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 Finite Mathematics, Sixth Edition © 2014, 2011, 2007 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Stefan Waner, Steven R. Costenoble ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Brief Contents

CHAPTER 0 Precalculus Review 1

CHAPTER 1 Functions and Applications 39

CHAPTER 2 The Mathematics of Finance 125

CHAPTER 3 Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices 175

CHAPTER 4 Matrix Algebra and Applications 231

CHAPTER 5 Linear Programming 311

CHAPTER 6 Sets and Counting 395

CHAPTER 7 Probability 445

CHAPTER 8 Random Variables and Statistics 547

vii

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents

CHAPTER 0 Precalculus Review 1

Introduction 2
0.1 Real Numbers 2
0.2 Exponents and Radicals 7
0.3 Multiplying and Factoring Algebraic Expressions 17
0.4 Rational Expressions 22
0.5 Solving Polynomial Equations 24
0.6 Solving Miscellaneous Equations 30
0.7 The Coordinate Plane 34

CHAPTER 1 Functions and Applications 39

Introduction 40
1.1 Functions from the Numerical, Algebraic, and Graphical Viewpoints 40
1.2 Functions and Models 56
1.3 Linear Functions and Models 78
1.4 Linear Regression 95
KEY CONCEPTS 106
REVIEW EXERCISES 106
CASE STUDY Modeling Spending on Internet Advertising 109
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 114

CHAPTER 2 The Mathematics of Finance 125

Introduction 126
2.1 Simple Interest 126
2.2 Compound Interest 134
2.3 Annuities, Loans, and Bonds 145
KEY CONCEPTS 158
REVIEW EXERCISES 158
CASE STUDY Adjustable Rate and Subprime Mortgages 160
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 166

ix

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 x Contents

CHAPTER 3 Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices 175

Introduction 176
3.1 Systems of Two Equations in Two Unknowns 176
3.2 Using Matrices to Solve Systems of Equations 188
3.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations 206
KEY CONCEPTS 219
REVIEW EXERCISES 219
CASE STUDY Hybrid Cars—Optimizing the Degree of Hybridization 222
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 225

CHAPTER 4 Matrix Algebra and Applications 231

Introduction 232
4.1 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication 232
4.2 Matrix Multiplication 242
4.3 Matrix Inversion 256
4.4 Game Theory 267
4.5 Input-Output Models 284
KEY CONCEPTS 296
REVIEW EXERCISES 296
CASE STUDY Projecting Market Share 299
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 304

CHAPTER 5 Linear Programming 311

Introduction 312
5.1 Graphing Linear Inequalities 312
5.2 Solving Linear Programming Problems Graphically 322
5.3 The Simplex Method: Solving Standard Maximization Problems 338
5.4 The Simplex Method: Solving General Linear Programming Problems 355
5.5 The Simplex Method and Duality 369
KEY CONCEPTS 383
REVIEW EXERCISES 383
CASE STUDY The Diet Problem 387
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 391

CHAPTER 6 Sets and Counting 395

Introduction 396
6.1 Sets and Set Operations 396
6.2 Cardinality 407
6.3 Decision Algorithms: The Addition and Multiplication Principles 418

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents xi

6.4 Permutations and Combinations 428

KEY CONCEPTS 441
REVIEW EXERCISES 441
CASE STUDY Designing a Puzzle 443

CHAPTER 7 Probability 445

Introduction 446
7.1 Sample Spaces and Events 446
7.2 Relative Frequency 460
7.3 Probability and Probability Models 468
7.4 Probability and Counting Techniques 487
7.5 Conditional Probability and Independence 495
7.6 Bayes’ Theorem and Applications 512
7.7 Markov Systems 521
KEY CONCEPTS 536
REVIEW EXERCISES 536
CASE STUDY The Monty Hall Problem 539
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 541

CHAPTER 8 Random Variables and Statistics 547

Introduction 548
8.1 Random Variables and Distributions 548
8.2 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Random Variables 559
8.3 Measures of Central Tendency 567
8.4 Measures of Dispersion 580
8.5 Normal Distributions 595
KEY CONCEPTS 607
REVIEW EXERCISES 607
CASE STUDY Spotting Tax Fraud with Benford’s Law 609
TECHNOLOGY GUIDES 613

APPENDIX A1
ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES A19
INDEX I1

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Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
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 Preface

Finite Mathematics, sixth edition, is intended for a one- or two-term course for stu-
dents majoring in business, the social sciences, or the liberal arts. Like the earlier
editions, the sixth edition of Finite Mathematics is designed to address the challenge
of generating enthusiasm and mathematical sophistication in an audience that is
often underprepared and lacks motivation for traditional mathematics courses.
We meet this challenge by focusing on real-life applications and topics of current
interest that students can relate to, by presenting mathematical concepts intuitively
and thoroughly, and by employing a writing style that is informal, engaging, and
occasionally even humorous.
The sixth edition goes further than earlier editions in implementing support for
a wide range of instructional paradigms: from traditional face-to-face courses to
online distance learning courses, from settings incorporating little or no technology
to courses taught in computerized classrooms, and from classes in which a single
form of technology is used exclusively to those incorporating several technologies.
We fully support three forms of technology in this text: TI-83/84 Plus graphing
calculators, spreadsheets, and powerful online utilities we have created for the book.
In particular, our comprehensive support for spreadsheet technology, both in the text
and online, is highly relevant for students who are studying business and economics,
where skill with spreadsheets may be vital to their future careers.

Our Approach to Pedagogy

Real-World Orientation We are confident that you will appreciate the diversity,
breadth, and abundance of examples and exercises included in this edition. A large
number of these are based on real, referenced data from business, economics, the life
sciences, and the social sciences. Examples and exercises based on dated information
have generally been replaced by more current versions; applications based on unique
or historically interesting data have been kept.
Adapting real data for pedagogical use can be tricky; available data can be nu-
merically complex, intimidating for students, or incomplete. We have modified and
streamlined many of the real-world applications, rendering them as tractable as any
“made-up” application. At the same time, we have been careful to strike a pedagogi-
cally sound balance between applications based on real data and more traditional
“generic” applications. Thus, the density and selection of real data–based applica-
tions has been tailored to the pedagogical goals and appropriate difficulty level for
each section.

Readability We would like students to read this book. We would like students to
enjoy reading this book. Thus, we have written the book in a conversational and
student-oriented style, and have made frequent use of question-and-answer dialogues
to encourage the development of the student’s mathematical curiosity and intuition.
We hope that this text will give the student insight into how a mathematician
develops and thinks about mathematical ideas and their applications.

xiii

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xiv Preface

Rigor We feel that mathematical rigor need not be antithetical to the kind of applied
focus and conceptual approach that are earmarks of this book. We have worked hard
to ensure that we are always mathematically honest without being unnecessarily for-
mal. Sometimes we do this through the question-and-answer dialogues and some-
times through the “Before we go on . . .” discussions that follow examples, but always
in manner designed to provoke the interest of the student.

Five Elements of Mathematical Pedagogy to Address Different Learning

Styles The “Rule of Four” is a common theme in many texts. Implementing this
approach, we discuss many of the central concepts numerically, graphically, and
algebraically and clearly delineate these distinctions. The fourth element, verbal
communication of mathematical concepts, is emphasized through our discussions
on translating English sentences into mathematical statements and in our extensive
Communication and Reasoning exercises at the end of each section. A fifth element,
interactivity, is implemented through expanded use of question-and-answer dia-
logues but is seen most dramatically in the student Website. Using this resource, stu-
dents can interact with the material in several ways: through interactive tutorials in
the form of games, chapter summaries, and chapter review exercises, all in reference
to concepts and examples covered in sections and with online utilities that automate
a variety of tasks, from graphing to regression and matrix algebra.

