Review Article

Intimate Partner Femicide in South Korea:

An Integrative Review of the Literature
Soojeong Kim, RN1, Sihyun Park, PhD, RN2,
and Jane Dimmitt Champion, PhD, DNP, FNP, AH-PMH-CNS, FAAN, FAANP1

Background: Intimate partner femicide (IPF) is a severe form of violence perpetrated against women in intimate
relationships. The purpose of this integrative literature review was to identify studies of IPF in South Korea.
Methods: A web-based literature search was performed in six databases: PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO,
MEDLINE, SocINDEX, and RISS (Korean academic online database). Because of the limited number of find-
ings, Google Scholar was used to find additional studies.
Results: Nine articles were selected. There were no studies of IPF in South Korea utilizing a healthcare perspec-
tive. The studies were primarily designed to understand the characteristics of the cases and the perpetrators.
Through the application of the ecological model to these studies, risk factors at the individual, relationship, com-
munity, and societal levels were identified. Although these studies identified that risk factors at the societal level—
Korean culture, policy, and law—have a considerable influence on femicide, a clear solution is not proposed.
Conclusion: It is imperative to understand IPF in South Korea from a female societal perspective to facilitate
violence prevention and recovery for those experiencing intimate partner violence.
KEY WORDS:
Intimate partner femicide; risk factors; South Korea

he World Health Organization (WHO) (2012) de- relationship. The Office on Women's Health (2018), de-

T scribed femicide as “one end of the spectrum” (p. 1)

of violence against women. Femicide is a synthe-
sized word for female homicide that applies narrowly to
fines an intimate partner as “a person with whom you
have or had a close personal or sexual relationship.” The
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC,
hate crimes against women and generally to the murder of 2018) states that, although the term has been used in many
women. The term femicide originated in the 1970s and raised ways, it is difficult to gather data and make comparisons
awareness concerning violent deaths of women. The WHO between countries without an internationally agreed-upon
(2012) classified femicide as honor killings, dowry-related definition of femicide.
femicide, nonintimate femicide, and intimate partner A global study by WHO and the London School of Hy-
femicide (IPF). Unlike other forms of femicide, IPF is com- giene and Tropical Medicine found that more than one in
mitted by a current or former male partner in an intimate seven homicides and at least 35% of femicides were perpe-
trated by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013). The Fed-
Author Affiliations: 1School of Nursing, The University of Texas at eral Bureau of Investigation reported 3,268 female homi-
Austin; and 2School of Nursing, Chung-Ang University. cides in United States in 2018, of which 33.53% involved a
The authors declare no conflict of interest. former or current intimate male partner (Federal Bureau of
Correspondence: Soojeong Kim, MA, RN, School of Nursing, Investigation, 2018). Similarly, Sohn (2016), in a review of
University of Texas at Austin, 1710 Red River St, Austin, TX 78712. Korean police statistics, found the perpetrator of femicide
E-mail: [email protected].
victims was either a legal male spouse (33.67%) or a boy-
Supplemental digital content is available for this article. Direct URL
citations appear in the printed text and are provided in the HTML friend (17.35%).
and PDF versions of this article on the journal’s Web site Hwang (2004) conducted a review of spousal murder
(www.journalforensicnursing.com). using Korean records from the 18th to 20th centuries and
Received April 28, 2020; Accepted October 2, 2021. found intimate partner homicide (IPH) was overwhelmingly
Copyright © 2021 International Association of Forensic Nurses committed by men in the 18th (95.5%), 19th (79.3%) and
DOI: 10.1097/JFN.0000000000000353 20th (89.7%) centuries. Throughout all three centuries,

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 Review Article

men ranked their wives' sexual infidelity as the number 1 Violence against women is a major public health prob-
reason for murder. The “woman's demand for separation” lem. Femicide, the most extreme form of violence against
increased as a reason for killing women from the 18th women, has serious consequences for families, communi-
(9.1%) to 20th (21.4%) centuries. Interestingly, Hwang ties, and society as a whole. Systemic reviews of IPF in South
found that, if the reason for the wife's murder was sexual in- Korea were not identified, highlighting the need for further
fidelity, the murder would be considered less intentional research on this topic. The purpose of this integrative review
than if the murder resulted from the woman's attempt to of the literature was to identify studies concerning IPF in
end the relationship. South Korea for interpretation of the dynamics of femicide
More recently, the UNODC (2018) found that 52.5% of using the ecological model. The research questions guiding
victims of intentional murders in South Korea in 2014 were this review included (a) “What are the circumstances of
women. South Korea's female homicide rate is 2 times femicide in South Korea?” and (b) “What are the risk factors
greater that the worldwide rate (21.3%; Kwok, 2017). It associated with IPF in South Korea?”

