Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-023-00196-z

WOOD STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (A KOUBAA, SECTION EDITOR)

Wood Building Construction: Trends and Opportunities in Structural

and Envelope Systems
Pierre Blanchet1 · Cédric Perez1 · Matheus Roberto Cabral1

Accepted: 3 August 2023 / Published online: 6 December 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Abstract
Purpose of Review The main goal of this study was to review the latest developments in the use of wood-based building
materials and systems over the last 5 years. The methodology was carried out by using the systematic review procedure. This
study considered only peer-reviewed articles written in English published over the last 5 years (2018 to 2022) on materials
used in structural systems and building envelopes.
Recent Findings The energy demand for cooling and heating represents from 40 to 60% of a building’s energy consump-
tion depending on the energy mix. Every increase in energy efficiency increases the pressure on the energy embedded in
the materials. In this context, bio-based and especially wood-based materials are gaining popularity. Their use is significant
in structural and envelope systems, making them a powerful tool for working on both efficiency and embedded energy.
Furthermore, the building construction industry is among the most significant in the economy of industrialized countries.
Summary Forests are a carbon asset for our societies. Since buildings have been identified as a global warming mitigation
tool, an increase in the use of wood and bio-based products should be considered. To support a better scientific understand-
ing of building carbon sequestration under climate changes, a thorough understanding of structural and envelope systems is
needed. Various materials are used in these complex systems, and a variety of assembly options are available. In structural
systems, research has tended to be incremental over the last 5 years, with a focus on prefabrication and hybrid structures.
As new designs and materials are introduced in the future, building physics principles will become increasingly important
to ensure the quality of building envelopes. This review presents the latest research related to wood structural and envelope
systems to support their use in the construction industry.

Keywords Structural system · Building envelope · Wood construction · Innovations · Bio-based materials · Construction
materials · Connectors · Building physics

Introduction quality of this resource is also affected by climatic variations

and forest disturbances [2]. Nevertheless, these construction
Demand for bio-based materials in the construction industry materials are beneficial in the current climate crisis. Differ-
is on the rise, leading to an impact on our forests and their ent strategies such as sustainable forest management [3],
management. Forest management tends to gradually harvest characterization of fibers [2], and circular economy [4] are
natural and semi-natural forests (selection, shelterwood, and can be implemented to improve interactions between our
and clearcut) towards industrial plantations which harvest societies and forest resources.
younger and younger trees for building industry [1]. The The low environmental impact of these materials has
been drawing the attention of building designers [5]. Glob-
ally, according to the International Energy Agency, buildings
* Pierre Blanchet are responsible for 40% of greenhouse gas emissions around
[email protected] the world [6]. The United Nations Environment Programme
1
Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Natural Sciences (UNEP) has identified buildings as a tool to tackle climate
and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) change [7]. One of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals
Industrial Research Chair on Eco‑Responsible Wood proclaimed by the United Nations is to create sustainable
Construction, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, cities and communities, specifically by transforming cities
Canada

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22 Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38

into climate-resilient, safe, healthy, and livable environ- Three different searches were conducted to find infor-
ments for residents [8]. Moreover, high-performance build- mation related to structural systems and connectors, each
ing construction is expected to become a business-as-usual using a different set of keywords. The first search, using
technology by 2050, with costs below USD20 ­tCO2−1 in the keywords “wood,” “structural engineering,” and
developed countries and below USD100 t­ CO2−1 in develop- “building structures,” resulted in 695 documents. The sec-
ing countries [9]. ond search used the keywords “wood,” “structural engi-
In the building construction industry, materials, and their neering,” and “building systems” or “innovative systems,”
roles in different building systems are the main contributors resulting in 1516 documents. The third and final search
to innovation. Properly developed building materials can used the keywords “wood,” “structural engineering,” and
bring about new functions, more efficient on-site practices “assemblies” or “connectors” and yielded 1024 docu-
and improved performances including environmental per- ments. After removing duplicates, a total of 966 journal
formances. In addition, materials in buildings are generally articles were identified.
associated with their main building system. In the present A two-stage analysis was conducted based on impact
review, two such systems were considered: the structural factor and topics to select the most relevant articles. In
system and the building envelope, which together encom- the first stage, analysis was limited to Q1- and Q2-class
pass most of the materials used in a building other than its journals, which are the top-ranked journals in their
foundations. Usually, the structural system must follow the respective fields according to their impact factor. This
code-and-standard pathway to market, whereas the build- constraint reduced the number of journals from 311 to
ing envelope may follow different pathways. The code-and- 237. In the second stage, articles were retrieved based
standard pathway involves significant delays, as codes and on 23 specific topics (i.e., architecture, building and
standards are usually authorized by a national body and not construction, civil and structural engineering, com-
annually reviewed. Most construction codes are updated puter graphics and computer-aided design, computer
every 5 years, which sets the pace for structural product science applications, control and optimization, control
development. Developments in structural materials tend to and systems engineering, ecology, evolution, behavior
be more incremental due to this context. and systematics, engineering, environmental science,
The materials used in building envelopes lend themselves forestry, industrial and manufacturing engineering,
to major innovation, as some building envelopes utilize industrial relations, instrumentation, materials science,
products that did not even exist 5 years ago. Furthermore, mechanical engineering, mechanics of materials, metals
the envelope is a complex system that affects a building’s and alloys, modeling and simulation, pollution, surfaces
physical performance. This duality is an important element and interfaces, transportation, urban studies, and water
of this review. In order to capture the novel aspects of this science and technology). This constraint narrowed down
system, this review examines envelope innovation and how the number of journals to 108, yielding a total of 486
it could impact wood construction. articles. After reviewing the titles and abstracts of these
This review presents the latest developments in wood- articles, 136 articles were selected for further review.
based building materials and systems over the last 5 years. Finally, after more comprehensive reading, the selection
This period was selected to identify the most recent innova- was narrowed to 48 articles.
tions in research. In the initial search for envelopes, using the keywords
“buildings” and “envelopes” or “systems,” over 29000
documents were found. To narrow these results, a sec-
Search Methodology ond search was conducted using the supplementary key-
words “materials” or “building materials,” resulting in
This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of almost 4000 documents. To further refine the search, a
the latest advancements in the utilization of wood-based third search was conducted using the keywords “wood”
building materials and systems, specifically connectors or “bio-based,” which yielded 271 relevant documents.
and building envelopes, from 2018 to 2022. The review To ensure that only relevant documents were included in
covers only peer-reviewed articles published in English the review, controlled vocabulary was applied to eliminate
until July 10, 2022, to ensure an up-to-date and accurate documents pertaining to materials such as brick, reinforced
overview of the topic. To conduct the search, methodol- concrete, and steel outside of a wooden construction con-
ogy proposed in previous studies [10, 11] was followed, text. After applying these filters, 117 eligible documents
which involved searching five databases (Compendex, were identified, and duplicates were removed. As a result,
Inspec, GEOBASE, GeoRef, and Knovel) via the Engi- 107 publications remained for review. In the end, a total
neering Village platform. of 96 relevant documents (48 on n structures and 48 on r
envelopes) were included in this review. The documents also