Exercise Sets Our comprehensive collection of exercises provides a wealth of ma-

terial that can be used to challenge students at almost every level of preparation and
includes everything from straightforward drill exercises to interesting and rather
challenging applications. The exercise sets have been carefully graded to move from
straightforward basic exercises and exercises that are similar to examples in the text
to more interesting and advanced ones, marked as “more advanced” for easy reference.
There are also several much more difficult exercises, designated as “challenging.” We
have also included, in virtually every section of every chapter, interesting applica-
tions based on real data, Communication and Reasoning exercises that help students
articulate mathematical concepts and recognize common errors, and exercises ideal
for the use of technology.
Many of the scenarios used in application examples and exercises are revisited
several times throughout the book. Thus, for instance, students will find themselves
using a variety of techniques, from solving systems of equations to linear program-
ming to analyze the same application. Reusing scenarios and important functions pro-
vides unifying threads and shows students the complex texture of real-life problems.

New to This Edition

Content
● Chapter 1 (page 39): We now include, in Section 1.1, careful discussion of the
common practice of representing functions as equations and vice versa; for
instance, a cost equation like C = 10x + 50 can be thought of as defining a cost
function C(x) ‹ 10x ‡ 50. Instead of rejecting this practice, we encourage the
student to see this connection between functions and equations and to be able to
switch from one interpretation to the other.
Our discussion of functions and models in Section 1.2 now includes a careful
discussion of the algebra of functions presented through the context of important
applications rather than as an abstract concept. Thus, the student will see from the
outset why we want to talk about sums, products, etc. of functions rather than sim-
ply how to manipulate them.
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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xv

● Chapter 2 (page 125): The Mathematics of Finance is now Chapter 2 of the text
because the discussion of many important topics in finance relates directly to the
first discussions of compound interest and other mathematical models in Chapter 1.
Note that our discussion of the Mathematics of Finance does not require the use of
logarithmic functions to solve for exponents analytically but instead focuses on
numerical solution using the technologies we discuss. However, the use of loga-
rithms is presented as an option for students and instructors who prefer to use them.
● Case Studies: A number of the Case Studies at the ends of the chapters have been
extensively revised, using updated real data, and continue to reflect topics of cur-
rent interest, such as subprime mortgages, hybrid car production, and the diet
problem (in linear programming).

Current Topics in the Applications

● We have added and updated numerous real data exercises and examples based on
topics that are either of intense current interest or of general interest to contempo-
rary students, including Facebook, XBoxes, iPhones, iPads, foreclosure rates, the
housing crisis, subprime mortgages, stock market gyrations, shorting the stock
market, and even travel to Cancun. (Also see the list, in the inside back cover, of
the corporations we reference in the applications.)

Exercises
● We have expanded the chapter review exercise sets to be more representative of the
material within the chapter. Note that all the applications in the chapter review ex-
ercises revolve around the fictitious online bookseller, OHaganBooks.com, and the
various—often amusing—travails of OHaganBooks.com CEO John O’Hagan and
his business associate Marjory Duffin.
● We have added many new conceptual Communication and Reasoning exercises,
including many dealing with common student errors and misconceptions.

End-of-Chapter Technology Guides

● Our end-of-chapter detailed Technology Guides now discuss the use of spread-
sheets in general rather than focusing exclusively on Microsoft® Excel, thus en-
abling readers to use any of the several alternatives now available, such as Google’s
online Google Sheets®, Open Office®, and Apple’s Numbers®.

Continuing Features
● Case Studies Each chapter ends with a section
entitled “Case Study,” an extended application
that uses and illustrates the central ideas of the
chapter, focusing on the development of mathe-
matical models appropriate to the topics. These
applications are ideal for assignment as projects,
and to this end we have included groups of exer-
cises at the end of each.
● Before We Go On Most examples are followed by supplementary discussions,
which may include a check on the answer, a discussion of the feasibility and sig-
nificance of a solution, or an in-depth look at what the solution means.
● Quick Examples Most definition boxes include quick, straightforward examples
that a student can use to solidify each new concept.
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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xvi Preface

● Question-and-Answer Dialogue We frequently use informal question-and-

answer dialogues that anticipate the kinds of questions that may occur to the student
and also guide the student through the development of new concepts.

Why a row and a column instead of, say, two rows?

It’s rather a long story, but mathematicians found that it works best this way . . .

● Marginal Technology Notes We give brief marginal technology notes to outline

the use of graphing calculator, spreadsheet, and Website technology in appropriate
examples. When necessary, the reader is referred to more detailed discussion in
the end-of-chapter Technology Guides.
● End-of-Chapter Technology Guides We continue to include detailed TI-83/84
Plus and Spreadsheet Guides at the end of each chapter. These Guides are refer-
enced liberally in marginal technology notes at appropriate points in the chapter,
so instructors and students can easily use this material or not, as they prefer.
Groups of exercises for which the use of technology is suggested or required
appear throughout the exercise sets.

SPREADSHEET Technology Guide

Section 3.1
Example 1 (page 177) Find all solutions (x, y) of
the following system of two equations:

x+y=3
x − y = 1.

Solution with Technology

You can use a spreadsheet to draw the graphs of the two
equations on the same set of axes, and to check the
solution.
1. Solve the equations for y, obtaining y = −x + 3 and
y = x − 1.
2 T h h li h f ll i i l

● Communication and Reasoning Exercises for Writing and Discussion

These are exercises designed to broaden the student’s grasp of the mathematical
concepts and develop modeling skills. They include exercises in which the student
is asked to provide his or her own examples to illustrate a point or design an ap-
plication with a given solution. They also include “fill in the blank” type exercises,
exercises that invite discussion and debate, and exercises in which the student must
identify common errors. These exercises often have no single correct answer.

Supplemental Material

For Instructors and Students

Enhanced WebAssign®
Content
Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign® combines the excep-
tional mathematics content in Waner and Costenoble’s text with the most powerful
online homework solution, WebAssign. Enhanced WebAssign engages students with

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xvii

immediate feedback, rich tutorial content, videos, animations, and an interactive

eBook, helping students to develop a deeper conceptual understanding of the subject
matter. The interactive eBook contains helpful search, highlighting, and note-taking
features.
Instructors can build online assignments by selecting from thousands of text-
specific problems, supplemented if desired with problems from any Cengage Learning
textbook. Flexible assignment options give instructors the ability to choose how
feedback and tutorial content is released to students as well as the ability to release
assignments conditionally based on students’ prerequisite assignment scores. In-
crease student engagement, improve course outcomes, and experience the superior
service offered through CourseCare. Visit us at http://webassign.net/cengage or
www.cengage.com/ewa to learn more.

Service
Your adoption of Enhanced WebAssign® includes CourseCare, Cengage Learning’s
industry leading service and training program designed to ensure that you have
everything that you need to make the most of your use of Enhanced WebAssign.
CourseCare provides one-on-one service, from finding the right solutions for your
course to training and support. A team of Cengage representatives, including Digital
Solutions Managers and Coordinators as well as Service and Training Consultants,
assists you every step of the way. For additional information about CourseCare,
please visit www.cengage.com/coursecare.
Our Enhanced WebAssign training program provides a comprehensive curricu-
lum of beginner, intermediate, and advanced sessions, designed to get you started
and effectively integrate Enhanced WebAssign into your course. We offer a flexible
online and recorded training program designed to accommodate your busy schedule.
Whether you are using Enhanced WebAssign for the first time or an experienced user,
there is a training option to meet your needs.

www.WanerMath.com
The authors’ Website, accessible through www.WanerMath.com and linked within
Enhanced WebAssign, has been evolving for more than a decade and has been
receiving increasingly more recognition. Students, raised in an environment in which
computers permeate both work and play, now use the Internet to engage with the
material in an active way. The following features of the authors’ Website are fully
integrated with the text and can be used as a personalized study resource as well as a
valuable teaching aid for instructors:
● Interactive tutorials on almost all topics, with guided exercises, which also can be
used in classroom instruction or in distance learning courses
● More challenging game versions of tutorials with randomized questions that com-
plement the traditional interactive tutorials and can be used as in-class quizzes
● Detailed interactive chapter summaries that review basic definitions and problem-
solving techniques and can act as pre-test study tools
● Downloadable Excel tutorials keyed to examples given in the text
● Online utilities for use in solving many of the technology-based application exer-
cises. The utilities, for instructor use in class and student use out of class, include
a function grapher and evaluator, regression tools, a matrix algebra tool, linear
programming tools, and a line entry calculator that calculates permutations and
combinations and expands multinomial expressions.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xviii Preface

● Chapter true-false quizzes with feedback for many incorrect answers

● Supplemental topics including interactive text and exercise sets for selected topics
not found in the printed texts
● Spanish versions of chapter summaries, tutorials, game tutorials, and utilities

For Students
Student Solutions Manual by Waner and Costenoble
ISBN: 9781285085586
The student solutions manual provides worked-out solutions to the odd-numbered
exercises in the text, plus problem-solving strategies and additional algebra steps and
review for selected problems.
To access this and other course materials and companion resources, please visit
www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN
of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the
page. This will take you to the product page where free companion resources can be
found.

