds lacking endosperm are called exalbuminous or non- and Symmetrical.
endosperms seeds while seed with endosperm are 1. Asymmetrical: In this, body cannot be divided into equal
albuminous or endospermous seeds. halves through median plane. The simplest animals have no
symmetry. Examples: Sponges, Snails etc.
SEED STRUCTURE 2. Symmetrical: In this, body can be divided into two similar
External parts.
– Seed coat (testa) It is of two types:
– Hilum > Radial Symmetry
Embryo - ( Radial symmetry: Body can be divided into 2 similar parts
– Cotyledon by any plane along oral laboral axis of body. Examples: Some
– Epicotyl / Hypocotyl Poriferans, Cnidarians, Ctenophores and Echinoderms.
– Plumule > Bilateral symmetry
– Radical - Body can be divided into two identical right and left halves
by a section passing through the longitudinal axis. Examples:
ANIMAL KINGDOM Annelids, arthropods and all vertebrates.
- The body of bilaterally symmetrical animal has an upper or
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION vertebral dorsal side, a lower ventral side, left and right
Basis of classification are - Arrangement of cells, body lateral sides, anterior (cephalic) side and posterior (anal) side
symmetry, nature of coelom, patterns of digestive,
circulatory and reproductive system. 4. Germ layers
 These are layers of gastrula from which all the body organs
Level of Organization are formed.
- Organisation is the structural differentiation of animal body.  All cells of the adult organism can be traced to one of the
three germ layers. Some animals have only the inner and
A. Cellular level of organization: In this, the cells are outer germ layers but more complex animals have
arranged as loose cell aggregates. Examples:Poriferans mesoderm as well.
(Sponges).
 Three types of germ layers: 1. Metameric segmentation (True metamerism): In this, the
1. Ectoderm - It is the inner layer which gives rise to the outer body is often divided both externally and internally into
covering of the animal (skin, hair, nails, feathers, and scales) number of segments (metameres). E.g. Annelids, arthropods
and the nervous system. and chordates.
2. Mesoderm - It gives rise to muscles, skeleton, circulatory 2. Pseudometamerism (False metamerism): In this, the body
system, kidney, reproductive system is not internally divided. For eg. the proglottids (segments of
3. Endoderm - It gives rise to digestive tract and associated tapeworms) are budded off from the neck and are not of
organs. embryonic origin.

• Based on the number of germ layers, animals are two 7. Notochord

types- Diploblastic and Triploblastic. - Notochord is a rod-like structure formed during embryonic
development on the dorsal side.
1. Diploblastic animals: - It is mesodermally derived.
- Cells are arranged in two germ layers- outer ectoderm and - Animals with notochord are called chordates while those
inner endoderm. withou notochord are called nonchordates.
- Mesoglea may be present in between ectoderm and
endoderm 8. Digestive tract
- examples:Sponges and Coelenterates. - It is the passage where food is taken for digestion,
2. Triploblastic animals: absorption and elimination.
- They have three germ layers- Outer ectoderm, middle  It is of two types:
mesoderm and inner endoderm. 1. Incomplete digestive tract:
- Examples: Platyhelminthes (Flat worms) to - It has a single opening called mouth that takes food as well
Chordates (mammals). as eliminates the undigested food.
- it is found in Cnidarians and Platyhelminthes.
5.Coelom (Body cavity) 2. Complete digestive tract:
• It is the space between body wall and gut wall. - It has two openings; mouth for intake of food and anus for
 Coelom separates the muscles of gut and body wall. elimination of undigested food.
 On the basis of nature of coclom, animals are of 3 types: - It is found in Nemathelminthes to chordates.
Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate, and Eucoelomate.
9. Digestion
1. Acoelomate: They have no coelom. The space between - Digestion is the breaking down of complex food molecules
body wall and digestive cavity is filled with matrix into simple organic form.
(parenchyma). Examples: Poriferans to Platyhelminthes.  It is of two types:
1. Intracellular digestion that occurs within the cells.
2. Pseudocoelomate: They have no true coelom. They have a - In this, the digestive enzymes are poured into the food
body cavity partially surrounded by mesoderm. Mesoderm is vacuoles, where digestion of food takes place. It occurs in
present in scattered pouches between ectoderm and protozoans and sponges.
endoderm. Example: Aschelminthes. 2. Extracellular digestion that occurs outside the cell in a
cavity.
3. Coelomate (True coelomate or Eucoelomate): They have - In this the digestive enzymes are poured into the cavity for
body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm. Coelom is digestion to take place. It occurs in higher invertebrates and
lined by peritoneal layer and is filled with coelomic fluid. all vertebrates.
Examples: Annelids to chordates.
10. Excretion
Haemocoelomates: - It is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body.
- Here, the true coelom is reduced and is filled with blood.  Animals are classified into three types on the basis of
Examples: In Arthropods and molluscs removal of nitrogenous wastes.
1. Ammonotelic animals: They excrete ammonia. E.g.
Functions of coelom: Amoeba, Hydra, Sycon, Earthworm,Crocodiles etc.
 It accommodates visceral organs 2. Urotelic animals: They excrete urea. E.g. Cartilaginous
 Coelomic fluid gives moist environment to visceral organs, fishes, semi-aquatic amphibians, turtles, alligators, mammals
thereby reducing the friction. including man.
 It acts as shock absorber. 3. Uricotelic animals: They excrete uric acid. E.g. Most
insects, some land crustaceans, land snails, lizards, snakes
and birds.
4. Aminotelic animals: They excrete excess amino acids. E.g
6.Segmentation (Also known as Metamerism) some mollusks like Limnaca, Unio, some echinoderms
- Segmentation is the division or differentiation of the body (Asterias).
into distinct proportions called segments. 5. Guanotelic animals: They excrete guanine. B.g. Spider
- Examples: Annelids, Arthropods.In vertebrates: only internal
metamerism is seen. 11. Fertilization
 It is of two types:
 Fertilization is the union of male and female gametes. It is
of two types:
1. External fertilization: When fertilization occurs outside the
female body, it is called external fertilization. For eg
* Starfish, frog etc.
2. Internal fertilization: When fertilization occurs inside the
female body, it is called external fertilization./
* E.g. Reptiles, birds, mammals.

12. Development
 It is the changes that an organism undergoes from its
beginning to maturity.
 It is of two types:
1. Direct development: In this, the young ones resemble the
adults in all respects except colour, size.
 There is no intermediate stage in direct development.
 E.g. Hydra, Earthwprm and silver fish.
2. Indirect development: In this, the young ones do not
resemble the adults.
 The young ones usually pass through one or more
intermediate stages before obtaining the shape of the
adults.
 E.g. Silk moth, housefly, frog-
 Metamorphosis: It is the phenomenon of passing through
different juvenile stages before attaining the adult form.
E.g. Silk moth, housefly, Frog, Butterfly

GENETICS: PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

Pedigree
- is the diagram showing the ancestral relationships and
transmission of genetic trains over several generations in the
family through PEDIGREE, through PEDIGREE, the probability
of having other affected children may be determined

PUNNETT SQUARE
- a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a
particular cross or breeding experiment

Dominant Trait - expressed

Recessive Trait - Masked

Gregor Johann Mendel

- father of modern genetics

MENDELIAN LAW:
1st Law : Every trait is governed by a pair of alleles, these
alleles segregate or separate during gamete formation in
meiosis.
2nd Law: A pair of alleles for one trait will segregate or
separate independently of another pair of alleles for another
trait during meiosis.

Genotypes
- referes to the type of allele that u have
- can be homozygous or heterozygous

heterozygous - ex. Aa
homozygous - ex. AA