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enrich the literature review by providing context and support Use of Timber in Tall Multi-Storey Buildings [15] provide
for other related documents. useful information for designers and engineers. Therefore,
the following sections of this document provide an over-
view of the three types of connections used in major wood
Review building systems: (1) wood-frame, (2) mass timber, and
(3) hybrid. In addition, several innovations in building and
Building Systems, Connectors, and Assemblies connectors outside of these systems will subsequently be
presented.
Wood’s natural carbon storage properties make it an attrac-
tive choice for building designers and politicians alike. Wood Frame Building Connections
There has been growing interest in alternative construc-
tion solutions that are more efficient and less damaging Wood frame construction is a popular choice for buildings
to the environment. Such solutions can be applied at the across many cultures worldwide, with a significant presence
urban level, through densification of areas where multi- in various regions. In North America, wood frame struc-
story buildings are constructed, or at the material level, tures comprise 90% of single-family homes, while in certain
with wood products and their derivatives replacing exist- parts of Europe, they account for 45–70% of constructions.
ing carbon-producing materials (e.g., steel and concrete) In Japan, 45% of all constructed buildings are wood frame
[12, 13]. As technologies continue to develop in the wood structures. This type of construction was modernized with
industry, construction systems and products derived from the emergence of new construction systems such as factory
wood continue to emerge. prefabrication, modular construction, greater reliance on
Construction techniques have evolved from raw wood glued laminated timber (GLT), and prefabricated panels
framing elements (half-timber, balloon, and platform (made of oriented strand board [OSB], wood fiberboard,
framing) to prefabricated construction elements, walls plywood, etc.) [16]. Wood frame construction involves nail-
(light timber), solid wood walls (mass timber), floors and ing bracing panels (shear walls) to studs at close intervals.
roofs (linear, composite wood, mass timber), and concrete- Should an earthquake occur, energy is dissipated by the nails
wood hybrid elements. Currently, innovation in construc- bending and pulling and by crushing/shearing around the
tive systems is mainly oriented toward structural and con- nails [17]. This type of fastening system has been found to
necting elements. However, such innovations must meet absorb a limited amount of energy [18]. However, it is pos-
building code requirements. The massive industrialization sible to increase the energy-dissipating capacity of bracing
of construction systems has made it possible to set up effi- systems by adding supplemental dampers [19]. Wakashima
cient prefabrication in workshops and has thereby made its et al. [20, 21] proposed three new friction-based connectors
way into all new construction systems. Going forward, it for dissipating energy in light timber structures. The first
will be the design, manufacturing, transport, and assembly connector involves thick plywood sandwiched between two
technologies that determine the advantages of workshop studs (wood-plywood-wood [WPW]) and attached with three
prefabrication. lag screws. Friction between the surfaces of the plywood
Since the Industrial Revolution, traditional wood-wood and studs was used to dissipate energy. The second connec-
assemblies (mortise and tenon, recessed, halving, and tor used a compressed wood block with a steel plate insert
dowel joints) have been replaced by steel fasteners (nails, (WSW2—2 for compressed wood). As with the first connec-
screws, bolts, dowels, etc.) or adhesives. In construction, tor, energy was dissipated by friction between the surfaces of
these fixings or assemblies are used to perform different the steel plate and the wooden uprights. The third connector
functions, either increasing the length of elements (frames, was similar to the second, but used a plywood board in place
trusses) to cover a larger span or increasing the width of of the compressed wood blocks. All three connectors dem-
elements to cover a larger surface (walls, floor). Connec- onstrated good dissipation capacity, but the WPW connector
tors, in contrast, serve a slightly different function than showed considerable degradation in resistance over time. It
assemblies, namely connecting structural elements to one is important to note that these connectors showed minimal
another. Both assemblies and connectors are designed to damage, which is a desirable characteristic in resilience-
transmit loads from one element to another. These are based design and to support wood’s carbon storage over an
critical to increasing the amount of wood-based structural extended period.
products in a building. In order to optimize their design, Due to current logistical constraints at the transport and
designers and engineers must understand the general lifting systems level, prefabrication of wood frame systems
behavior of different types of assemblies or connectors. is increasingly being used not only to manufacture structural
Guides such as the Technical Guide for the Design and elements but also to finish modules. Prefabrication offers
Construction of Tall Wood Buildings in Canada [14] and

