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THE BASICS/CORE OF WAVE

PREFACE
 These book has been complied to ease
students understanding on the topic
wave.
 This book contains some exercises
which will test the student understanding
to see if he/she has understood the
various concepts

1
 ACKNOWELEGDEMENTS
We are indebted to our LECTURAL who
encouraged us(students of electrical
power system(EPS) to make a good
summary which will ease students
understanding ;there by driving away the
fear of these concept.

AUTHOR
N.C TITA JOSHUA
T-BLACK ARNOLDE FIONA
EMMA KIMBI
BOJOH TAMBA KAMGA
NOEL MARIUS

WAVES .......................................................................................................................................... 5

WAVE CHARACTERISTIC: ..................................................................................................... 6

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITION .......................................................................................... 6

2
PROPERTIES OF WAVE ........................................................................................................... 7

TYPES OF WAVES ..................................................................................................................... 8

 BASED ON THEIR MEDIUM .......................................................................................... 8

 BASED ON THEIR MODE OF PROPAGATION ......................................................... 8

A) TRANSVERSE.................................................................................................................... 8

B) LONGITUDINAL; ............................................................................................................. 8

 BASED ON ENERGY TRANSFER.................................................................................. 9

I. PROGRESSIVE WAVE: ...................................................................................................... 9

PROGRESSIVE WAVE EQUATION: .................................................................................... 11

II. STANDING WAVES OR STATIONARY WAVE: ...................................................... 12

PROPERTIES OF WAVES ....................................................................................................... 17

A) REFLECTION .................................................................................................................. 17

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION ......................................... 18

B) REFRACTION.................................................................................................................. 19

WATER WAVES. ....................................................................................................................... 21

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT WAVES. ..................................................................................... 23

A) INTERFERENCE: ........................................................................................................... 23

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE. ................................................................................................. 24

GRAPHS OF DISPLACEMENT AGAINST TIME FOR INTERFERENCE. .................... 27

3
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION ............................................................................... 29

APPLICATION OF WAVES .................................................................................................... 31

PHASE DIFFERENCE OF A WAVE ...................................................................................... 33

PATH DIFFERENCE ................................................................................................................ 34

Relation between Phase Difference and Path Difference ............................................................................... 35

Difference between Path and Phase Difference ............................................................................................. 36

NODES AND ANTINODES ...................................................................................................... 37

SOUND WAVE ........................................................................................................................... 38

DOPPLER EFFECT ................................................................................................................... 39

LIGHT WAVE ............................................................................................................................ 42

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT WAVES......................................................................................... 42

THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT DETERMINES ITS COLOR. ....................................... 43

ALL VISIBLE LIGHT HAS WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN 400 AND 700

NANOMETERS .......................................................................................................................... 43

REVISION QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 44

4
Introduction
WAVES
A wave is a transfer of energy through a medium from one
point to another.They are alsoknown as Rhythmic
disturbances that carry energy without carrying matter.
Generally , a "wave" refers to a propagating disturbance that
carries energy through a medium without transferring the
medium itself, essentially a disturbance that travels through
space, oscillating periodically with a specific frequency
and wavelength, and can be categorized as either
mechanical (requiring a medium) or electromagnetic (can
travel through a vacuum) depending on its nature; key
properties of a wave include amplitude, frequency,
wavelength, and speed

Wavelenght

5
 WAVE CHARACTERISTIC:
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a wave from its
equilibrium position.
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive crests
or troughs of a wave.
Frequency: The number of waves passing a fixed point per
unit time.
Period: The time taken for one complete wavelength to
pass a fixed point.
Wave speed: The distance traveled by a wave per unit time,
calculated as (wavelength x frequency).