For Instructors
Complete Solution Manual by Waner and Costenoble
ISBN: 9781285085593
The instructor’s solutions manual provides worked-out solutions to all of the exer-
cises in the text.

Solution Builder by Waner and Costenoble

ISBN: 9781285085609
This time-saving resource offers fully worked instructor solutions to all exercises in
the text in customizable online format. Adopting instructors can sign up for access at
www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder.

PowerLecture™ with ExamView® by Waner and Costenoble

ISBN: 9781285085654
This CD-ROM provides the instructor with dynamic media tools for teaching, in-
cluding Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides, figures from the book, and the Test
Bank. You can create, deliver, and customize tests (both print and online) in minutes
with ExamView® Computerized Testing, which includes Test Bank items in elec-
tronic format. In addition, you can easily build solution sets for homework or exams
by linking to Solution Builder’s online solutions manual.

Instructor’s Edition
ISBN: 9781133934790

www.WanerMath.com
The Instructor’s Resource Page at www.WanerMath.com features an expanded
collection of instructor resources, including an updated corrections page, an expand-
ing set of author-created teaching videos for use in distance learning courses, and a
utility that automatically updates homework exercise sets from the fifth edition to the
sixth.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xix

Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without the contributions and suggestions
of numerous colleagues, students, and friends. We are particularly grateful to our col-
leagues at Hofstra and elsewhere who used and gave us useful feedback on previous
editions. We are also grateful to everyone at Cengage Learning for their encourage-
ment and guidance throughout the project. Specifically, we would like to thank
Richard Stratton and Jay Campbell for their unflagging enthusiasm and Alison Eigel
Zade for whipping the book into shape.
We would also like to thank our accuracy checker, Jerrold Grossman, and the
numerous reviewers who provided many helpful suggestions that have shaped the
development of this book.

Igor Fulman, Arizona State University

Tom Rosenwinkel, Concordia University Texas
Kim Ricketts, Northwest-Shoals Community College
Elaine Fitt, Bucks County Community College
Xian Wu, University of South Carolina
Catherine Remus, University of Tennessee
Hugh Cornell, University of North Florida
Upasana Kashyap, The Citadel
Laura Urbanski, Northern Kentucky University