▪
should be noted that the murder classification system used
by the UNODC is different from that of crime statistics re- Methods
leased annually in South Korea. The defining factor for
A web-based literature search was performed in six databases:
designation as a murder in South Korea is the attempt to
PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, SocINDEX, and
kill with the intent to murder. Therefore, crime statistics
RISS (Korean academic online database). Only five studies
documenting murder vary dependent on the judiciary de-
were captured using this search strategy: (femicide+OR +
cisions concerning offender intentions. This documenta-
femicide by an intimate partner+OR + spouse homicide
tion impacts the reported incidence of femicide cases,
+OR + murder of a woman+OR + female homicide+OR + in-
which may actually be higher than reported in South
timate homicide+OR + intimate partner homicide+OR + do-
Korea. The circumstances and nature of the criminal in-
omestic violence+OR + dating violence) + AND+(East Asia+
vestigations or the outcome of proceedings is not well un-
OR + Korea+OR + South Korea+OR + Republic of Korea).
derstood (Sohn, 2016).
A search of articles from reference lists of findings is more
Several researchers have discussed the risk factors for
effective when few studies are identified. Therefore, we
IPH. Spencer (2019) detailed the following male IPH perpe-
used Google Scholar, searched for relevant keywords,
trations risk factors: accessibility to a gun, previous history
and found two additional articles meeting the inclusion
of threats with a weapon, nonfatal strangulation, rape, con-
criteria. We reviewed the seven articles, focusing on the
trolling behaviors, threats to harm, and stalking of the vic-
reference lists, and searched the journals in which the cited
tim. The female IPH victimization risk factors included being
articles were published. We also focused on, for example,
abused during pregnancy, substance abuse, having less than
the authors who were referenced multiple times. Using this
a high school education, being separated from the perpetra-
process, 11 more articles were found, and the same method
tor, and having children from a previous relationship. A re-
was repeated. Five articles were added, and no other new
cent meta-analysis regarding IPH (Matias et al., 2020) sup-
articles were subsequently found. Ultimately, we obtained
ported these findings by noting that the following risk factors
nine articles for inclusion in this study (see Figure 1).
are related to the higher probability of IPH: threatening the
Because of the limited number of studies regarding IPF,
victim with weapons, all kinds of threats, death threats, bot-
the broadened inclusion criteria used for the searches were
tlenecks, stalking, control behaviors, abuse while pregnant,
as follows: (a) The article was published in Korean or
and physical violence. Although these risk factors reflect in-
English; (b) the study was conducted using samples from
dividual characteristics, consideration must be given to the
South Korea; and (c) the article had information related
influence of societal–cultural factors constructed around
to femicide in South Korea, even if it focused on domestic
gender roles and behaviors (Roa & Cordeiro, 2018).
violence, not murder.

▪
The ecological model established by Bronfenbrenner
(1979) explains multiple levels of sociocultural influence via
a comprehensive framework that integrates multiple theories Results
and considers that environment and policy in the broader Study Characteristics
community can be applied to human development contexts The nine articles included in this review were published from
(Terry, 2014). Because violence against women occurs in 2006 to 2018; five were published within the last 5 years,
the context of human development, the ecological model is whereas four were published earlier. Femicide by an intimate
a suitable framework for examining risk factors (Omolo, partner in South Korea has been addressed by scholars in
2014). Therefore, the ecological model is applied to concep- criminology, sociology, policing, and gender studies. Nurs-
tualize gender-based violence integrating four levels: individ- ing was the only health profession with a study addressing
ual, relationship, community, and societal (Cummings et al., femicide by an intimate partner; however, this article was ex-
2013; Fulu & Miedema, 2015; Heise, 1998). cluded from this review as it did not pertain to IPF in South

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 Review Article

FIGURE 1. Literature search flowchart. Adapted from PRISMA 2009 flow diagram (Moher et al., 2009).

