Ch 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

3.1 Electric Flux Density

 Electric Flux Density (전속밀도, 電束密度), or Electric Displacement, 

[cf.] Electric Field Density, 

 
 : usually (but not always) parallel to 

 
 & 
 : associated with Electric charge; Totally different meanings; related to each other
through the properties of the Medium in which they exist
☞ : For forces on charges
☞  : For the charge that is generating 
3.1.1 Faraday’s Experiments on Electric Displacement
 For Static electric fields and Effect of various insulating materials
on these static electric fields
 A pair of concentric metallic spheres : the outer one
consisting of two hemispheres that could be firmly clamped
together
 Shells of insulating material (or dielectric material, or simply
dielectric) that would occupy the entire volume between the
concentric spheres
EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 1 -
 Faraday’s experiment :

 Dielectric

   


Hemispheres
A known (+) charge Clamped together Momentarily to GND

― ―
 In magnitude, Total charge on the outer

  sphere = Original charge placed on the
inner sphere
― ― ⇒ True regardless of the dielectric

material separating the two spheres

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 2 -
 Displacement, Displacement flux, or Electric
flux: some sort of displacement from the
inner sphere to the outer which was
independent of the medium
 From Faraday’s experiment,

 

 Electric flux =  (psi) :  in coulombs

 Total charge on the inner sphere = 
Fig. 3.1 The electric flux in the region between a
pair of charged concentric spheres. The direction
3.1.2 Electric Flux Density
and magnitude of  are not functions of the
 At the surface of the inner sphere, density of dielectric between the spheres.
the flux:
Flux density class Force fields class
   or   C/m2
Electric flux density Electric field intensity
 Electric flux density, 
 [C/m2]: 
 

 Vector field
☞ Direction of the flux lines at a point
☞ Magnitude: # of flux lines crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface area

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 3 -
  In the radial direction,

 
     (inner sphere)

 
    

 (outer sphere)

  
    for  ≤  ≤ 

 Let the inner sphere become smaller and smaller,
while still retaining a charge of  :
  
☞ Point charge in the limit;     (1)
 
 at a point  [m] from the point charge ~ (1)
(∵)  lines of flux are symmetrically directed outward from the point and pass through an
imaginary spherical surface of area   .
[cf.] At a point charge in free space,        


( ∴) 
   
 (free space only) (2)


EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 4 -
 [Supplement]
 Simplified calculation of   (and from it,  ) (∵) the material is not taken into account explicidy.
[e.g.]   ≈    : Therefore, 
 due to a given charge is 80 times smaller than   for
the same charge, but   is the same regardless of permittivity.
   

     ⇨ 
     < 
     
      
      
     ⇨       =       
     
 The the calculation of forces requires knowledge of permittivity.
   
     
       
 
Since     , the use of  does not eliminate the need to   

 
consider permittivity.
 
 in layered materials:

  
      [C/m2];
 

 

     
  [N/C]
  

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 5 -
 For a general volume charge distribution in free space,

     

  

  
 
(3) 
  

  
 
(4)

 For a point charge embedded in an infinite ideal dielectric medium,

 
 
 (in dielectric) = 
 (in free space) :   
  
 
  
 
 (in dielectric) ≠ 
 (in free space) : 
    
 vs     

   
 Features:
  ~ associated with the flux concept
  ~ simpler than the corresponding  fields, because  does not appear.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 6 -
3.2 Gauss’s Law
 Faraday’s experiments with the concentric spheres

Electric flux passing through any imaginary spherical Charge enclosed within that
=
surface lying between the two conducting spheres imaginary surface