Stefan Waner
Steven R. Costenoble

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content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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 CHAPTER IX
JUDGES
The Book of Judges falls into three parts, namely, (1) Judg. i. 1-ii. 5,
which intrudes, as has already been observed, between the close of
Joshua and its immediate sequel in Judges ii. 6 ff.; (2) Judg. ii. 6-xvi.
31, stories of a succession of champions and deliverers of Israel in
the centuries preceding the establishment of the kingdom; (3) Judg.
17-18; 19-21, two additional stories laid in the time of the Judges. In
the Christian Bibles the story of Ruth, which also is said to have
occurred in the days of the Judges, follows.
The introduction, Judg. ii. 6-iii. 6, gives a summary of the whole
period: as soon as Joshua and his generation had passed away, the
Israelites fell away from the religion of Jehovah, and worshipped the
gods of Canaan; indignant at this defection, he allowed them to be
overrun and subdued by their enemies; when in their distress they
turned to their own God for help, he raised them up champions who
delivered them; but their amendment was brief, they presently
relapsed into heathenism; and so it went on from bad to worse. In
correspondence with this general scheme each epoch in the history
is opened in some such way as this: The Israelites again did what
was evil in the sight of Jehovah; he delivered them into the power of
such and such a tyrant or nation; when they cried unto him, he
raised up so and so as a deliverer. Thereupon follows the story of
the deliverance (see iii. 7-11; iii. 12-15; iv. 1 ff.). Sometimes, as in vi.
1-10, x. 6-18, these preambles are expanded, but the purport
remains the same.
Another feature of the book is the systematic chronology in which
the frequency of the numbers twenty, forty, and eighty (forty years
being in the Old Testament equivalent to a generation) at once
strikes the attention; see iii. 11, 30; iv. 3; v. 31; viii. 28; xiii. 1; xv. 20
(xvi. 31). In several other instances the figures vary a little on either
side of twenty (eighteen, twenty-two, etc.). The duration of the
oppression is given in the introduction of the story; the period of
peace and prosperity which succeeded the deliverance, at the end;
see, e.g., iv. 3; v. 31. In the same way the life of Moses is divided
into three parts of forty years each; Eli judged Israel forty years;
David and Solomon each reigned forty years. It can hardly be
doubted that this chronology is artificial, and that the key to it is
found in 1 Kings vi. 1, which reckons four hundred and eighty years
(i.e. twelve generations) from the exodus to the building of
Solomon's temple; but the actual figures in Judges and Samuel do
not foot up to this sum, and there are some gaps in the series,
namely, the years of Joshua after the conquest, the rule of Samuel,
and that of Saul. The symmetry of the scheme has been broken by
intrusions or accidental omissions in the later history of the book.
The author of the part of the Book of Judges we are now
considering (ii. 6-xvi. 31) sees in the history of these centuries a
series of "oppressions" by the native kings or by neighbouring
peoples which the Israelites brought upon themselves by neglecting
their own God and worshipping the deities of the Canaanites, the
Baals and Astartes. This is making history illustrate and enforce the
prophetic teaching of Hosea in the eighth century and Jeremiah in
the seventh.
About the oppressions the author of Judges had clearly no
information independent of what he extracted from the stories of the
deliverances in his sources. In accordance with his theory of national
sin and national disaster he converted what are in the stories
themselves local conflicts, involving particular tribes or regions, into
oppressions and deliverances of all Israel; where the story tells of
raids by the Midianites, for example, the introduction gives them the
Amalekites and the Eastern Bedouins for allies, and extends the
devastation these wrought across the whole country to the
neighbourhood of Gaza. The exaggeration of the evils and the
emphasizing of the moral, as in other cases, invited later editors to
amplifications in the same spirit. Of the heroes who delivered Israel
from its oppressors the author made a succession of dictators
("judges"), who differed from the kings after them chiefly in that
their office was not hereditary, and to most of them he gives in his
chronology a long reign.
The setting of the history is thus unmistakably a product of the so-
called deuteronomist school of the sixth century which we have
already recognized in Joshua, and shall learn more of in Kings. The
stories themselves have, however, not been recast or extensively
retouched by deuteronomist hands; only at the beginning and the
end, where they had to be fitted into the frame, are such retouches
common.
The author's source was a collection of stories of struggles in
different parts of the land, both east and west of the Jordan, with
the older settled populations or with invaders, and the exploits of the
leaders and champions of the Israelite tribes in these struggles. It
included Ehud's assassination of the king of Moab, the defeat of
Sisera and the Canaanite kings of the great Plain by Barak and
Deborah, the rout and pursuit of the Midianite invaders by Gideon,
and Jephthah's victory over the Ammonites in Gilead. The history of
Abimelech's kingdom of Shechem—sequel to the story of Gideon—
which is not accompanied by the author's moralizing comments, and
the stories of Samson, which have no more than a chronological
introduction and close, evidently belong to the same cycle of heroic
legends; as do also the stories of Micah's idol and the migration of
the Danites (cc. 17-18), and the older form of the story of the levite
and his concubine and the sanguinary vengeance on Benjamin in cc.
19-21. The two last-named stories were not comprised in the
deuteronomist Judges, whose doctrine they could not well be made
to exemplify. On the other hand we shall see that this work included
Eli and Samuel among the judges, and came to its natural conclusion
with the establishment of the kingdom, as it began with the death of
Joshua.
In several of the stories we recognize not merely such additions and
improvements as are commonly made to popular tales in the
retelling, but evidences of the combination of two versions of the
same exploit or accounts of other doings of the same hero. This is
particularly plain in the story of Gideon, where in Judg. vii. 24 f. (vs.
23 is a harmonistic note), viii. 1-3, the business of the chiefs of
Midian is effectually finished, while in viii. 4 ff. it is all still to be
done. The phenomenon is entirely similar to those which we have
had repeated occasion to observe in the Pentateuch and Joshua and
is to be explained in the same way. The two versions of the story
had been united before the time of the author of the deuteronomist
Judges, for in the joints of the narrative no trace of his peculiar
motives or style occur.
The stories recount the exploits of local or tribal heroes, and
doubtless represent the traditions of the regions or tribes concerned;
with the union of the tribes under the kingdom, however, these
traditions became the common property of the nation, and more
than one writer made collections of them. As in the patriarchal
legends, two strands may be distinguished, which have such
affinities with the Judæan and the Israelite histories in the
Hexateuch respectively that they are naturally regarded as the
continuations of J and E. To J may be probably attributed the story
of Ehud (disregarding the introduction and conclusion), say Judg. iii.
16-28; in the story of Gideon, viii. 4-60 (with small exceptions), and
a part of cc. 6-7; part of the history of Abimelech; and the
adventures of Samson. A good specimen of the other narrator is the
beginning of the story of Abimelech, with the fable of Jotham, Judg.
ix. 1-25.
Here, again, additions have been made at various stages of the
transmission: to the sources independently, by the author who first
combined them, by the deuteronomist author, and in some places by
editors at a much later time. These hands cannot always be certainly
discriminated, but the main outlines of the literary history are clear
enough. A peculiar problem is presented by the so-called Minor
Judges, of whom nothing is told but the length of their rule and the
sultanly size of their families (Judg. x. 1-5; xii. 8-15). They seem to
be brought in only for the sake of the chronology, the difficulties of
which they do not diminish.
Except the curt notices that, the Israelites having again offended
their God, he gave them into the power of the Philistines for forty
years, and that Samson judged Israel for twenty years, it has
already been remarked that the stories of Samson have no such
introduction and conclusion as those which precede. The statement
about the duration of Samson's judgeship occurs both at the end of
Judg. 15, and at the end of c. 16, and it has been inferred from this
that whoever put this formal close in xv. 20 left out the adventure
with Delilah and Samson's tragic end (c. 16).
The stories of Micah and the migration of the Danites (Judg. 17-18)
and of the levite and his concubine and the decimation of Benjamin
(cc. 19-21) were not included in the deuteronomist book; but there
is no reason to doubt that they are of the same age as the other
stories in Judges, nor that they were found in one or more of the
literary collections of these stories. In cc. 17-18 the character of the
narrative in the main suggests the same source with the stories of
Samson (J), but there are some duplications and inconsistencies
which may be regarded as fragments of a closely parallel account of
not greatly inferior age. In cc. 19-21, again, the original story seems
to be from J (with perhaps traces of another version in c. 19), but in
the following account of the vengeance taken by all Israel on the
Benjamites, the older narrative has been united with a second,
which in its point of view, its language, and its unimaginable
exaggerations, is evidently akin to parts of the Books of Chronicles,
or to the youngest additions to the Pentateuch such as the
vengeance on the Midianites (Num. 31), and doubtless belongs to
the most recent stratum of the Old Testament.
Judges i. 1-ii. 5, as has been pointed out above, is foreign to the
connection in which it stands, and can only have been introduced
there by a late compiler or editor. It is a remnant of the most
historical, and presumably the oldest, account of the establishment
of the tribes in western Palestine. That, in completer form, it had