Korea. Three studies included cross-sectional study designs description of each question of each tool. To improve the
that described certain aspects of Korean society (Park, consistency of the evaluation, quality assessment tools is-
2006; Sea et al., 2018; Shin & Gong, 2006). One study used sued by the same institution were used, as follows: JBI
a quasi-experimental design to examine participants' percep- Critical Appraisal Checklist for Quasi-experimental Stud-
tions using four types of newspapers that reported different ies (Joanna Briggs Institute, 2017a), JBI Critical Appraisal
nuances about femicide (Lee & Yoo, 2018). Four systematic Checklist for Analytical Cross-sectional Studies (Joanna
review articles were included. Of these reviews, two used Briggs Institute, 2017b), JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist
newspaper contents published between 1990 and 2010 and for Systematic Reviews and Research Syntheses (Joanna
between 2014 and 2016, respectively (Back, 2011; Lee, Briggs Institute, 2017c), and JBI Critical Appraisal Check-
2018b). One review included marital homicide verdicts list for Text and Opinion Papers (Joanna Briggs Institute,
(Park, 2013), and the other reviewed literature concerning 2017d). Eight articles were published in Korean; Authors
a perpetrator's suicide after the murder of a woman (Lee, 1 and 2 who can read and write in Korean and English
2018a). A prospective study provided a perspective about participated in the evaluation. Initially, Authors 1 and 2
why Korean women sometimes become victims or perpetra- chose quality assessment tools for each different study de-
tors under Korean culture (Heo, 2017). Because of the diffi- sign and completed separate assessments; if disagreements
culty accessing participants, two articles analyzed newspaper arose, they continued to discuss until reaching an agree-
contents (Back, 2011; Lee, 2018b) and one study analyzed ment. The answers for quality assessment questions were
verdicts (Park, 2013). The first author of each of the nine ar- “yes,” “no,” “unclear,” and “not applicable.” An assess-
ticles was Korean. Only one of the articles was written in ment as “unclear” was considered to mean “no.” Responses
English and published in an American journal. were converted to percentages to classify quality as low,
moderate, or high. On the basis of the scoring criteria for
Study Quality the respective tools, seven articles were scored as high and
The nine articles included four different methodologies; two were scored as moderate upon completion of the evalu-
therefore, four different quality assessment tools were ation (see Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.
needed. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) provides a detailed com/JFN/A75).

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 Review Article

Features on IPF in South Korea was identified in the literature: financial dependency on male
The studies were primarily designed to understand the char- partners. Park (2013) found that women who relied on their
acteristics of the cases and the perpetrators. The findings male partners' economic power, especially if they lived in
showed differences in demographic data concerning the a poor environment, had more difficulty reporting vio-
age of the perpetrators and victims. Back's (2011) study lence to those outside the relationship. These women were
found the ages of perpetrators included adolescents to those also more hesitant to divorce their partners because doing
in their 70s. Sea et al. (2018) reported the ages of perpetra- so could place them at an increased risk for more danger-
tors ranged between 20 and 40 years. Lee (2018b) reported ous situations.
that Korean perpetrators and victims were older than those
in the United States. Several studies examined the perpetra- Relationship-Level Factors
tors' previous criminal records and alcohol intoxication At the relationship level, factors such as families, friends, and
and reported consistent results. Perpetrators had criminal intimate partners influenced a woman's risk of becoming
histories (Park, 2006; Sea et al., 2018) and committed a victim of femicide. The main risk for IPF concerned the
femicide while intoxicated with alcohol (Park, 2006, 2013). way perpetrators lived and how they treated their victims
The male perpetrators had been exposed to frequent parental while they lived together. Park (2006) found that 25% of
conflict during childhood (Shin & Gong, 2006), were the perpetrators had criminal histories, whereas Sea et al.
obsessed with hierarchy, and had patriarchal perspectives (2018) found 75% of men who engaged in IPF had prior
and a desire for control (Heo, 2017). The male perpetra- criminal records. Before homicide, conflict reportedly
tors used weapons (Park, 2006; Sea et al., 2018) and chose existed between the perpetrator and the victim. The male
places of homicide that were familiar to their victims (Sea perpetrator reportedly had physically, verbally, or sexu-
et al., 2018). ally assaulted the female partner in approximately half
Back (2011) reported that the rate of femicide by an in- of the cases (Park, 2006, 2013) or stalked them before
timate partner was highest within legal marital relation- the murder (Lee, 2018a). Park's (2013) research revealed
ships. When perpetrators killed their female partners, they that victims experienced domestic violence for periods
also tended to murder (Park, 2006) or physically harm fam- ranging from 6 to 30 years. The media also reported that
ily members and friends of victims (Lee, 2018b). Lee (2018b) domestic violence occurred in the period leading up to sev-
also found that after these perpetrators kill their families, eral of the murders (Lee, 2018a). One third of the male
they commit suicide (see Table 1). perpetrators reported that their wives' infidelity was a di-
rect reason for their murder (Park, 2006).
Several studies focused on the expressive motives of per-
Risk Factors of IPF in South Korea Based on petrators (Back, 2011; Shin & Gong, 2006). The motive for
the Ecological Model murder is subcategorized in Korea to distinguish between
Individual-Level Factors expressive and instrumental motives. If offenders committed
At the individual level, risk for IPF concerned personal fac- homicide as part of unplannedacts of anger, revenge, or frus-
tors that influenced individual behavior and increased their tration, it would be called an expressive motive. Murder
possibility of becoming a victim of femicide. Because of the committed for an explicit future goal, such as plundering
limitations of access to information about victims who have money or improving social position, would be classified as
already died, most studies focused on perpetrators, and it an instrumental motive (Miethe et al., 2004). Male perpetra-
was difficult to identify the victims. However, one factor tors often engaged in violence with expressive motive and