 Enclosed charge: distributed on the surface of the inner sphere, or concentrated as a point
charge at the center of the imaginary sphere
 1 [C] of charge ⇒ 1 [C] of electric flux
 The flux density would change from its previous symmetrical distribution
to some unknown configuration, but   [C] on any inner conductor
would produce an induced charge of   [C] on the surrounding sphere.
 Gauss’s law:
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.
 The contribution of Gauss was actually not in stating the law as we have, but in providing a
mathematical form for this statement.
 Distribution of charge, surrounded by a closed surface of any shape
 Closed surface ~ Surface of some real material: Any closed surface we wish to visualize
 “Total charge =  ” ⇒  [C] of electric flux will pass through the enclosing surface
 At every point on the surface, 

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 7 -
 Consider the nature of an incremental element
of the surface. a cloud of point charges
 An incremental element of area  ~ a
portion of a plane surface
 Only unique direction, associated with  
 ~
Direction of the normal to that plane which
is tangent to the surface at the point in
question
 Two such normals, but the ambiguity is
removed by specifying the outward Fig. 3.2 The electric flux density 
 at  arising
from charge  . The total flux passing through 
normal whenever the surface is closed
is 
⋅.
and “outward” has a specific meaning.
 At any point  , Flux crossing  ~ Product of the normal component of 
 and  
 :
  flux crossing  =    =   cos    = 
⋅
 Total flux passing through the closed surface ~ Adding the differential contributions crossing each
surface element   :
 Closed surface integral ; Gaussian surface      

 ⋅
 
 
 =   ,    , or  sin    ⇒ Double integral 

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 8 -
 Gauss’s law:

   ⋅ = Charge enclosed = 


 (5)

 Charge enclosed :
1) Several point charges:   

2) Line charge:  



3) Surface charge:      (not necessarily a


Fig. 3.3 Applying Gauss’s law to the field of a
closed surface)
point charge  on a spherical closed surface of
4) Volume charge distribution:    

 radius  . The electric flux density 
 is
everywhere normal to the spherical surface and
has a constant magnitude at every point on it.

  ⋅    



 (6)

⇑ ⇖
Total electric flux
Charge
through any closed =
enclosed
surface

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 9 -
 Properties of Gauss’s law
(1) The charge  is the total charge enclosed by the surface  . In this case, this is the surface of
the sphere of radius  . Here, we used a point charge, but any other charge distribution can be
thought of as an assembly of point charges. Thus, Gauss's law will be useful for other types of
distributions.

(2) The left-hand side of  ⋅  


is the total electric flux passing through the surface  .

Since the unit of flux density 

 is C/m2, the unit of electric flux is the coulomb [C].
(3) Gauss's law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed by this surface. It is extremely important to remember this relationship; it implies that
any charge outside the surface  does not contribute to the flux through the surface.
(4) Gauss's law is an alternate form of Coulomb's law. It is important to state that Gauss's law does
not introduce any new quantities. It simply restates what we already know about   or .
(5) Gauss's law may be used either to calculate the equivalent charges from known electric fields or
electric fields due to known charges.
(6) Note that if the electric field intensity were to be negative, the charge would be negative.
(7) The scalar product used in the integrand in Gauss's law means that the vector notation is lost in
the calculation process. If the vector forms are needed (for example, when calculating 
), these
must be restored based on the charge distribution or other physical considerations.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 10 -
3.3 Application of Gauss’s Law: Some Symmetrical Charge Distributions
 Use Gauss’s law to determine 
 if the charge
distribution is known.
   ⋅

 (integral EQ)

 Choose a closed surface which satisfies two conditions:

1) 
 ~ tangential to the closed surface ⇒  ⋅    

 ~ normal to the closed surface ⇒ 
⋅
  
2) On the portion of the closed surface for which 
⋅
 ≠  ,   = constant

☞ 
⋅
    ;    ⋅    

 


☞  

over that portion of the closed surface which 
 crosses normally

⇒ Simply the area of this section of that surface

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 11 -
3.3.1 Point Charge Field
 For a point charge  at the origin of a spherical coordinate system,
Decide on a suitable closed surface satisfying the two requirements
   
 


⋅
   
     
   

 
 sin    

   

   


  
sin               ∴    


   

    
    

  

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 12 -
  Two very thin, spherical, conducting shells are charged.
(a) Two uniformly charged
spherical shells.
(b) A point charge surrounded
by two uniformly charged
spherical shells.
(c) Plot of 
 in (a).
(d) Plot of 
 in (b).
        