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITION

 Crest ; Region of maximum displacement of particles

in a transverse waves.
 Trough; Region of minimum displacement of particles
in a transverse waves

 Wave cycle ; one complete to and fro movement of a

wave

6
  Wave front; An imaginary line which joins the set of
particles that are in phase
 Nodes; Points of no displacement at all
 Antinodes; Points of maximum displacement.
 Pulse; Single non repeated disturbance

PROPERTIES OF WAVE
 Reflection: when a wave bounces off a surface.
 Refraction: when a wave changes direction upon
entering a new medium.
 Diffraction: when a wave bends around an obstacle.
 Interference: when two waves overlap, creating a
resultant wave with increased or decreased amplitude
There are only two properties which are used to judge
whether something is a wave or just streams of particles;
and they are
• Interference
• Diffraction

7
 TYPES OF WAVES
 BASED ON THEIR MEDIUM
a) Mechanical waves – need matter (or medium) to
transfer
energy
• A medium is the substance through which a wave can
travel. Ex. Air,water,strings, solids, liquids; gases
b) Electromagnetic Waves – do not need matter to
transfer
energy
• They do not need a medium, but they can go through
matter (medium), such as air, water, and glass.
Some examples of waves include; water waves, sound
waves, and radio waves.
BASED ON THEIR MODE OF
PROPAGATION
Waves come in two different forms;
a) TRANSVERSE ;Wave which moves the medium
perpendicular to the wave motion. Examples of
Transverse waves would be a vibrating guitar string
or electromagnetic waves
b) LONGITUDINAL; Wave, which moves the medium
parallel to the wave motion.
example of a Longitudinal wave would be a “Slinky”
wave that you push and pull.

8
Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave

BASED ON ENERGY TRANSFER

There are of two type;
– .Progressive wave

– Stationary Waves

i. PROGRESSIVE WAVE: A wave which travels from one

point to another point of the medium in the
same direction without change in its amplitude is
known as a progressive wave.
- Transverse - direction of oscillation is perpendicular to
direction of energy transfer.
- Longitudinal - oscillation is parallel to energy transfer

9
• Displacement - how far a point on the wave has moved
from the undisturbed position
• Amplitude — maximum magnitude of displacement
• Phase — measurement of the position of a certain point
along the wave cycle
phase difference in radians = for distance d apart
• Polarised waves oscillate in only one direction
- Polarisation can only happen for transverse waves
- A polarising filter only transmits waves in one plane
• Superposition occurs when two or more waves pass
through each other Or the displacements due to each wave
combine.
- Principle of superposition: “when two or more waves
cross, the resultant
displacement equals the vector sum of the individual
displacements”

Diagram of a progressive
wave
10
PROGRESSIVE WAVE EQUATION: An equation that gives
the displacement of a particle in a medium at
any point, at any instant of time is called a progressive
wave equation.
A sinusoidal wave is represented by the
equation,Y(x, t)=asin(kx − wt + ϕ)
Y(x, t)= Displacement of the particle
a=Amplitude of the wave
k=Angular wave number or propagation constant
w=angular frequency of wave
ϕ =initial phase angle
A progressive wave equation
1 𝑥
y = a sin(wt − kx) OR 𝑦 = asin 2𝜋 ( − )
𝑇 𝜆
Phase: The quantity(kx − wt + ϕ) is called phase of the
wave.
At x=0andt=0 , (kx − wt + ϕ)is called initial phase
angle.
Angular wave number: It is the change in phase with
respect to distance.
2π
It is given byK= and expressed in rad/metre.
λ
2π
Angular frequency: It is given by w= and expressed in
T
rad/second.
Speed of a travelling wave: Speed of a wave is given
by,V=fλ
When a wave enters from one medium to another, both
speed and wavelength change but

11
 the frequency remain unchanged.
Speed of a transverse wave on stretched string: It is given
T
by,v=√
U
Where T=Tension in the string and U=mass per unit
length of the string.

ii. STANDING WAVES OR STATIONARY WAVE: When two

waves of equal amplitude and wavelength
travelling along a line in opposite direction and
superimpose the resulting wave pattern is called a
stationary wave or standing wave.
• Stationary wave = “superposition of two progressive
waves with the same frequency/
wavelength”. Unlike progressive waves no energy is
transferred by a stationary wave.
- Stationary waves vibrating freely do not transfer any
energy to their surroundings
• Stationary waves on strings and pipes are similar:
• Stationary waves on strings and pipes are similar:
𝜆 3λ
- f0 :L = = 2f0 :L=λ 3f0 :cl= where L is a fixed length of
2 2
string or open pipe.
𝝀
- The distance between adjacent nodes is
𝟐
- A node is a point of zero displacement, an antinode a point
of maximum
displacement

12
• The longer/heavier/looser the string, the lower the
resonant frequency μ = mass per
unit length, T = tension