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numerous advantages [22]: better ergonomics for workers, used to construct high-rise buildings [28–31]. The CLT
good control of supplies, better product quality, less waste, technique was first introduced in 1947 by Pierre Gauthier, a
rapid on-site assembly, and fewer urban disturbances. How- French engineer, and the CLT panel began to be produced
ever, it remains greatly underutilized since inter-modular more industrially in the 1990s. It consists of several layers of
locking systems that are simple and quick to use have not yet board stacked transversely at 90° angles and glued together
become widely available in wood construction. In fact, most [32] and has a large carbon storage potential due to its mass
inter-modular locking systems are either time-consuming design. The CLT does not address the problem of prevent-
to use as they require on-site assembly or more suitable for ing energy from dissipating during earthquakes, but other
steel or concrete construction [23–27]. Picard et al. [22] pre- solutions can be found.
sented a connector option for wood frame modular build- Both the National Building Code of Canada (NBC)
ings (Fig. 1). The connector consists of two serrated parts [33] and the International Building Code (IBC) [34] cur-
(modules): a male shaft and a female projection (frame) with rently contain guidelines for mass timber construction and
serrated clamps. When the projection enters the shaft, its promote the use of platform framing type construction. A
serrated clamps interlock with the serrations in the shaft particularity of this latter technique is that it uses a large
using a mechanical trigger. The device is set up directly in number of panels, which resulting in a large number of
the factory, which makes it possible to align the modules connections between the panels and the floor. The hold-
with each other, and an audible sound is emitted when the down deformation of the connectors and stresses running
trigger lock the system. Its geometry facilitates continuous perpendicular to the grain of the floor accumulate at each
contact between the upper and lower modules and allows level of the building. Balloon-type shear wall systems
all loads to be transmitted. Additionally, the system is fit- make it possible to use fewer hold-down connections in the
ted with a release device that allows it to be dismantled and building and avoid compressive stresses at the floor level
resilient. Such connectors are a key innovation to support [35–37]. According to Shahnewaz et al. [35], balloon-type
construction’s industrialization which in North America and wall systems comply with the design requirements set out
Europe is mostly in wood. in the Canadian Standards Association standard CSA O86
[38], but there has been limited research on the seismic
Mass Timber (CLT) Building Connections performance of balloon-type CLT construction.
When an earthquake occurs, all energy should ideally dis-
It is also difficult for mass timber structures to disperse sipate at the connector level, with the structural elements
energy in the event of an earthquake in order to prevent remaining intact [39]. As a result, a large number of energy
them from collapsing. A mass timber structure, and more sinks exist: viscous fluid dampers, viscoelastic solid damp-
specifically one of cross laminated timber (CLT), can be ers, metallic dampers, and friction dampers [19]. Tanner
et al. [37] discussed the current state of connectivity for
mass timber shear walls. They presented solutions developed
in the previous 10 years and concluded that the self-tapping
screw (STS) connection is the most effective in mass timber
construction [40]. However, three other equally recent hold-
down solutions should also be considered: internal hollow
steel tubes (Fig. 2a) [39], coupled U-shaped flexural plate
connectors (Fig. 2b) [41], and hyperelastic pads with inter-
nal steel rods (Fig. 2c) [42]. The internal hollow steel tubes
solution consists of inserting a hollow steel tube into CLT
panels. It is a promising solution, as only the connection
mechanism was damaged during testing. The hyperelastic
pads with internal steel rods solution consists of a hyperelas-
tic elastomer (rubber) layer sandwiched between two steel
plates that are fixed inside the CLT panel using steel rods.
The connector deforms only at the level of the rubber, while
the steel and CLT parts remain intact. The coupled U-shaped
flexural plate connector solution proposed by Lu et al. [41] is
based on the principle of resilient structure [43]. It consists
of a U-shaped flexural plate (UFP), a middle plate, a steel
Fig. 1  Schematic view of 3D model of connector proposed by Picard plate saddle, and a base. Like the other two hold-down solu-
et al. [22] a before connection and b after connection tions presented, it has a high energy-dissipation capacity.