TABLE 1. Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Femicide in South Korea Based on the Ecological Model
Individual
Personal factors that Relationship Community
influence individual With family, intimate Neighborhood, Societal
behavior partners, and friends schools and workplaces Policy, law, and culture
■ Financial dependency ■ Have a previous criminal ■ Consider domestic ■ Patriarchal family
on male partner history violence a private matter structure
■ Stalking ■ Low community ■ Confucian culture that emphasizes
■ Continued violence sensitivity to violence the role of family
■ Suspicion of infidelity ■ Expected traditional women's roles
■ Expressive motive ■ Laws advantageous to men
■ Alcohol intoxication ■ Passive police officers
■ Use of weapons ■ Media stands on the side of men
■ Consider partner or family
members as possessions

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 Review Article

caused the death of their female partners (Back, 2011). In the the police are known to be relatively higher than reports
study by Shin and Gong (2006), 100% of perpetrators who by victims, these numbers are still lower than the number
murdered their female partners by expressive motives had of actual cases. The rate for reporting is higher when there
grown up in impoverished family environments. The re- is increased awareness of the severity of domestic violence
searchers found that higher marital conflict led to greater (Lee et al., 2016).
rates of femicide resulting from expressive motives (Shin &
Gong, 2006). In addition, alcohol was a contributing factor Societal-Level Factors
toward an expressive motive. Park (2006) stated that 46% Policy, law, and culture influence femicide at the societal
of offenders committed femicide while intoxicated with al- level. Gender inequity, based on patriarchal family struc-
cohol. Male perpetrators reported during the criminal trial ture, is another factor that influences femicide. A culture that
that they were drunk when the murder was committed considers the control and domination of women to be a nat-
(Park, 2013). Consequently, when a perpetrator commits ural and desirable gender order creates gender power ineq-
murder while intoxicated, it is possible to claim that the per- uity (Heo, 2017). Sea et al. (2018) acknowledged that, in pa-
petrator was not mentally competent, thereby reducing the triarchal societies, the role of women is fixed on domestic
sentence under Korean law. duties, and there is little means for women to defend them-
The use of weapons is another risk factor in that weapons selves while being harmed by male intimate partners. In ad-
are intended to cause greater physical harm to victims. Be- dition, accusations against men are justified, even if the eco-
cause it is illegal to possess a firearm in Korea, household nomic activities defined by the role of men in patriarchal so-
items such as knives and hammers are used as weapons. Of ciety are not fully performed (Park, 2013).
the intimate perpetrators reviewed, 80% used lethal weapons In Confucian culture, emphasis on a strong bond and
in the homicides committed (Park, 2006). However, in studies dependency in families has a negative influence when do-
involving murder by strangers, about half of the male perpe- mestic violence is considered. Sea et al. (2018) maintain that,
trators used weapons (Sea et al., 2018). This finding suggests in this culture, even battered wives have a hard time escaping
that, when femicide is committed by an intimate partner, there a violent home life. Under these circumstances, a woman is
is a clear and decisive intent to harm or kill. unable to inform the police or any acquaintances of her situ-
The perception by male partners that their spouses and ation; only 5% of victims make a rescue request (Lee,
family members are possessions is also considered a risk fac- 2018b). Traditional women are expected to maintain their
tor. When a female partner who is viewed as a possession de- families. In Korean society, people admire women who en-