1 T
f0 = √
2L u

• When in phase the two progressive waves reinforce each

other to create a larger wave
•1/4 of a cycle later the waves have moved in opposite
directions so are now in
antiphase and cancel each other out
• After another 1/4of a cycle they are back in phase with
the same resultant as before, but
reversed.
The points of zero displacement remain in constant
positions throughout. Between these
points (nodes) the stationary wave oscillates.
• Phase difference:
- 0 / 2π if two particles are between adjacent nodes or
separated by an even number of nodes
- π if separated by an odd number of nodes
In a stationary wave all particles except those at the nodes
vibrate at the same frequency.
The amplitude varies from zero at nodes to maximum at
antinodes (whereas in a
progressive wave it would be the same for all particles).

13
Phase difference between two particles is nλ where n is the
number of nodes between
2πd
the particles - for a progressive wave phase difference=
λ
various method by which stationary wave are produced;
(i) Stationary waves are produced in the closed and
open pipe.
(ii) Stationary waves are produced in vibrating string.

Standing or Stationary Waves characteristics

• Same Amplitude
• Same frequency
• Opposite Directions
• Caused by both Constructive and Destructive
interference.
– Nodes – Destructive
– Antinodes – Constructive

14
Differences between stationary and progressive

Basic for Stationary Wave Progressive Wave

comparism

Energy transfer Energy is confined The transfer of

within the medium. energy from a
location to another
within the medium
takes place.
Molecular vibration Each particle of the Each particle of the
wave exhibits wave possesses
different vibration similar vibration at
at same instant of different instant of
time time.
Amplitude different The same
characteristic of
particles
Motion Not transferable Easily transferred
among the particles. among the particles.
Velocity at mean All particles have All particles have
position their own similar maximum
maximum velocity velocity.

15
Crests and trough The crests and The crests and
trough of the troughs of the
waveform appear waveform move in
and disappear at the the forward
initial position. direction.
Wavelength Double the distance The distance
present between 2 between point of
consecutive nodes similar phase at the
or anti-nodes similar time instant.

Similarities between transverse and longitudinal waves.

Both waves
i can be refracted
ii under go interference.
iii can be diffracted
iv can be reflected
v can be represented by 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠.

16
 PROPERTIES OF WAVES
a) REFLECTION
This is the change in the direction of the wave when it
meets an obstacle.
The speed and wavelength of the reflected wave is equal
to that of the incident wave.
Example of a reflected wave
Plane waves;
Plane waves meeting a plane reflector;

• LAW OF REFLECTION
– The angle of incidence
equals the angle of
reflection. θi = θr
• The incident and
reflected rays lie in the
same plane with the
normal.

17
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 When light crosses an interface into a medium with a
higher refractive index, the light will bend toward the
normal. Conversely, light traveling across an interface
from higher n to lower n will bend away from the
normal.
 At some angle, known as the critical angle, light
traveling from a medium with higher n to a medium
with lower n will be refracted at 90° (refracted along
the interface). If the light hits the interface at any angle
larger than this critical angle, it will not pass through
to the second medium at all. Instead, it will be reflected
back into the first medium, this is known as total
internal reflection.
 The critical angle can be found from Snell's law:
 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 90
 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛
 𝜃𝑐= sin−1 (𝑛2 )
1

18
 b) REFRACTION
This is the bending of waves travelling from one medium
to another.

Refraction at plane boundary.

Waves travel faster in a medium of high density and slowly
in a medium of low density.
when waves travel from a high density medium to a low
density medium, the wavelength and wave velocity
lowers while frequency remains constant. The refracted

waves bends towards the normal.eg waves travelling from

deep water to shallow water.

• Sudden change in direction of a wave as it changes speed.

19
When waves travel from a low density medium to a high
density medium, the wave length and wave velocity
increases, while frequency remains constant.eg waves
travelling from shallow to deep water .