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Fig. 2  Steel connection schematics: a internal hollow steel tubes inspired by [39], b coupled U-shaped flexural plate connector inspired by [41],
and c hyperelastic pads with internal steel rods [42]

It is easy to install and replace, which is not the case with better sound insulation [51, 52]. TCC has one disadvantage:
all connectors. Having proper connecting strategies is criti- there is only a partial shear connection between the two
cal for increasing the use of wood-based CLT in mid- and materials due to a high risk of slippage at their interface. The
high-rise buildings and leveraging its high carbon storage shear connection for steel-concrete composite elements is
potential. considered infinite because there is little displacement. How-
ever, the sliding effect at the wood-concrete interface must
Hybrid Building Connections be taken into account in an element’s structural response
[53].
Hybrid building systems are designed to combine the To overcome this problem, several types of connectors
benefits of two different materials such as mass timber have been developed, such as discrete connectors (metal
elements like CLT or glulam, and traditional construction clips, steel studs, etc.) [54, 55] and continuous connectors
materials like steel and concrete [44]. Effective connec- (bonded steel plates, notches cut in wood and filled with
tions are crucial for such systems to take advantage of concrete, etc.) [56–58].
the properties of both materials, joining and coupling the Daňková et al. [59] and Estévez-Cimadevila et al. [60]
two different structural elements together. This approach, proposed use of a continuous engineered wood connec-
called collaborative materials, allows for the minimi- tor instead of a steel plate to connect timber and concrete.
zation of material use in the structural system. In fact, Daňková et al. [59] took inspiration from the HBV system
hybrid structures, such as half-timbered buildings with (Fig. 3a), which involves using a steel connector with holes
spaces filled with masonry or soil, have existed for a long in it, gluing part of it in a slot made in the wood and embed-
time [45]. Wood serves as the load-bearing structure and ding the other part in the concrete. Replacing the steel plate
enhances seismic performance. As a result of advances with engineered wood, they demonstrated that this innova-
in materials, high-rise construction, passive construction, tive connection system is more ductile than the HBV sys-
and even sound insulation, hybrid construction is on the tem and its behavior is reproducible. Their comparison was
rise [46]. One example of this trend is the utilization of restricted by the limitations of the various tests performed.
new and more efficient hybridized structural elements, It is important to note that gluing in a slot causes unwanted
such as timber-concrete composites (TCC) and wood-steel slippage, which reduces the effectiveness of the solution.
constructions. To increase durability, Estévez-Cimadevila et al. [60],
TCCs first appeared at the beginning of the twentieth avoided use of structural adhesives. They proposed instead
century [47] and are mainly used for bridges [48], floors an innovative system using perforated plywood boards
[49], and vertical panels [50]. While wood provides tensile through which the poured concrete forms a stiff, strong
strength, lightness, and ecological benefits, concrete pro- and ductile mechanical connection (Fig. 3b). This system
vides increased rigidity, improved vibration behavior and can be adapted for different elements: floors, beams, or

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Fig. 3  Use of continuous engineered wood connector instead of steel plate in TCC structure: a HBV system with plywood connector [59] and b
innovative system using perforated plywood boards [60]

columns. A variety of tests were carried out, including

shear testing to check the timber-concrete connection and
delamination testing and shear testing along the bonding
line to verify the glued wood-wood and wood-plywood
planes. The three types of tests showed that the system is
highly rigid and takes advantage of the composite effect
while maintaining good ductility. No failure was noted
in the bonding line, and the integrity of the bonds was
maintained. Additionally, they conducted a real case study
that showed this system is more efficient to implement
than solid or ribbed reinforced concrete slabs with a much
lower self-weight.
Fig. 4  Bend test for the double T floor module [61].
In wood-steel constructions, technological advance-
ments in wood products have enabled development of
new construction materials and large elements including
GLT, dowel laminated timber (DLT), and nail laminated to a plate inserted in the CLT on an epoxy base, which
timber (NLT). Combining wood and steel offers several ensures horizontal transmission. The results indicate
advantages, such as increased tensile strength due to that the floor can sustain substantial deflections without
steel’s ductility, a higher strength-to-weight ratio range, encountering premature failure in its elements or shear
and easier installation than wood-concrete composite [61]. connectors. In addition, the module can withstand a load
The steel in a steel-timber composite (STC) system pro- of up to 3.8 times its design load at the ultimate limit
vides longer spans and increased space use [62], and the state. This technique has great potential as a low-carbon
wood provides a lightweight, buckle-resistant [63], and alternative to traditional steel-concrete construction in the
fire-retardant coating [64]. STC solutions are available for building industry.
beam elements, floors, and walls. The main innovations in He et al. [69] proposed use of steel-timber hybrid
this area are CLT floors combined with steel beams [61, shear walls (STHSWs) as a structural system suitable
65] and post-tensioned (PT) composite steel-timber (CST) for medium- and high-rise timber buildings. The STH-
walls [66–68]. SWs system consists of a steel frame and a light frame
Owalabi and Loss [61] proposed a double-T floor mod- timber shear wall. Unfortunately, this technique has been
ule designed to be easily assembled and disassembled on proven to provide insufficient resistance during strong
site (Fig. 4). This module is composed of a 5-layer CLT earthquakes. While, addition of a special beam-to-col-
panel and two steel beams with U-shaped ends and an umn connection called a post-tensioned connection [70]
omega-shaped central part. The central part is connected can significantly improve its strength the steel frame’s
to the panel with STSs. The external parts are fastened lateral performance with this post-tensioned connection