cides to leave a relationship, her risk of becoming a victim of dure all suffering. Even if a male partner commits violence,
femicide increases as the male partner may resort to murder a woman must endure it to maintain her family (Park,
to prevent her from leaving (Back, 2011; Park, 2006). 2013). From the perspective of traditional Korean society,
women who stand up to violence at the hands of men are
Community-Level Factors not considered to be victims (Heo, 2017), and in fact, there
At the community level, relationships within the neighbor- have been no cases in Korean history in which a woman's
hood, school, and workplaces may influence risk for femicide. claim of self-defense against a man's violence was accepted
Communities that consider domestic violence to be a private (Park, 2013). Perpetuating prejudice and stereotypes about
matter elevate the risk of femicide. Sea et al. (2018) confirmed women make it difficult to view violence against women as
that, in Korean society, many people perceived domestic vi- a social issue (Heo, 2017).
olence as a private matter rather than a social issue. Women Laws inherently apply equally to all citizens, but the
therefore struggled to ask for help, and people within the laws appear to be more advantageous for men in Korea.
community were reluctant to offer help when asked. In South Korea's domestic violence prosecution rate is only
one reported case, in which the intensity of the violence is 1% (Lee, 2018b). Park (2013) found in comparisons of the
getting worse when the issue of violence was brought to differences in sentences of male and female marital mur-
court, the judge asked about the woman's responsibility derers that, regardless of the perpetrator's gender, if the
to ask for help to escape the situation on her own (Park, victim was male, the sentence was higher than in cases in
2013). In Korean society, domestic violence has tradition- which the victim was female. This aspect of patriarchal
ally been considered a private matter, and the individual Korean society deems men's lives are more valuable than
who is being victimized is responsible for getting themselves those of women (Park, 2013). When describing verdicts,
out of the situation. judges used male-centric language, and the fact that IPF
Low community sensitivity to violence creates an addi- victims endured abuse without reporting it or requesting
tional risk for violence. Lee (2018b) reported that, before a divorce was weighed as a factor for sentence reduction
femicide occurred, only 9.7% of those around the perpetra- for the perpetrators (Park, 2013). From the perspective
tor and the victim were aware of the violence. Although the of the judges, the victim's sacrifice was noble and the vic-
numbers of community members reporting violence to tim may not have wanted the perpetrator to be punished.

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 Review Article

When police officers acted passively, the risk of femicide study screening and selection was conducted under the lead
increased. In cases of domestic violence, police officers were of the first author, who is a native Korean speaker and Au-
burdened with enforcement of immediate separation of per- thor 2. The translation process was discussed among coau-
petrators and victims (Park, 2013). This occurred because thors to minimize the risk of bias and improve the validity
there were no strict regulations in Korean law and domestic of the results. In addition, because the data in several of the
violence was considered a one-time minor event (Lee, selected articles included newspaper articles, some of the in-
2018a). This passivity by police officers indirectly but defin- formation may not be entirely accurate. A strength of this re-
itively became a risk factor for IPF. view is the inclusion of articles from multiple disciplines rep-
The media wields influence concerning societal percep- resenting diverse perspectives.