originally a place in the Judæan history (J) is unquestioned, and in
that work it may have been closely followed by stories of exploits
such as those of Ehud, Barak, Gideon. Inasmuch as it contradicted
the theory of the complete conquest and extermination of the
Canaanites, it was left out of the works which described the
conquest in that way, but scraps of it were subsequently introduced
in Joshua, and finally the whole restored in its present position. It is
easily seen that the recurring apostasies into Canaanite heathenism,
as well as such stories as those of Deborah and Barak and of
Abimelech, assume that the Canaanites had not been killed off to
the last man, but, on the contrary, were very much alive; and, in
fact, the authors of Judg. ii. 20-iii. 4 feel the necessity of explaining
why God had allowed these heathen to survive.
The historical value of the stories in Judges is very great. However
large the element of legendary embellishment may be in them, they
give us a picture of the social and religious conditions in the period
preceding the founding of the kingdom which has an altogether
different reality from the narratives of the exodus and the
wanderings.
The trustworthiness of this picture is confirmed by one contemporary
monument of prime significance, the triumphal ode in Judg. 5,
commonly called the Song of Deborah, celebrating the victory of the
Israelite tribes over Sisera and his hosts and the death of the fleeing
king by the hand of a Bedouin woman in whose tent he sought
refuge. The text in the middle of the poem has suffered greatly, but
the beginning and end are better preserved and display not only a
developed poetic art but poetic inspiration of the highest kind. To the
historian it has an even greater interest for the light which it throws
on the times: the independence of the tribes on both sides of the
Jordan, the subjection of those along the Great Plain to the
Canaanite kings with their walled cities and their formidable
chariotry, the summons to the struggle in the name of religion and
the varying response, the victory of Jehovah over his foes. It should
not be overlooked that Judah is ignored; it was not counted among
the tribes of Israel.
The moralizing improvement of the history in the Book of Judges is
not carried beyond the story of Jephthah, but neither at that point
nor after the stories of Samson is there anything to indicate that the
author is done. The introduction in Judg. ii. 11-iii. 6, a passage in
which both the deuteronomist historian and a predecessor in the
same way of thinking have had a hand, seems to require a
correspondingly solemn conclusion, and the example of
Deuteronomy and Joshua suggests that this would take the form of
a hortatory address such as Moses and Joshua deliver as their
testament to the people. Exactly such a discourse is found in 1 Sam.
12, where the aged Samuel, on the point of laying down his office as
judge, reminds the people's conscience of the chief crises of the
times of the judges in terms reminiscent of the introduction to the
Book of Judges and to the several oppressions, upbraids them for
their sin in desiring a king, and closes with admonitions for the
future. Here Samuel appears as a judge, the last in the succession;
as a judge he is represented also in 1 Sam. 7, where he delivers his
people from the Philistines in the great victory at Ebenezer through
the efficacy of his sacrifice and prayers—a Gideon or a Jephthah
went about the business in a more secular fashion! Eli also is said to
have judged Israel forty years. At some stage in the history of the
sources of Judges and Samuel, therefore, Eli and Samuel were
enumerated among the judges, and the close of the period was
marked by the address of Samuel which we now read in 1 Sam. 12.
The contents and form of this address have their parallels in the
writings of the sixth century or the latter part of the seventh, and to
that time it is doubtless to be ascribed.
 CHAPTER X
SAMUEL
A different division is adopted in the present books of Judges and
Samuel, in which the stories of Eli and of Samuel are not made the
close of the period of the judges but the prelude to the history of the
kingdom. The Greek Bible divides this history into four books of the
Kingdoms, or rather of the Reigns of the Kings; the Hebrew, into
two, Samuel and Kings; the modern translations employ the latter
names but adopt the subdivisions of the Greek, thus making two
books of Samuel and two of Kings. First Samuel shows how the
conquest and occupation of central Palestine by the Philistines led to
the establishment of a national kingdom under Saul, a Benjamite;
narrates the rise of his rival, the Judæan David, and the feud
between them, down to the disastrous battle with the Philistines at
Mt. Gilboa in which Saul and his gallant sons fell. Second Samuel is
the history of David's reign and the tragedy of his house, the
conclusion of which, the intrigue which raised Solomon to the throne
and the death of the aged king, is treated as the prelude to
Solomon's reign and carried over into 1 Kings; one recension of the
Greek Bible, however, joins these chapters (1 Kings 1-2) to the
preceding book. The two Books of Kings recount the reign of
Solomon; the division of the kingdom after his death into two, on
the old line, Israel and Judah; the parallel history of the two
kingdoms to the end of Israel in 721 B.C.; and the rest of the history
of Judah to its fall in 586.
In the account of how Saul became king there are two contradictory
representations. One of these, which agrees with 1 Sam. 12 in
treating the desire of the people for a king as the wanton
repudiation of Jehovah their king and of Samuel their divinely
appointed judge, is contained in cc. 8; x. 17-27; 12. The other,
according to which God, seeing the distress the people were in
because of the Philistines, of his own motion resolves to give them a
king to deliver them from their oppressors, is in 1 Sam. ix. 1-x. 16;
11. In c. 9 Samuel appears as a seer with a neighbourhood
reputation of being able to tell where people's stray asses have
gone, not as the prophet and judge, the first man of his time.
These strands can be followed in both directions beyond the
chapters named: 1 Sam. xiii. 1-xiv. 66 belongs to the second, which
we may call the national version of the matter; c. 15 attaches itself
to the other, say theocratic, representation, though it is of a
somewhat different texture. On the other side, vii. 3-17 plainly goes
with c. 8; while iv. 1b-vii. 2 are akin to the national version, showing
how grievous the situation was and how urgent the need of a king.
Chapters 1-3 have a twofold motive; they tell of the wonderful
childhood of a great man, and they explain the disasters of Eli's
house. The latter has reference to cc. 4-6; the former, a favourite
theme of popular tales, is an appropriate introduction to Samuel the
prophet.
Of the two accounts of the origin of the kingdom, it takes no great
critical discernment to see that what we have called the national
version is the older and more historical; the other, which condemns
the monarchy as a kind of apostasy, takes the standpoint of Hosea.
The picture of the monarch in 1 Sam. 12 is drawn from sorry
experience.
Even in the older narrative not all is of one piece. Chapter 9, in
which Saul is a young man in his father's house, does not tally with
c. 14, where he has a grown-up son. The author of this narrative
made it up from traditions of diverse origin, some of them more
strictly historical, others embellished with legendary traits. In its
main features, however, it gives us a trustworthy account of the
establishment of the kingdom. In c. 13, the breach with Samuel, vs.
7b-15a (with x. 8 which prepares for it), are not part of the original
narrative; c. 15 gives another account of the origin of this breach,
which was evidently a standing feature of tradition. In the remaining
chapters of 1 Samuel the central interest is the relations of David to
Saul. Here also there are not only two main literary sources but
evidence of variant traditions underlying the oldest narrative, and of
the additions by later editors, sometimes of their conception,
sometimes taken from old and good sources.
It is impossible here to pursue the analysis of the sources further. It
must suffice to say that the further on we go, the more the older
and better of the histories predominates. In 2 Samuel almost the
whole is from this source (c. 7 is a notable exception, in the spirit
and manner of the seventh century). Abridgment and transposition
have brought matters into disorder at some points; but 2 Sam. 9-20
is a well-preserved piece of continuous narrative, of which 1 Kings 1-
2 is the sequel. 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14 and c. 24 are from the same
source, but must originally have stood at an earlier point in the
history; their present position is best explained by supposing that
they were once omitted—which their contents make very natural—
and subsequently restored from a completer copy, not in their proper
connection but in an appendix. Chapter xxiii. 8-39 is a very ancient
roster of David's "valiant men," the companions of his days as an
outlawed freebooter on the Philistine border; xxi. 15-22 is of the
same character. Two poems attributed to David are also included in
this appendix, c. 22, which, with many variants, is found also in the
Psalter (Ps. 18), and xxiii. 1-7.
The history of Saul and David gave little invitation to a moralizing
improvement such as we have found in Judges and shall find again
in Kings. Whatever faults those heroes had, a propensity to the
worship of heathen gods could not be laid to them. The national
uprising against the Philistines was, in fact, a revival of religion. If in
times of peace men sought the blessing of the gods of the soil (the
Baals) upon their tillage, in war their only reliance was on Jehovah,
the god of Israel. Nor was the worship of Jehovah at the village
sanctuaries (high places) or upon altars erected for the nonce,
illegitimate, even in deuteronomic theory, till God had taken up his
sole abode in Solomon's temple. Accordingly there is, after 1 Sam.
12, once the close of a history of the judges, small trace of the
motives or phrases of the seventh-century school of historians; and
only in a few passages can the hand of post-exilic editors be
suspected. For the rest we have in our hands a product of the oldest
Hebrew historiography.
From a literary point of view the older source in the history of David
is unsurpassed. It has in perfection all the qualities that distinguish
the best Hebrew prose such as are conspicuous in the Judæan
author of the patriarchal stories in Genesis. In the art of narrative
Herodotus himself could do no better.