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remains inadequate. Li et al. [68] proposed to introduce advancements in wooden building constructions and
a new structural subset: the self-centering STHSW connections, the next section will highlight other recent
(SC-STHSW). Experimental tests (cyclic testing of SC- innovations in this field.
STHSW in shear) confirmed that residual displacement
is effectively controlled, which makes the system more Innovations in Wood Buildings and Connectors
seismically resistant.
There are other innovative systems that combine a new As previously mentioned, with hybridization, it is possible
PT STC stiffened wall system, designed to resist vertical to take full advantage of simple construction systems and
loads, with CLT walls that are highly effective at absorbing material strengths while minimizing their weaknesses. The
lateral loads [67]. For instance, Chen et al. [66] used the capabilities of wood can also be exploited in other ways
pressed laminated timber (Pres-Lam) method introduced by through the hybridization of engineered woods [72]. Xu
Palermo et al. [71] to apply post-tensioning. In a study by et al. [73] tested seven different configurations of 3-layer
Chen et al. [66], the Pres-Lam wall consisted of a CLT wall hybrid CLT panels. They used outer layers of spruce, pine
with a fuse-type energy sink. They shear tested and com- and fir (SPF), and inner layers of birch, compressed wood,
pared a post-tensioned CLT wall to a Pres-Lam CLT wall laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel-strand lumber
with an energy dissipator. As expected, the post-stressed (PSL), plywood, oriented strand board (OSB), or glued
CLT wall exhibited bilinear elastic behavior with limited laminated bamboo (GLB). When bent, the cross-layers of
energy dissipation. The Pres-Lam CLT wall exhibited no the CLT showed very low shear strength in the direction per-
degradation in strength and almost bilinear elastoplastic pendicular to the fibers. The hybrid CLT panel—comprised
behavior with strong energy dissipation. of a composite laminated panel (CLP) with a GLB core—is
It is important to recall that wood-concrete and a promising material, due to its rolling shear properties that
wood-steel connection systems are a direct pathway are two times better than those of a classic CLT panel. Com-
to wider use of structural wood products in mid- and pressed wood offers an interesting advantage since rolling
high-rise building constructions. To further explore shear failure involves significant ductility. This feature can

Fig. 5  Manufacturing with CW dowels: a GLT [75] and b CLT [76, 77]

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avoid complete failure of the mid cross-layer before the outer utilizing wood-based connectors not only reduces a build-
cross-layers fail under bending. ing’s environmental impact but also aligns with the current
The manufacturing process of CLT involves use of a sig- shift towards bio-based and circular economies.
nificant amount of adhesive, which poses environmental Other innovative systems have been designed to take
disadvantages. In order to mitigate this issue, Namari et al. advantage of the strengths of wood products combined with
[74] proposed development of an engineered wood prod- the efficiency of concrete. Naud et al. [87] suggested use of
uct utilizing compressed wood (CW) dowels, eliminating high-performance concrete (HPC) or ultra-high-performance
the need for adhesives (Fig. 5). Other studies of products concrete (UHPC) to make a beam with a glued laminated
manufactured without adhesive are also emerging from this timber (GLT) base. Lamothe et al. [88], for their part, pro-
research (Fig. 5), including beams [75] and CLT panels [76, pose to use HPC or ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced
77]. Gamerro et al. [78] also used CW dowels to produce concrete (UHPFRC) to make a CLT-concrete composite
a floor system in which the steel fasteners were gradually floor. Combining CLT and UHPFRC makes it possible to
replaced with tenons. obtain a resistant, thin, and extremely light floor that is free
Several other techniques from different disciplines can of the reinforcements usually necessary for shear.
also be used to innovate wood construction systems. For
example, parametric optimization and multi-objective meth- Building Systems Summary
ods can revive some complex structures such as hyperboloid
structures, which offer high structural stability [79]. Hua In sum, the main innovations focus on the level of con-
et al. [80] demonstrated the effectiveness of parametric nection between structural elements. These connections
design in creating innovative structures. They utilized the are intended to be long-term and prevent the risk of dam-
reconfigurable modular timber grid (RMTG) technique to age in the event of an earthquake. Studies focus primarily
construct a rhombohedral lattice structure using three identi- on energy dissipation and resilience to prevent structural
cal modules. elements from being damaged. The coupled U-shaped
Robotics is also a field that in which innovation in or flexural plate connector [41] system is designed to be
revival of old/traditional wood joinery techniques. Com- able to be changed out after an earthquake.
puter numerical control machines and industrial robots Currently, innovations are driven by the desire to mini-
make it possible to automate constructive system manufac- mize a structure’s carbon footprint. Hybrid structures have
turing processes, resulting in the development of integrally a place in construction because they can combine the ben-
attached timber plate structures (IATPSs) [80]. IATPSs efits of each material while reducing their environmental
combine modern engineered wood panels with traditional impact. However, it is important to note that they can be
manually fabricated wood joints [81]. Robots can also be subject to stress induced by differences in deformation
used for more noble purposes. Kunic et al. [82] propose between the materials. Some examples include shear slid-
to use robots by following an additive logic based on the ing in wood-concrete building systems [53], increased
layered assembly of reusable elements connected to each local stresses in wood-steel assemblies and connections
other in an automated way (using bolts). The industrial [83], and decreased lateral resistance in timber-steel struc-
robot’s objective is to assemble and disassemble a struc- tures [69]. Steel subsystems are often designed to coun-
ture to reuse material in a variety of structural configura- teract steel’s various constraints, but it still has a nega-
tions and thereby extend its life cycle and increase the tive impact on the environment. Daňková et al. [59] and
carbon storage period accordingly. Estévez-Cimadevila et al. [60] suggest using connectors
With the industrialization of wood construction, steel made of engineered wood in wood-concrete structures to
connectors, and assemblies have become more and more avoid using steel as much as possible.
popular, reducing the need for traditional carpentry tech- Recent advances in wood construction emphasize reduc-
niques. However, using assembly elements with different ing the environmental impact and extending the life cycle
rigidities has been found to lead to stress concentrations of structural elements. Specific examples of this are the pre-
[83]. CW has been proven to improve the mechanical prop- fabrication of wooden modules [22] and the robotization of
erties of wood [74, 84] and is now used for dowels. It has construction systems [81, 82], which facilitate creation of
been demonstrated that connections made using this system systems that can be assembled and disassembled for reuse
can withstand 80% more bending loads than steel-wood con- or recycling. Despite this, most engineered woods rely on
nections [85]. This type of connection can be used both to petrochemicals, which negatively impact the life cycle of
enhance structural elements [40] and to assemble two dis- the material. New international programs, such as Adhe-
tinct elements of a building (beams and columns) [86]. In sive-Free Timber Buildings (AFTB), now propose using
fact, a wood-CW system has the major advantage of being old assembly techniques and new CW materials to create
recyclable at the end of a building’s life cycle. As a result, greener building systems with engineered wood beams and