 
     
 
(e) Plot of 
: In (a),
  →   [C/m2]
  →   [C/m2]
       :

   
     
 
     

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 13 -
3.3.2 Line Charge Field
 For the uniform line charge distribution  lying along the  axis
and extending from −∞ to +∞.
 Symmetry of the field:
1) With which coodinates does the field vary (or of what
variables is  a function)?
2) Which components of   are present?
 For the uniform line charge, 
 ~ only the radial component :


   
 :
    ⋅         

 
  

Fig. 3.4 The gaussian surface
 
                 for an infinite uniform line
 
  charge is a right circular cylinder
Total charge enclosed:     of length  and radius  .   is
 constant in magnitude and
( ∴)       
 ⇒    or    everywhere perpendicular to the
   
cylindrical surface; 
 is parallel
to the end faces.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 14 -
3.3.3 Coaxial Cable Field
 For a charge distribution of  on the outer surface of the inner
conductor
 Symmetry ⇒ 
   
 ,      
 Gaussian surface ~ A circular cylinder of length  and radius
 (     ) ⇨    
 Total charge on a length  of the inner conductor:
 
   
 
           Fig. 3.5 The two coaxial
cylindrical conductors forming a
      coaxial cable provide an
(∴)    ;      (     )
  electric flux density within the
cylinders, given by      .
 Charge per unit length on the inner conductor ~

 [C/m] ⇒ 
Cylinder surface Surface charge density Line charge density

     

         
  

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 15 -
 A positive charge on the inner cylinder (    ) → Electric flux →
A negative charge on the inner surface of the outer cylinder:
       
 Surface charge on the outer cylinder:

               

 For the gaussian surface in a cylinder of radius  ,   ,
 Total charge enclosed = 0
(∵) Equal & Opposite charges on each conducting cylinder
Hence,     ⇨   
 An identical result for   
 Thus the coaxial cable or capacitor has no external field (we have proved that the outer conductor
is a shield), and there is no field within the center conductor.
 For a finite length of coaxial cable, open at both ends, provided  ≫  so that the nonsymmetrical
conditions at the two ends do not appreciably affect the solution. : Coaxial
capacitor

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 16 -
3.4 Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

3.4.1 Gauss’s Law Applied to a Differential Volume Element

 For any point  located by a rectangular coordinate system.
     
    
   
 at the point 
 Closed surface: Small rectangular box, centered at  , having
sides of lengths  ,  , and 
 Apply Gauss’s law

 ⋅  


 ⋅  
 
     
     Fig. 3.6 A differential-sized
gaussian surface about the
point  is used to investigate
 For a very small surface element, 
 ~ constant (over this portion the space rate of change of
of the entire closed surface) 
 in the neighborhood of  .


⋅ 
  
⋅ 
   

  
     ×            
  
EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 17 -
 ⚫  ~   at  : 

 
         
  
  

⋅
  
⋅  
    

  
      ×            
  


  
         
  
  
  
 

   ;
  
 
   ;
  
 
  


 
 

  
 ⋅           ;
       (7)

 An approximation which becomes better as  becomes smaller.

 Apply Gauss’s law to the closed surface surrounding  .

Charge enclosed in volume  

  
 
    ×  
   (8)

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 18 -
3.4.2 Divergence

 
 
 ⋅  
 

  

    
   (7)

 ⋅
   

 

 
 
 lim


→
 lim



 
→
(9)

 ⋅ (10)
  div 
Divergence of   

lim 

→

“The divergence of the vector flux density


 is the outflow of flux from a small closed
surface per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.”

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 19 -
 Physical interpretation of divergence:
 Positive divergence ~ Source of that vector quantity at that point
 Negative divergence ~ Sink
 Zero divergence : No source or sink exists.