Its historical value is also very high. The account of David's later
years in 2 Sam. 9-20; 2 Kings 1-2 bears all the marks of
contemporary origin. It comes from one who not only knew the large
political events of the reign, but was intimately informed about the
life of the court, and the scandals, crimes, and intrigues in the king's
household which clouded the end of his glorious career. These things
are narrated with an objectivity and impartiality which cannot fail to
impress the reader. The author has a high admiration for David, but
this does not lead him to gloze over his faults or even his grave sins,
nor to disguise the weakness of his rule in his own house which was
the cause of so much unhappiness. His development of this domestic
tragedy is, indeed, truly dramatic, and the discrimination of the
characters—say of Absalom and Adonijah—shows fine insight. He
tells without comment how only the distrust of some of the Philistine
chiefs kept David, as a vassal of Achish of Gath, from fighting upon
the Philistine side against Saul in the fatal battle of Mt. Gilboa. So,
too, he is loyally minded to Solomon, but he does not conceal the
strings of the harem-intrigue by which the doting old King David was
brought to declare for his succession, or to pass over the ominous
beginning of Solomon's "new course," with the execution of
Adonijah, the deposition of the priest Abiathar, and the murder, at
altar where he had sought asylum, of Joab, to whom more than any
other the house of Jesse owed the throne. The official pretexts are
duly recorded, but the facts speak for themselves. In 1 Kings ii. 5 f.
the death of Joab is enjoined in David's testament; opinions differ
whether these verses are from the same source with ii. 12 ff., or are
by the late seventh-century writer to whom vs. 1-4 are ascribed by
all. Without idealizing David, we may at least allow ourselves the
conjecture that, if his last words decided the death of his old
companion in arms and most loyal servant, Nathan or Bathsheba
was at his dying ear.
The crisis in the history of the Israelite tribes which the Philistine
invasion created; the long struggle with these foes, very different
from their conflicts with their petty neighbours; the emergence in
this struggle of a national consciousness at once political and
religious; the union of the tribes in a national kingdom; the conquest
of independence; the following wars of expansion and the
foundation of a short-lived Israelite empire—these were
achievements to stir the soul of a people and be celebrated in song
and story. The leaders too, in these memorable doings were such
heroes as ancient history loves to have in the middle of its stage—
Saul with his chivalric son Jonathan; David with Joab, Abner, and the
rest of his gallant band.
The making of great history has often given a first impulse to the
writing of history, and we may well believe that it was so in Israel,
and that the beginning of Hebrew historical literature, in the proper
sense of the word, was made with Saul and David. Around such
figures the popular imagination always weaves a more or less
translucent tissue of legend, and particularly about their youth
before they come out on the stage of history, or the manner of their
first appearance.
The historians gathered up tribal tales such as the exploits of the
judges (that is, in the original sense, deliverers, or defenders), the
sacred legends of holy places, the traditions of a wonderful escape
from the Egyptians, a visit to the Mount of God and an agreement to
worship the god of the place as their god, of another sanctuary in
the desert at Kadesh, conflicts with the Bedouins, and attempts to
force an entry into Canaan—in short, all the diverse material which is
preserved in the older narratives in Exodus and Numbers—and
combined them as best they could into a continuous history of the
people of Israel.
The continuity is, however, only a narrative continuity; historically
there are great gaps in it, or, more exactly, the traditions cluster
about only a few points, such as the exodus and the invasion of
Palestine, and these are embellished with a wealth of legendary and
mythical circumstance beneath which the facts are effectually
hidden. The nature of this material may be judged from the fact that
between Joshua and Eli there are only the episodes of the judges,
strung on a chronological string, generalized as experiences of all
Israel, and put under a theological judgment—invaluable as pictures
of civilization, but as a history of a couple of centuries (the
chronology says four) evidently insufficient. On the other side of the
exodus are, according to the genealogies, three or four generations
(the chronology again makes it four hundred years) of total
ignorance; beyond that lies the patriarchal story, the realm of pure
legend.
Out of such materials Judæan authors in the tenth and following
centuries constructed the history of their people from the remotest
antiquity, and, as commonly happens with the first precipitation of
national traditions, preformed all subsequent representations.
This earliest book of history is commonly designated in the
Pentateuch and Joshua by the symbol J. It is disputed whether the
oldest history of the founding of the kingdom in Samuel should be
regarded as a continuation of J. If it were meant thereby to affirm
unity of authorship of this strand from Genesis to Samuel, that
would be saying much more than the facts warrant; but there is
through the whole so noteworthy a congruity of conception and
sameness of excellence in style that it is not inappropriate to use for
it the one symbol J in the sense of the oldest Judæan history.
 CHAPTER XI
KINGS
David took Jerusalem, which till then had been a Jebusite
stronghold, and made it the capital of his kingdom; but he reigned,
after as before, in patriarchal fashion, making, so far as appears, few
changes in the old institutions. Solomon reorganized the monarchy
after the common pattern of Oriental despotisms, dividing the
country into provinces for purposes of taxation, without regard to
the autonomy of the tribes and their liberties. He built a great palace
in the citadel, and, within the same enclosure, a temple, which, as
the royal sanctuary, was also in a sense national. Like other Eastern
rulers, he caused his doings to be recorded in the annals of the
kingdom, and doubtless the priests of the temple kept their own
chronicles. From this time, therefore, sources of a new kind make
their appearance in the history, contemporary records drawn from
the royal and priestly annals. The extracts from these sources in the
Book of Kings, like those of the Assyrian kings, or the Phœnician
annals of which fragments (through Menander) are preserved by
Josephus, were brief and bald records of doings or happenings, not
biographical or historical narratives. But brief and bald as they were
they furnished a groundwork of fact; and, since they set down at the
accession of each king the length of his predecessor's reign, they
gave also the data for a continuous chronology.
It is not to be supposed that the historical literature whose brilliant
beginnings we have seen ceased in the first century of the kingdom
or that the writers occupied themselves solely with the remoter past.
The memorable deeds of great men will not have gone uncelebrated.
The narrative, however, which is the chief source for the times of
Saul and David, breaks off abruptly in 1 Kings 2. The Books of Kings
are of a wholly different fabric. For one thing, while the two Books of
Samuel cover little more than the span of one long lifetime, Kings, in
about the same space, comprises the history of close on to four
centuries. But there is a still greater difference, as we shall see, in
the way in which history is treated.
The grand divisions of the Books of Kings are these: 1 Kings ii. 12-xi.
43 is occupied with the reign of Solomon; the division of the
kingdom after his death is narrated in xii. 1-24; the parallel history of
the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the fall of Samaria in 721
B.C. runs to 2 Kings xviii. 12; the history of Judah from that date to
its own fall in 586 fills the rest of the book.
The age of the book is easily determined: it tells of the two sieges of
Jerusalem by the Babylonians (597 and 586 B.C.); the destruction of
the temple and palace and the razing of the city walls, the
assassination of Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had made
governor over the devastated land; and the flight of the Jews from
the king's vengeance to Egypt. The last event mentioned is the
liberation of King Jehoiachin by Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) in 561
B.C. It is of course possible that this detached notice (2 Kings xxv.
27-30) was added by a later hand; but there is no reason to include
the story of Gedaliah in this suspicion. The book in its present form
cannot, therefore, be earlier than, say, about 580 B.C. In some places
in the body of the book, also, the fall of Judah is spoken of as an
accomplished fact, e.g. 2 Kings xvii. 19 f. (in conflict with vss. 18 and
21 ff.). Such passages are, however, not very numerous, and they
commonly sit loose in their context, like the verses just cited, as if
they were thrust into the narrative by an editor. The bulk of the
work, on the contrary, seems to suppose the existence of the
kingdom. It is, therefore, the general opinion that the book was
written before the fall of Jerusalem, and that a continuator added
the account of the catastrophe and the events immediately
subsequent to it.
The older Kings, from beginning to end, is dominated by the
conception and permeated by the phraseology of Deuteronomy and
of the prophet Jeremiah, and must therefore be placed between 621
B.C. (the date of the introduction of the deuteronomic law) and the
beginning of the last act of the history, that is to say, probably
shortly before the year 600 B.C.
It is not enough to say that Kings was written under the influence of
Deuteronomy; it was written, we might rather say, as a commentary
on the deuteronomic doctrine that falling away from the national
religion is punished by national disaster. In this point of view it
resembles Judges; but while in Judges it is the lapse into Canaanite
heathenism, the worship of the Baals and Astartes, which draws
upon Israel invasion and subjugation, in Kings not only foreign
religions but the worship at the high places, that is, the worship of
Jehovah at his oldest and holiest sanctuaries, provokes the wrath of
God; for since the dedication of Solomon's temple Jehovah had
made it his exclusive abode and all other places of worship were
illegitimate. We have seen that down to Josiah's reform this worship