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Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38 29

panels [74–77, 84–86]. Thus, the materials used in a build- airflow, and sound transfer. As a result, this system offers
ing's structure play a crucial role in increasing the use of immense potential for various innovative approaches.
wood-based materials, which can improve the environmental Recent literature on building envelopes for wood con-
impact of buildings in our societies. structions has largely focused on enhancing energy effi-
ciency, while also exploring use of new materials to improve
Building Envelope Materials hygrothermal performance. Furthermore, there has been
a growing interest in fire performance research, and new
Using innovative construction systems and more efficient envelope designs have also been a topic of study. Building
materials is one strategy to achieve sustainable buildings envelopes consist of various elements including the exterior
in the construction sector, especially for envelope systems. walls, roof, doors, windows, skylights, and walls and floors
Research has revealed that building with low-carbon-emit- in contact with the ground [95, 96]. Fig. 6a shows a sche-
ting materials such as wood is one possible way to reduce matic drawing of a typical wood frame envelope. Riahin-
carbon dioxide emissions [89] and increase the energy effi- ezhad et al. [98] recently revised several aspects of envelopes
ciency of structures [90, 91]. and stated that each material used to build an envelope sys-
Four alternative construction technologies (namely, wood, tem has a specific function. For example, cladding material
straw, hemp, and cork) have been analyzed by Göswein et al. protects against wind, water and snow. In addition, installing
[92] for new construction and renovation of European build- cladding away from a framed wall creates an air cavity that
ing stock until 2050. The results indicate that wood is the can potentially add a level of insulation, allowing ventilation
most promising of the four technologies in terms of space and protection of the inner layers of the building envelope
efficiency [92]. Alapieti et al. [93] argue that wood buildings (Fig. 6b). Wood structural elements and other bio-based
also have an added benefit in that wood is a restorative mate- envelope materials are susceptible to weathering, includ-
rial capable of balancing indoor moisture, preventing bacte- ing biotic (molds, fungi) and abiotic (water, solar radiation)
rial growth, and adding warmth to the atmosphere. Accord- degradation, especially if there is excess moisture within
ing to Pomponi et al. [94], materials are key to mitigating the building envelope [99–101]. To prevent water vapor and
buildings’ embodied emissions. Building envelopes are criti- air from passing through the wall, vapor and air barriers
cal components of wooden constructions since envelopes are added, which act as a protective shell for the building’s
provide physical separation between the interior and exterior wooden and bio-based elements [102, 103].
environments, and act as barriers against water, heat, light,

Fig. 6  Schematic drawing of wood-frame envelope: a envelope overview and materials and b cement cladding separated from the envelope to
create an air cavity [10, 97]

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30 Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38