20
 WATER WAVES.
When straight waves pass from deep to shallow water, their
wave length become shorter, frequency remains the same
and its velocity decreases; so the waves travel slowly in
shallow water.
Deep water is associated with high density while shallow
water is associated with low density.
Refraction of waves in water depends on the depth of
water.
Refractive index; Is the ratio of speed of waves in the first
medium to the speed of the waves in the second medium.
or
Is the ratio of the wave length of the wave in the first
medium to the wave length in the second medium.
Refractive index is denoted by letter,𝑛.
λ
Therefore 𝑛= 1
λ2

𝜆1=wavelength in medium one

𝜆2=wavelength in medium two

v1 =velocity in medium one

v1
OR 𝑛=
v2
v2 =velocity in medium
speed of light in the vacuum speed of light in the vacuum
Refractive index(n)=speed of light inthe medium speed of light inthe medium

21
 c) DIFFRACTIOn
Waves are able to bend around obstacles. This bending
of waves around corners is called diffraction. OR This is
the spreading of a wave disturbance into a region behind an
obstacle.
Factors that influence diffraction.
1. The size of the gap(opening)
2. wavelength of the waves
Long wavelength waves diffract more than short
wavelength waves.

As longer wavelengths diffract more than short

wavelengths, radio transmissions from ground stations are

22
more likely to be received than shorter wavelength TV
waves.

Characteristics of diffracted waves.

1. Frequency, wavelength and speed of the waves do not
change.
2. There is change in the pattern and direction of
propagation
3. The amplitude of the diffracted waves decrease and so
does its energy

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT WAVES.

Light waves undergo diffraction just like water and sound
waves, however, we don’t notice the diffraction of light in
everyday life because the wavelength of light is
exceedingly small that the effect is unobservable except
when light passes through very narrow openings.

a) INTERFERENCE:
This is the super imposition of two identical waves,
travelling in the same medium and in the same direction
to form a single wave with either a larger or smaller
amplitude.

23
As an example, consider the interference between two
identical harmonic
waves with different phase angles whose wave functions
are given by:
𝛹1 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝑤𝑡) 𝛹2 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝑤𝑡+𝜙)
The combined wave function is therefore:
𝛹𝑇 = 𝛹1 + 𝛹2
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝑤𝑡) + 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝑤𝑡+𝜙)
= ( 𝐴 +𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜙 )𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝑤𝑡)
where the sum of the complex amplitudes for the
interfering waves yields
the complex amplitude for the combined wave, and can be
found by adding
Conditions necessary for producing interference:
1. The two waves must have the same amplitude and the
same frequency
(must be from coherent source)
2. The distance between the sources must be very small.
3. The two waves must be travelling in the same direction
TYPES OF INTERFERENCE.
1. Constructive interference
2. Destructive interference
1. Constructive interference
Is a type of interference which occurs when two interfering
waves have a displacement in the same direction

24
or Is a type of interference which occurs when the two
interfering waves superpose in phase.
• Case one
When a crest of one wave meets a crest of another.

A TROUGH OF AMPLITUDE A RESULTANT TROUGH DURING

OF 6 cm CONSTURCTIVE INTERFERENCE

A TROUGH OF AMPLITUDE OF
6 cm

Conditions for constructive interference to occur

a. The two interfering waves must be moving in the same
direction
b. Crest of one wave must meet the crest of the other wave
or trough of one wave must meet the trough of the other
wave.

• Case two
When a trough of one wave meets the trough of another

25
A CREST OF AMPLITUDE
OF 4 CM

A RESULTANT TROUGH OF
AMPLITUDE OF 6 cm

NB. A TROUGH OF AMPLITUDE OF

6 cm
For light, a bright light is seen while for sound, a loud
sound is heard.
DESTRUCTIVE INTEFERENCE.
Is a type of interference which occurs when the two
interfering waves have a displacement in opposite
directions.
or
Is a kind of interference which occurs when two interfering
waves superpose out of phase.
Examples. Nations that train engineers shall always prevail
over those that train lawyers because no nation can sue its
way to greatness!
 Case one
When a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave.
i. crest and trough of different amplitudes.

26
 A CREST OF AMPLITUDE
OF 6 cm

A RESULTANT CREST OF
AMPLITUDE OF 6 cm
A CREST OF AMPLITUDE OF 6
cm

ii. crest and trough of same amplitude.

A CREST OF AMPLITUD
OF 4 cm
A TROUGH O
AMPLITUDE
OF 4 cm
NO DISPLACEMENT

GRAPHS OF DISPLACEMENT AGAINST TIME FOR

INTERFERENCE.
1. For two waves 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝒀𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒀𝟐 ,having
equal frequency and producing a displacement in the same
direction at the same time.