prevailed unchallenged in both kingdoms. In the author's view,
generation after generation, under bad kings and good, had thus
sinned against the organic law of religion, and all judgments had
failed to work amendment. In Israel idolatry made the case worse;
the "golden calves," that is, the small images of Jehovah in the form
of a bull, which Jeroboam had set up at Bethel and Dan, were
worshipped under all his successors. These sins had in the end
brought ruin on Israel, and they were bringing it on Judah.
Manasseh had done even worse than Jeroboam; strange gods from
near and far were installed in the temple itself, and under its walls
men sacrificed their children to "the King" (Moloch). Josiah's reforms
had no lasting results; the reaction under his successors restored the
high places, and heathen cults flourished again. The doom was
imminent; would Judah learn the lesson of history before it was too
late? Some one has said that history is philosophy teaching by
example; for the author of Kings history was prophecy teaching by
example.
It was the lesson of the history that the author was after, and this
ruling motive determined his selection of material as well as the
treatment of it. It explains why he hardly tells anything about some
of the greatest kings and the most glorious periods of the history,
which did not afford illustrations of his thesis, while he dwells on
things of much less historical importance.
The characteristic interests of the author and his highly characteristic
style sharply distinguish his own writing from the sources which he
incorporates. These sources, as will be supposed, were of different
kinds and of various worth; they were naturally not the same in all
parts of the long period he covers, and he has not always dealt with
them in the same way. Part of his material comes, directly or
indirectly, from the annals of the kings, to which the reader is
regularly referred for further information (see e.g., 1 Kings xiv. 19,
29), or from temple records; part of it from more properly literary
sources. Sometimes it has all the marks of trustworthy tradition
originating close to the event; again, it is embroidered with
legendary traits; a smaller part is edifying fiction. In some cases, as
in the stories of Elijah and Elisha, a special source is recognizable,
but in the main the attempt to trace the literary channels through
which the matter reached the author is fruitless.
In the history of Solomon's reign the central place is taken by a
description of the palace and temple he erected (1 Kings 6-7), for
which c. 5 is a preparation, and c. 8, the dedication of the temple,
the sequel. The interesting account of the provincial organization
and system of taxation in c. 4 is evidently from an authoritative
source; the cession of cities in Galilee to Hiram, the list of cities
fortified, the (mutilated) account of the revolt of Edom, the rise of
the kingdom of Damascus, and the (mutilated) history of the revolt
of Jeroboam, the prelude to the separation of Israel and Judah, are
also of good authority.
By the side of these are stories celebrating the magnificence and
wisdom of Solomon, the beginnings of the exuberant Solomonic
legend. The judgment of Solomon in the case of the two harlots and
of the visit of the Queen of Sheba are examples of the popular tale,
and relatively old. The dedication of the temple has been much
expanded by the author of the Book of Kings; 1 Kings viii. 14-66 are
wholly his composition; ix. 1-9 is an appendix to c. 8. In viii. 1-12 an
older account of the dedication has been improved by various hands.
Comparison with the Greek translation shows that this process went
on to very late times; the latest additions are akin to the priestly
stratum in the Pentateuch. Chapter xi. 1-13 also is by the author of
the Book of Kings, built about a few words from his source in vs. 7;
vss. 29-40 are of the same sort.
1 Kings 12-2 Kings 17 contains the parallel history of Israel and
Judah. The method of the author is to follow the reign of a king, say
of Israel, to its end and then go back to take up the king of Judah
who came to the throne during this reign, follow him to his death,
and return to pick up the Israelite history again in the same way.
The result is, thus, interlocking histories, rather than a parallel
history. The length of each reign is given, probably ultimately from
the annals, with a computed synchronism which is at some points
demonstrably in error. With the introduction of each king a
comprehensive judgment by the standard of the deuteronomic law is
pronounced upon his reign. Thus, "In the eighteenth year of the king
Jeroboam the son of Nebat [king of Israel], began Abijah to reign
over Judah. Three years reigned he in Jerusalem, and his mother's
name was Maacah the daughter of Abishalom. And he walked in all
the sins of his father which he had done before him," etc. "In the
third year of Asa king of Judah began Baasha the son of Abijah to
reign over all Israel in Tirzah, and he reigned twenty and four years.
And he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord, and walked
in the way of Jeroboam, and in his sin wherewith he made Israel to
sin." These judgments are so stereotyped that they are pronounced
even on kings who reigned but a short time—Zimri, for instance,
who lasted only seven days. In the case of godly kings of Judah,
even of such as are credited with commendable zeal against the
worships that Deuteronomy denounces as Canaanitish heathenism,
the reproach of leaving the worship of Jehovah at the "high places"
unmolested is not spared them; see, e.g., 1 Kings xv. 1-14; xxii. 43.
The conflict between the tribes to whom the name Israel by
historical right belonged, headed by Ephraim, intent on reclaiming
the ancient liberties which Solomon had curtailed and securing
adequate guarantees for them, and Rehoboam, obstinate to
maintain the despotism which his father had established and the
supremacy of Judah, ended in the Israelite tribes refusing to
acknowledge the succession and setting up a kingdom of their own
with Jeroboam the son Nebat as king. These critical events are
narrated in the source, 1 Kings xii. 1-20, with noteworthy
impartiality; a comparison with the treatment of the matter by the
author of the Book of Kings himself in xi. 29-39; xii. 21-24, is
instructive. The account of Jeroboam's religious foundations and
innovations in c. xii. 26-33 (with which xiii. 33b belongs) is probably
based on an old Israelite source (the temples Jeroboam built, etc.),
on which the author of the book has put his own construction and
made his own comments. 1 Kings 13 is a specimen of the edifying
stories—religious fiction—which were added to the historical books
at a very late time and are especially numerous in Chronicles; the
reference to it in 2 Kings xxiii. 17 f. is an interpolation in a context
itself post-exilic. The story of the visit of Jeroboam's wife to the
prophet Ahijah (1 Kings xiv. 1-18) is in the manner of the author, but
seems to have an older basis. The fluid state of the text at a very
late time is again shown by the fact that in some recensions of the
Greek version the story is not found in this place, but, together with
other matter about Jeroboam (in part variant parallel to 1 Kings xi.
26 ff., 40), in a long passage which stands in c. 12 between vss. 24
and 25.
The invasion of Shishak, king of Egypt (1 Kings xiv. 25-28), is
introduced by the author with a catalogue of the deuteronomic
transgressions which provoked God to punish the kingdom in this
way; the similarity to the introduction to the oppressions in Judges is
apparent. So in the following chapters: the author's facts probably
come from annalistic sources which can in places be recognized, but
the religious interpretation of the events, which he sometimes gives
in his own quality as historian, sometimes puts into the mouth of a
prophet (e.g. xvi. 1-7, cf. xiv. 1-18), is from the point of view of the
deuteronomist school.
Another characteristic of the author's method is illustrated by his
treatment of the reign of Omri (1 Kings xvi. 23-28). Omri was the
founder of the greatest dynasty of the northern kingdom, and was
one of its greatest kings. From an inscription of the Moabite king
Mesha, we learn that Omri subjugated the lands east of the Jordan
(see also 2 Kings i. 1; iii. 4 ff.), and it is probable that his conquests
were pushed to the north-east into Syria; the Assyrian kings long
after his death call Israel the "house of Omri." But the long and
brilliantly successful reign of a king who in religion followed in the
footsteps of the kings of Israel before him, "golden calves" and all,
obviously could not be made to exemplify the doctrine that such sins
are regularly visited by condign judgment in national disaster.
Consequently, all that our author records of Omri, beyond the
revolutions which paved for him the way to the throne (1 Kings xvi.
16-18), is contained in one verse, 1 Kings xvi. 24—he built a capital
on a new site, Samaria!
In the following reign, however, Israel had troubles enough; the
conquests east of the Jordan were lost, and the long chapter of
Syrian wars began. This was material more to the author's purpose,
and he makes good use of it. Here also, in addition to the annals
and whatever other sources were at his hand for the preceding
period, he had a new and peculiarly grateful source in the stories of
Elijah and Elisha. To the fact that these prophets were outstanding
figures in some of the crises of the Syrian wars we owe it that so
much of the history of that struggle is preserved; for what the
author has extracted from the annals is as meagre as elsewhere.
From such "lives and times" of the prophets is derived much the
greater part of 1 Kings 17-2 Kings 10, with 2 Kings xiii. 14-21. The
stories of Elijah (1 Kings 17-19; 21; 2 Kings 1; ii. 1-18) are among
the most striking in the Old Testament; the supernatural in them
seems the natural setting for a figure of such heroic mould, and is a
stronger testimony than any record of fact could be to the
impression of the superman on the imagination of ordinary mortals.
Through the vesture of legend, we too have the impression of a
something titanic in the man who dared solitary to stand for his God
against kings, priests, prophets, and people, and, worse than all, the
vengeful fury of a woman! We can see, also, that his conflict against
the prophets of Baal makes an era in the history of religion in Israel.
"If Jehovah be God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him," he
thunders at the people on Mt. Carmel. It was not the first assertion
of the jealousy of Jehovah and the exclusiveness of the true religion;
but the issue had never before been so dramatically joined. The