The following sections provide an overview of three main is higher in highly insulated envelopes, where the cavity
topics related to building envelope: (1) hygrothermal perfor- temperature and relative humidity are even closer to the
mance, (2) fire safety, and (3) design modifications. levels outside than those in the walls [109]. According
to Jensen et al. [110], exterior insulation increased the
Hygrothermal Performance temperature in an unventilated roof cavity, but the mold
risk remained similar to that without external insulation.
In wood frame buildings, typical sources of heat loss include It seems that increasing the exterior thermal resistance (R
the walls (about 35%), doors (15%), windows (10%), floor value) may improve cavity conditions in highly insulated
(15%), and roof (25%) [96]. To deal with this challenge, a envelopes but finding the optimal ventilation rate remains
building envelope must be properly insulated to reduce heat challenging. Use of mold-resistant materials in the ven-
loss and decrease the building’s energy demand for heat- tilation cavity is therefore recommended to mitigate the
ing and cooling. Insulation materials can help to prevent possible ramifications of moisture in highly insulated
heat transfer through the walls. As these materials consist of envelopes. However, this may present a challenge when
numerous microscopic air cells, they traditionally suppress using wood fiber based insulation materials. Moisture can
heat transfer by blocking air movement [10]. From 1950 to also affect the thermal efficiency of building envelopes,
2000, the most common insulation materials were polysty- as the thermal properties are linked to the internal struc-
rene, polyurethane, polyester, polyethylene, phenolic, for- ture of materials such as porosity and pore distribution,
maldehyde, and melamine foam. However, since 2000, there and are sensitive to factors such as material moisture con-
has been a revival in using natural materials such as cel- tent, ambient temperature, and humidity [104, 111].
lulose, cork, straw bale, wood wool, and sheep wool [104]. In this context, studies have shown that the thermal
Apart from the insulation material, increasing the depth of conductivity capacity of insulators used in wooden build-
the stud cavity to accommodate thicker insulation and add- ings is significantly affected by their moisture content.
ing an exterior layer of insulation (while not changing the For instance, when the insulation’s humidity level is at
depth of the stud cavity) could also be avenues to improve 30%, there is an increase of up to 25.9% in its thermal
a building envelope’s insulation performance [105]. Girma conductivity capacity. However, at a humidity level of
and Tariku [106] investigated the thermal performance of 80%, the rate of increase in thermal conductivity can
different cavity depths (i.e., 19 mm, 51 mm, 102 mm and reach as high as 125.8% [112] [113]. To address this
152 mm) for a wood frame building located in Burnaby, issue, a breathable composite membrane have been
British Columbia, Canada. Their results showed that the developed using micro-fibrillated cellulose fibers and
temperature difference for the 19-mm cavity could be as polylactic acid, which has better thermal properties. The
high as 20 °C, while it was less than 12 °C for the others. prepared composites demonstrated improved water resist-
Moreover, the 51-mm cavity produced 5× more air flow and ance and breathability, making them highly suitable for
25% less heat gain than the 19-mm cavity, while the 152-mm use in wood building applications [103].
cavity produced 6.5× more air flow and 40% less heat gain. Advanced insulation materials such as transparent ther-
Adding an external layer of insulation is a viable solu- mal insulation, switchable thermal insulation, nano-cellular
tion to enhance the performance of the building envelope insulation, and vacuum, air-filled or gas-filled insulation
for wood frame buildings. Caron-Rousseau et al. [107] panels have emerged as possible solutions for wood build-
proposed the use of fully externally insulated assemblies ings. Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) represent an effec-
in cold and subarctic regions after evaluating the hygro- tive alternative to conventional building insulation materials
thermal performance advantages of such assemblies. as they have a high thermal resistance value [9]. VIPs can
Their results indicate that the performance of externally achieve thermal conductivity levels of less than 0.004 W/
insulated assemblies is comparable to a modern assem- (mK) and have a high life expectancy—up to 50 years [114].
bly largely considered to be energy efficient. They also A complete wood frame building retrofit using VIPs was
found that externally insulated assemblies reduced the tested in Fort Drum, NY (USA) [115]. Two buildings of
thermal bridging associated with structural elements in near-identical construction were investigated—a control
the structural layers of walls. Furthermore, addition of an building that remained unaltered (i.e., a baseline) and one
airtight panel to the envelope has the potential to enhance fitted with VIPs. The buildings were single-storied with 186
both thermal resistance and airtightness. However, using ­m2 of floor space and built using wood-framed construction.
a double-sealed membrane as the primary air barrier was The results showed that the building fitted with VIPs regu-
found to be less efficient. In addition, Iffa et al. [108] lated indoor temperatures better than the control building. In
showed that thicker rigid (external) insulation boards pro- addition, an EnergyPlus simulation predicted a 12.5% annual
vided better moisture control by helping the sheathing reduction in natural gas consumption for heating in the VIP
board stay warm. However, the risk of moisture damage building compared to the control building.