27
 Y2
Y
Displacement
Y
1
+

Time

•The resultant displacement is 𝑌 and is obtained by the

addition of the two separate displacements due to the two
waves.
•𝑌 is greater than the displacement due to each wave
acting alone. This kind of interference is called
constructive interference.

2. If the two interfering waves are of the same amplitude

and in antiphase, the resultant displacement is 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.This
is a complete destructive interference.

Y1
Displacement

Time
Y2
Resulting displacement

28
Here 𝑌1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒.
During destructive interference, the wave pulse cancels out
BUT the waves continue to travel with their original
amplitude.
3. If two waves of different amplitudes are in antiphase, the
resultant wave is the difference between the two waves and
is in the direction of the greater wave.
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of
the medium at any location is the sum of the displacements
of the individual waves at the same location.
The resultant displacement of the particles of the medium
is called Interference pattern
Interference pattern;
• When two wave trains cross each other, the effect at any
point is the sum of the individual wave displacements.
• lines of constructive interference are called anti-nodal
lines while lines of destructive interference are called nodal
lines.
• Interference pattern due to two wave sources placed
close together.

When the sources of the waves are placed close together,

the nodal and anti-nodal lines are spread widely apart and
the interference pattern are easy to be seen.
Applications of interference.
1. Blooming of lenses

29
2. interferometer
3. interference fringes.

Differences between constructive and destructive

interference.

constructive interference Destructive interference.

The interfering pulse have a Interfering pulse have a

displacement in the same displacement in opposite
direction direction

Crest of one waves meets Crest of one wave meets a

crest of another trough of another.

Displacement during Displacement during

interference is greater than interference is less than the
the displacement of the two displacement of the two
pulses before interference. pulses before interference.

When two wave pulse meet, When two waves pulse

they reinforce to form a meet, they cancel out but
pulse of greater amplitude the waves continue to travel
with their original
amplitude.

30
APPLICATION OF WAVES
Interference;
RADAR: Detects objects at a distance by sending out radio waves
and measuring the time taken for the reflected waves to return.
SONAR: Used in underwater navigation and detection by
sending out sound waves and analyzing the reflected signals
Reflective road signs: Enhance visibility of road markings at
night by reflecting light from headlights
Fiber optic cables: Transmit data using light signals that reflect
within the fiber's core

Refraction ;
Lenses:
The most common application, where different lens shapes are
designed to refract light rays to focus them on a specific point,
enabling magnification.
Vision correction:
Eyeglasses and contact lenses use refraction to correct refractive
errors in the human eye.
Optical instruments:
Binoculars, telescopes, and microscopes utilize lens systems
based on refraction to enhance image quality.

31
Cameras:
Camera lenses rely on refraction to focus light onto the image
sensor.
Diffraction;
Diffraction gratings:
These are specially designed surfaces with fine grooves that
diffract light into its constituent wavelengths, making them
crucial components in spectrometers used for chemical analysis.
X-ray diffraction (XRD):
By analyzing the diffraction pattern of X-rays interacting with a
crystal lattice, scientists can determine the arrangement of atoms
within a material.
Holography:
Diffraction is the fundamental principle behind creating 3D
images by recording the interference pattern of light waves
scattered from an object.
Optical communications:
Diffraction plays a role in designing optical fibers to efficiently
transmit light signals over long distances.
Radio wave transmission:

32
Diffraction allows radio waves to bend around obstacles,
enabling signal reception even when the transmitter is not in
direct line of sight.
Interference ;
1. Blooming of lenses
2. interferometer
3. interference fringes.

PHASE DIFFERENCE OF A WAVE

Waves cause particles to oscillate. When particles travel
back and forth, they go through phases ranging from 0° to
360°. Where 1800 denotes one period. The particles move
through phases in which the particle travels one
wavelength. In one period of time, a molecule traverses the
range of one wavelength. When particles move in such a
method that their displacement equals their wavelength,
they traverse through phases ranging from 0 to 3600.
The phase difference is the disparity in the phases of two
particles at any two moments where their location and
motion are the same.
The temporal period by which one wave leads or lags
another is defined as the phase difference of a sine wave. It
is important to emphasize that phase difference is a relative
attribute of two or more waves, not just one.