▪
tions of IPF in South Korea. Lee and Yoo (2018) found that
South Korean media published articles condemning victims Implications for Clinical Forensic
of femicide by reporting on victims' alcohol and drug prob- Nursing Practice
lems, infidelity, and behaviors that provoked murder. Me-
Nurses providing emergency health care in the hospital set-
dia support of male perpetrators included description of
ting occasionally encounter victims and offenders as surgical
their mental problems and past experiences of physical
patients and may inadvertently destroy evidence because of
abuse. Lee (2018b) reviewed newspaper articles from 2014
a lack of knowledge about forensic nursing (Erkan et al.,
to 2016 that contained content indicating these situations
2017). Although the role of and need for forensic nursing
could lead to the victims' murders. Lee and Yoo stated that
is steadily expanding in South Korea, recognition of forensic
the role of media in South Korea, using the Civil Participa-
nursing as a speciality remains limited (Jeon & Lee, 2020).
tion in Criminal Trial Act, can have a major impact on public
Yoo et al. (2012) found that Korean nurses in the emergency
perceptions and judgments concerning IPF.
department frequently encountered patients who were seek-

▪
ing care who were victims of violence and accidents. These
Discussion nurses experienced difficulties providing legal nursing ser-
vices because of a lack of awareness and knowledge. Consid-
The murder of Korean women by intimate partners is not
ering that the rate of domestic violence victimization
new. Such events have existed for Korean women for a long
reporting is low in South Korea, there is a need to assess
time, and as public awareness increases, the need for re-
how nurses practicing in emergency rooms utilize social re-
search is also increasing. Current studies, however, remain
sources and the perspective they have for care of these vic-
focused on incidents and perpetrators even when female vic-
tims. This information is important because healthcare pro-
tims and their families had indelible injuries. This review is
viders play a major role in determining how victims respond
valuable in that it is the first attempt to analyze risk factors
to abuse. In addition, the findings from this review identify
of IPF in South Korea from a victim's point of view. On the
the need for education for victims, families, communities,
basis of this analysis, risk factors at four levels—individual,
and South Korean society. Expanding education regarding
relationship, community, and societal—can inform us re-
forensic nursing may reduce intimate partner violence and
garding what needs to be done and what needs to be studied
prevent IPF in South Korea. Summarily, more expanded
in the future. To date, research regarding victims and perpe-
and updated forensic education for students and emergency
trators from a healthcare perspective has not been explored;
room nurses is needed in South Korea.

▪
the nursing profession is compelled to lead this agenda.
Nurses often witness social phenomena in which victims
and perpetrators need physical and mental health care. At Conclusion
the community level, educational programs designed to im- This study reviewed the context of IPF and factors that influ-
prove sensitivity to violence are needed, and at the societal ence IPF in South Korea basedon the ecological model. Find-
level, standardized official statistics concerning IPF in South ings indicate that, compared with the seriousness of IPF in
Korea require assessment and dissemination. These mea- South Korea, public awareness is relatively low in part be-
sures will provide an objective perspective of this social phe- cause of the influence of traditional Korean culture. In addi-
nomena and inform the research agenda. Policy allowing tion, there are several risk factors for each level—individual,
police to actively intervene for the prevention of IPF in South relationship, community, and societal—that influence IPF in
Korea is needed. In this era of globalization, a standardized South Korea. Factors at the societal level, such as patriarchal
definition of femicide is warranted to facilitate collaboration family structure, Confucian culture that emphasizes the role
between researchers and clinicians toward assessment using of family, traditional Korean women's roles, passive police
more accurate information. officers, and how laws and the media are supportive of
This integrative review of the literature has several limi- men, had a substantive influence on the other factors. How-
tations. Eight of the selected articles were written by Koreans ever, studies identified in this review approach the problem
and published in a Korean academic journal. The process of primarily from the individual and relationship levels. There

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 Review Article

have been no previous studies about IPF in South Korea Lee,J.,&Yoo,Y.(2018).Theinfluenceoffemicidereportsonpublic

from a healthcare perspective. This indicates the need for perceptions of crime and punishment. The Korean Criminal
Psychology Review, 14(3), 103–118.
more research to identify female victims' and their surviving
Lee, M. (2018a). A study on the police intervention against gender
family members' direct or indirect healthcare needs, deter- violence: Focused on intimate femicide–suicide. The Korean
mine protective factors, and promote the health of women Association of Police Science Review, 20(6), 219–248.
outside a male-centric perspective.

▪
Matias, A., Gonçalves, M., Soeiro, C., & Matos, M. (2020). Intimate
partner homicide: A meta-analysis of risk factors. Aggression
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