intolerant monotheism of Judaism had found its war cry.
1 Kings 17-19, Elijah at Sarepta, on Carmel, and at Horeb, belong
together; the beginning, which must in some way have brought
Elijah upon the stage, is not preserved; 1 Kings 21 (Naboth's
vineyard) may very well be from the same source; in the end of the
chapter (vs. 20b-26) the author of the Book of Kings has the word,
and in the other chapters there are slight traces of the same hand.
With these small exceptions the stories are old, and probably
received their present literary form in the ninth century, certainly
before the prophetic movement of the eighth. 2 Kings i. 2-17 is a
legend of a different kind and presumably considerably younger. 2
Kings ii. 1-18, on the other hand, is akin to the older stories in 1
Kings 17-19, 21; it forms the connecting link with Elisha.
Among the stories of Elijah stand other episodes of the Syrian wars
in which prophets figure, 1 Kings 20; xxii. 1-38. The second of these,
Micaiah ben Imlah before Ahab and Jehoshaphat, is of peculiar
interest. They are apparently of the same age with their
surroundings. In both a few verses are from later editors. To the
same cycle probably belong 2 Kings iii. 4-27, the campaign against
Moab, as well as 2 Kings ix. 1-x. 27, Jehu's revolt instigated by
Elisha, the murder of King Ahaziah and of the queen mother,
Jezebel, the massacre of the princes of the house of Omri and the
extirpation of the worship of Baal.
Beside these are a group of stories about Elisha, chiefly celebrating
him as a wonder-worker, and bringing him into connection with the
"sons of the prophets," who seem to have formed a kind of dervish
order. The collector or editor has accumulated them all in one reign,
probably against their original intention. Scattered through the
narratives drawn from the lives of the prophets are brief notices
from the annals and the usual deuteronomist appraisals by the
author of Kings.
The attempt of Jehu to exterminate the dynasty of Omri, involving
the slaughter of the Judæan princes, had the unintended result of
enabling the queen mother, Athaliah, a daughter of Ahab and
Jezebel, to seize the throne. The revolution, planned by the chief
priest of Jerusalem, which overthrew the usurper and brought the
true heir, the seven-year-old Joash, to his own, is told in 2 Kings xi.
1-20; a somewhat minute account of the restoration of the temple in
his reign follows in c. xii. 4-16, both from a good Judæan source,
perhaps ultimately a temple chronicle. The author of Kings has his
usual formulas, including the tolerated high places, in c. xii. 1-3. The
extract from the annals at the end of the chapter, the straits into
which Hazael of Syria brought Joash, and his death by a treasonable
conspiracy, which might be thought to prove that piety is not always
crowned with prosperity, is anticipated by the author of Kings in 2
Kings xii. 3—Joash's piety lasted only as long as he was in the
leading strings of the priest Jehoiada.
In the following reigns the material derived from narrative sources is
more scanty; a noteworthy passage of this kind is the account,
evidently from an Israelite writer, of the chastisement Jehoash of
Israel inflicted on the presumptuous Amaziah of Judah (2 Kings xiv.
8-14). The contemporary reigns of Jeroboam II of Israel and
Azariah, or Uzziah, of Judah, lasting half a century, a period of great
prosperity in both kingdoms, are dispatched with extreme brevity,
and are followed by the swiftly successive conspiracies and
revolutions in which the northern kingdom declined to its fall. The
story of treason and bloodshed is suspended to tell of the reign of
Ahaz in Judah (2 Kings 16) from a source chiefly interested in the
temple, and then the last act of Israel's tragedy opens. To the brief
account of the fall of Samaria in 2 Kings xvii. 1-6, is appended the
moral of the whole history, vss. 7-41. This homiletic improvement of
the catastrophe was an inviting task, and besides the author of
Kings, the exilian continuator and perhaps still later editors
contributed to draw it out and emphasize it.
From this point the historian has only Judah to deal with. The reign
of Hezekiah is narrated at some length in 2 Kings 18-20. A
considerable part of these chapters (xviii. 13-xx. 19) is found also in
the Book of Isaiah (Isa. 36-39), with variations which are of much
interest for the history of the text. The psalm, Isa. xxxviii. 9-20, for
instance, is not found in Kings; 2 Kings xviii. 14-16 is not in Isaiah,
and minor differences occur in almost every verse. The introduction
to the reign of Hezekiah by the author of Kings is somewhat longer
than usual, and attributes to him not only the destruction of the
serpent idol in the temple which Moses was believed to have made
(cf. Num. xxi. 8 f.), and of other apparatus of heathenism, but the
removal of the high places, making him thus anticipate the reforms
of Josiah a century later (2 Kings xviii. 4). This probably exaggerates
Hezekiah's good works, but for the bronze serpent to which
sacrificial worship had been paid from time immemorial, as well as
for vs. 7 f. (Hezekiah's rebellion), which is the antecedent of vs. 13
ff., he may have had the authority of the annals.
From the annals probably come also 2 Kings xviii. 13-16, with their
brief record of the penalty Hezekiah paid for his revolt. Of this we
have also Sennacherib's account in his inscriptions, where he tells
how he took the cities of Judah and shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem
"like a bird in a cage," and gives the figures of the heavy indemnity
he imposed upon him. There follow two longer accounts of
Sennacherib's operations, 2 Kings xviii. 17-xix. 8 and xix. 9-37, which
are commonly regarded as parallel and somewhat discrepant
relations of the same campaign, but by some are thought to refer to
two different occasions, at an interval of ten years or more. 2 Kings
xx. 1-11 (cf. Isa. 38) is perhaps from a life of Isaiah, who is the chief
figure in it; vs. 12-19 (Isa. 39), the embassy of the chronic Babylonia
rebel, Merodach Baladan, presumably to undermine Hezekiah's
shaky loyalty to his Assyrian lord, seems to belong at an earlier point
in the story; in it also Isaiah is the central person. In the closing
paragraph the author of Kings has preserved an interesting annalistic
notice of an aqueduct and reservoir which Hezekiah constructed, not
improbably the Siloam tunnel and the reservoir it feeds.
Of the fifty-five years' reign of Manasseh, and the two years of his
son Amon, a half-century of peace and prosperity in which the
country recuperated from the disasters Hezekiah had brought upon
it, nothing is told. Instead we have a long catalogue of Manasseh's
religious obliquities, which includes all the crimes most abhorrent to
the seventh-century prophets and laws, and the proclamation of God
"by his servants the prophets" that these sins sealed the doom of
Judah. This prediction is made from the standpoint of the
accomplished fact, and indeed most of the chapter seems to be by
the exilian continuator of Kings or a still later writer.
With the reforms of Josiah (621 B.C.; 2 Kings 22-23) we arrive at
events which, if not within the personal knowledge of the author of
Kings, were known to his older contemporaries. This does not, of
course, exclude the use of written records or narratives, and, in fact,
there seem to be traces of such in the chapters. More certain it is
that the continuator of the book made some changes in the account;
the oracle of Huldah, for example, seems to have been revised in the
light of the event.
To this continuator, as has already been said, the history of the two
sieges of Jerusalem, the deportations, and the misfortunes of those
who were left in the land are to be attributed. In several places in
earlier parts of the history we have had occasion to observe that
additions and changes continue to be made by the editors or scribes
—and every scribe who copied a book in those days wielded an
editor's pen when he chose—until a time close to the age of the
Greek translation, that is, the third century B.C.
The age in which the Pentateuch and the several Historical Books
(Joshua-Kings), the product of the long and obscure process which
we have attempted to outline in the preceding chapters, were
adjusted and connected so as to make a continuous history from the
creation to the fall of the Judæan state, can be fixed only by the fact
that the author of Chronicles (about 300 B.C. or somewhat later; see
below) seems to have read these books in the order and, so far as
his use of them permits a judgment, substantially with the contents
of our present Old Testament. This arrangement, or edition, if we
choose to call it so, as has been shown, did not put an end to
additions and alterations, though they gradually became less
frequent and less important in the following centuries. A standard
and stable Hebrew text was established only in the second century
after the Christian era.
 CHAPTER XII
CHRONICLES
By the side of this comprehensive history stands another which is in
part parallel, in part supplementary, to it, Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah.
It differs from the former in being the work of one author, whose
characteristic conceptions, interests, and manner make it easy to
distinguish his writing from the sources he incorporates. His
peculiarities are the better known because there is so much of his
own in the books—not far from half the matter contained in them.
The succession of the high priests is brought down to Jaddua, who
was contemporary with Alexander the Great, and lists of heads of
priestly and levitical families are given in Neh. 12 for the reign of
Darius (Codomannus), the last Persian king. The book can,
therefore, not be put much, if any, before 300 B.C., and more
probably it was written in the following century.
The history begins with the death of Saul and the election of David
as king by all Israel at Hebron (1 Chron. 10-11). The preceding
chapters are filled with genealogies, beginning with Adam. Twenty-
six verses bring us to Abraham, and the second chapter opens with
the sons of Israel, while the third is a list of the sons of David and of
his successors on the throne to the fall of the kingdom, with the
descendants of the last king through several generations. These
genealogies, to which historical notices of different kinds are
frequently attached, are in part compiled from various places in the
Pentateuch and Historical Books, in part more freely reproduced
from such passages; but a large remainder has no parallel in the
older work. The author, here as elsewhere, evidently attaches great
importance to these lists, in particular to those which enabled the
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