33
The phase discrepancy is the “Phase offset” or “Phase
angle.” The phase difference is represented by the Greek
letter Phi, which is represented as to ɸ.

PATH DIFFERENCE
The route difference between any two waveforms is the
distance they traverse. It is the difference in distance
between the source and the observer. The

34
path difference is often used to determine both constructive
and destructive wave interference.
 Constructive interference is achieved when the path
difference is equal to nλ
 Destructive interference is observed when the path
difference equals (n + ½)λ
 In this instance, the variable n represents an integer
value, such as 0, 1, 2, 3

RELATION BETWEEN PHASE DIFFERENCE AND PATH

DIFFERENCE

For any two waves of the same frequency, the phase

difference and path difference are connected as-.

35
Phase Difference = (2π * path difference)/wavelength
The SI unit of path difference and phase difference is one
since neither has a SI unit. The path difference is the
cumulative number of waves in a phase, whereas the phase
difference is given in terms of radians between any two
successive places.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PATH AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

Path difference is the variation in the paths taken by the two
waves, expressed in terms of the wavelength of the
associated wave. It is directly related to phase difference.
The nature of the interference pattern is determined by
phase difference, whereas route difference determines
phase difference. Quantum mechanics is connected to
phase difference. If the path difference between two waves
is an integral multiple of the wavelength, the requirement
for constructive interference is met. In contrast, if the path
difference between two waves is an odd multiple of half
wavelength, the requirement for destructive interference is
satisfied.
While phase difference is the disparity between two wave’s
reference points, it is the amount by which one wave differs
from the other. For example, if one wave has zero
displacement at the origin and the other has some
displacement, there is a change, which would be their
phase difference. For example, the sine wave is nil at the

36
 π
center, but the coswave is 0 at . As a result , the phase
2
π
difference is . In actuality, the cos wave is simply a sine
2
wave that has been phase-shifted.
Conclusion
The difference in phase angles between two waves is called
phase difference. Path difference, from the other extreme,
is defined as the difference between two wave’s paths. I
hope you got the relationship and conversion between the
wave’s Phase Difference and Path Difference.
NODES AND ANTINODES

 Nodes and Antinodes are used to help describe and

understand waves.
 A “node” is where waves meet and cause zero
displacement of the medium.
 No displacement
 An “antinode” is where waves meet and cause the largest
displacement of the medium.
 Anti no displacement

37
SOUND WAVE
A sound wave is a disturbance that travels through a
medium, such as air, water, or solid, causing particles to
vibrate. Sound waves are longitudinal waves, which means
that the particles vibrate in the same direction as the wave.
How sound waves are created
Sound waves are created when objects vibrate, such as
when a cell phone rings.
The vibrations disturb the particles in the surrounding
medium, which then disturb other particles.
This creates a wave pattern that carries the sound energy
away from the source
Properties of sound waves
Amplitude: How loud the sound is
Frequency: The pitch of the sound
Speed: The speed of sound depends on the medium it's
traveling through

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Peak
The peak is the highest point in the wave. Sort of the
loudest moment in a wave. Sound engineers often say that
something is “peaking” or “clipping”. It means that the
sound of the recording is trying to go beyond the loudness
limit. You can see it on your meters; they will go red.
RMS
RMS or root mean square is an average amplitude of sound
waves. So, when you listen to a song on YouTube, your
ears, and your head, do a little compression to the sound.
They soften loud sounds a bit and protect your hearing.

DOPPLER EFFECT or Doppler shift is a phenomenon that is

observed whenever the source of waves is moving with
respect to an observer. For example, an ambulance crossing
you with its siren blaring is a common physical
demonstration of the Doppler Effect. In this article, let us
understand the intricacies of the Doppler effect in detail.
Doppler effect in physics is defined as the increase (or
decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves

39
 as the source and observer move towards (or away from)
each other

Apparent change in frequency

When source is When source is When source
in motion and at rest and and observer
observer at rest observer in both are in
motion motion

 when source  If source

moving  when and
towards observer observer
observer moving both move
towards away from
source each
other.

v
v1 = 𝑓𝑜 ( ) v − v0
v − vs v3 = ( )𝑓
v + v0 v − vs 𝑜
v2 = ( ) 𝑓0
v
 when  when
source observer  f source
moving moving and
away from away from observer
observer source and both move

40
 towards
v − v0 each other.
v2′ =( ) 𝑓𝑜
v ′
v + v0
v v3 = ( )𝑓
v1 = 𝑓𝑜 ( ) v − vs 𝑜
v + vs

V = velocity of sound v0 =velocity of

VS = velocity of observer
source
𝑓𝑜 =source frequency.