  

div 
       ;      (rectangular) (12)
  
    
div 
           ;       (cylindrical) (13)
    

       
div            sin        (spherical)
   sin     sin    (14)
   sin    

 Divergence ~ An operation performed on a vector, but the result is a scalar.

 How much flux is leaving a small volume on a per-unit-volume basis; no direction is associated
with it.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 20 -
3.4.3 Maxwell’s First Equation: Gauss’s Law in Point Form
 Relation between electric flux density and charge density :

div 
   (15)

    ⋅

div 
  
  
 
(12)
   


 

 

 
lim

 
→
 lim



 
→
(9)

 First of Maxwell’s 4 EQs : for electrostatics and steady magnetic fields

The electric flux per unit volume leaving a vanishingly small volume unit is exactly
equal to the volume charge density there.
 Point form of Gauss’s law   
    
 Gauss’s law relates the flux leaving any closed surface to the charge enclosed.  
 Consider the divergence of 
 in the region about a point charge  located at the origin.
 Divergence in spherical coordinates:
     
div 
           sin     
   sin     sin   
Because   = 0 =  ,
   
div 
   
 
                
        
  (if  ≠  )

Thus,   0 everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 21 -
3.5 The Divergence Theorem

3.5.1 The Del Operator

 Define the del operator ∇ as a vector operator,

       
∇         
 (16) Scalar operator :  , 
  
     

3.5.2 Obtaining Divergence with the Del operator

  
 Divergence: ∇⋅   
   

 
   

 
   
 
  ⋅   
  
   
       
  

 Gradient:

 
∇   
 
   

 
   
   
    

 
   

 
   
 

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 22 -
3.5.3 Divergence Theorem

 ⋅         ∇⋅ 
 


 ⋅   ∇⋅ 
 
(17)

Maxwell’s first EQ in integral form

The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed
surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field
throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.
 Divergence theorem as Gauss’s theorem

Fig. 3.7 The divergence theorem states that

the total flux crossing the closed surface is
equal to the integral of the divergence of the
flux density throughout the enclosed volume.
The volume is shown here in cross section.

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 23 -
EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 24 -
 


⋅
   ⇨ 
 

  




⋅ 
  
⋅ 
   

  
      ×            
  
  
     ×            
  
If the method used to develop divergence is applied to the general curvilinear coordinate system, the
flux of the vector 
 passing through the surface of the parallelepiped whose unit normal is  is
   
              or                     
   
 
and for the opposite face it is                     
 
giving a total for these two faces of

      
   
Because  ,  , and  are independent variables, this last expression may be written as

          

and the other two corresponding expressions obtained by a simple permutation of the subscripts and of
EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 25 -
 ,  , and  . Thus the total flux leaving the differential volume is
    
                          
    

and the divergence of


 is found by dividing by the differential volume
     
                        
∇⋅  (A.2)
     



⋅
   ⇨ 
 

  




⋅ 
  
⋅ 
   

  
     ×            
  
  
     ×            
  

 
 passing through the surface of the parallelepiped whose unit normal is 
,
   
              or                     
   
 
For the opposite face,                    
 

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 26 -
 
Total for these two faces :        
   

Because  ,  , and  are independent variables,           

    
Thus the total flux,                           
    
and the divergence of  is found by dividing by the differential volume
     
                        
∇⋅  (A.2)
     

    ⋅


div       
  
(12)
   


 

 

 lim
 

→
lim



 
→
(9)

                

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 27 -
                        
Rectangular:  1   1   1 
Cylindrical:  1       1 
Spherical:  1        sin   sin  

  

div 
      ;      (rectangular) (12)
  
    
div 
           ;       (cylindrical) (13)
    
     
div 
          sin      ;
   sin     sin   

   sin      (spherical) (14)

EM(1)-2025_Ch.03.hwp - 28 -