For example, if you are in a dance club, the music won’t

sound as loud after a while. It can still hurt your hearing,
though. Earplugs are the answer. You can describe the
RMS as “what your ears hear”. Not a mathematical
representation of sounds, but human. Remember that our
ears can pick up the softest sound and the loudest bangs.
All that is mechanical action and our “defence systems”
help to make sense of all these crazy sounds around us
Stationary Waves in an Organ Pipe :
In the open organ pipe all the harmonics are produced.
In an open organ pipe, the fundamental frequency or first
v
harmonic is ,⋂0 =
2L
where v is velocity of sound and l is the length

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 λ λ
L= L=
2 4

2λ 3λ
L= L=
2 2
3λ 4
L=
2 3
L = 5λ
4
LIGHT WAVE
Light waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that
travels as transverse waves. They are made up of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT WAVES

Light waves travel at a speed of 3.00 × 10^8 m/s in a
vacuum.
Light waves do not require a medium to pass through,
unlike sound waves.
Light waves are made up of discrete packets of energy
called photons.

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Light waves are measured in nanometers (billionths of a
meter).

THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT DETERMINES ITS COLOR.

ALL VISIBLE LIGHT HAS WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN 400 AND

700 NANOMETERS
the young double slit can be used to determine
superposition in light and wavelength of light source used
.A monochromatic light(light of single wavelength) is
placed behind a sheet with two slit placed in it .with a
distance “a” .the two coherent wave produced by the slit
overlap and superpose creating bright (maxima) and dark
(minima) fringes on the screen .The distance between two
maxima is “x” and the distance between the double slit and
the screen is “d”. The equation is given below.
ax
λ=
d
this is equation is used to determine the wavelength of light
used.
the wavelength can also be determine using a diffraction
grating
a diffraction grating is a material with many line opaque in
to it.

43
 light is able to pass through the transparent slit with
scratches in between it and produces an interference pattern
with bright and dark maxima and minima.
the number of slit is always given in per cm and it is
converted in to d which is in meter,between each slit.
the order of maxima is refered to as n and θ is the angle
between the slits.
𝑑 sin 𝜃
λ=
∩
REVISION QUESTIONS

1) what is the velocity of a wave that has a frequency

of 250hz and a wavelength of 1.5m?
2) Will the speed of a wave change if the amplitude is
increased?
the speed doesn’t change.
3) what is the velocity of a wave that has a frequency
of 100hz and a wavelength of 2.0m?
4) use the below diagram to answer these question
 what is the wavelength of the blue wave?
 what is the amplitude of the red wave?
 what is the amplitude of the blue wave?

44
 if this is a snapshot of how far each wave traveled in
1 second, what is the frequency of the red wave?

5) what is the speed of a radio wave that has

wavelength of 1,396m and a frequency of 214hz

6) How many nodes and antinodes does the wave

below have?

45
 7) A wave has a wavelength of 12 meters and a
frequency of 10 hz. what is its velocity?
8) a wave of wavelength 2 m travels 60 m in 12
seconds.
(a) what is the speed of the wave?
(b) how many waves would be produced in 12 seconds?
(c) what is the frequency of the wave?
what is a wave ?
9) define the following “terms”
amplitude
frequency
wavelength
period
10) the speed of a wave in a certain medium is 960
m/sec. if 3600 waves pass over a certain point of the
medium in 1 minute, the wavelength is
11) a simple harmonic progressive wave is
represented by the equation y = 8 sin 2  (0.1x – 2t)
where x and y are in cm and t is in seconds. at any

46
 instant the phase difference between two particles
separated by 2.0 cm in the x-direction .
12) the frequency of sound wave is n and its velocity
is v if the frequency is increased to 4n the velocity
of the wave will be
wave velocity does not depends on the frequency. it
depends upon the elasticity and inertia of the medium.

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