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Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38 31

According to Hung Anh and Pásztoryc [116], aerogels are Considerations for Thermal Efficiency and Fire
also a potential advanced insulation material for buildings, Safety
due to their low density, high porosity, small average pore
size, and very low thermal conductivity. Some applications Hermetically sealed building envelopes can provide good
of aerogels in buildings include insulation blankets [117], thermal performance. However, in the event of a fire they
renders [117], foams [118], and composites [119, 120]. carry the risk of allowing pressure to build up and obstruct
In wood buildings, these materials have the potential to the safe evacuation of occupants. Fire-induced pressure
improve the structure’s thermal performance as their thermal can increase considerably in airtight construction because
conductivity is lower (0.017 W/mK) than conventional glass the lack of openings (gaps) makes it difficult to release hot
fiber mat (1 W/mK) [121]. Therefore, some aerogel materi- combustion products and accommodate thermal expan-
als have been developed, including aerogel granules created sion [134, 135]. Although it is an important topic for the
at Ryerson University, a blanket enhanced with aerogel by development of wood construction, little attention has been
embedding a panel of fiberglass with precursor aerogel, a paid to strategies to address this challenge. Samanta et al.
monolithic aerogel glazing unit, and a composite of wood [136] developed transparent wood composites with excellent
fiber and aerogel [122]. flame-retardant self-extinguishing characteristics. Liu et al.
In this regard, much attention has also been paid to [137] investigated the fire performance of a new silica-based
the thermal energy storage capacity of wood buildings by porous aerogel board. Their study indicated that porous aero-
incorporating phase change materials (PCMs) in envelopes gel board can inhibit combustion intensity and restrict heat
[123–126]. PCMs have been used in building roofs [127, release during combustion dramatically more than other tra-
128], walls [129], windows [130], and insulation [131]. ditional insulation materials.
Lee et al. [132] tested the thermal performance of PCM- Yu et al. [138] used bamboo bundles and glass fiber (GF)
enhanced cellulose insulation in residential wood frame layers of various thicknesses to develop a glass fiber-rein-
walls. By using PCMs in the cellulose insulation, it was forced bamboo scrimber with improved fire performance
possible to delay peak heat fluxes by about 1.5 h. Kishore by The authors stated that adding GF to the composites
et al. [133] proposed a PCM model using finite elements studied resulted in a 50% reduction in charring depth, mass
for wood frame buildings in Phoenix, AZ, and Las Vegas, loss, and maximum temperature for a combustion exposure
NV (USA). Their study showed that placing the PCM 10% time of 10 min. A comparison of the composite’s charring
into the cavity width from the interior reduced peak period depth with and without GF is shown in Fig. 7. Furthermore,
heat gain by 67% in Phoenix and 75% in Las Vegas with several studies suggested using fire-resistant additives in
almost no increase in total heat gain. binders or fire-resistant coatings on insulation materials or

Fig. 7  Bamboo scrimber fire

tests: a control scrimber and b
glass fiber-reinforced bamboo
scrimber [138]. The top photos
show the surface, and the
bottom photos show the cross
section

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32 Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38

wood composites [139–141]. According to Ghani [142], According to Mathur et al. [146], a well-designed envelope
wood, boron, and nitrogen-phosphorus compounds caused a maintains a constant indoor temperature, permitting about
decrease in HRRs, halogen had the lowest total heat release, a 35% decrease in energy consumption. Some studies
and silicon proved to be the most effective in terms of mass have therefore been conducted to improve wood building
loss. Taking the angle of improving fire resistance through envelopes by testing different technologies and configura-
design modifications, Iringova et al. [143] found that using tions [147]. A possible route for wood buildings could be
non-flammable thermal insulation with a melting point implementation of dynamic envelopes [104]. For exam-
above 1000 °C increased the fire resistance of wood clad- ple, Li et al. [148] argued that a shape-morphing enve-
ding envelopes for wood frame buildings. lope equipped with enhanced environmental adaptability
could potentially be a solution. Implementation of this
Envelope Design Modifications type of envelope would allow a building to adapt to time-
dependent external environmental variations by adjusting
For wood buildings, shape and design play an important its structural form and shape, thereby improving air quality
role in improving energy demand, air quality, and indoor and, in some cases, reducing energy demand for cooling,
thermal comfort in the built environment [144]. However, as shown in the examples in Fig. 8. Moreover, this type of
according to Berardi and Jafarpur [145], these fields still envelope could be adaptive to the psychological and living
represent a research gap in North America. An envelope needs of occupants at acceptable spatial/temporal scales.
must keep an indoor environment constant and comforta- Bucklin et al. [150] very recently developed a mono-
ble even when there are external environmental variations. material wood wall to improve the thermal performance

Fig. 8  Shape-morphing building envelope: a with an initial buckling shading module, b with the initial buckling shading module activated, c
with a closed buckling ventilation module, and d with an open buckling ventilation module [149]

Fig. 9  Mono-material wood building a wall diagram and b built wall [150]

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Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38 33

and airtightness of wood buildings. These envelope walls Conclusion and Prospects
were fabricated with solid wood and built by introducing
air chambers into the construction elements to increase The societal importance of the environmental impacts of
thermal insulation values and using all-wood joinery to buildings has been well established and should be improved
reduce air permeability. Fig. 9 shows a mono-material with the use of wood and bio-based materials. Structural and
wood building. Their results showed that the demonstra- envelope systems are two key building systems worthy of
tion building had an air-change rate of 6.2 air changes per further study, as they are complex systems containing vari-
hour for the blower door test. The entire envelope, with a ous materials with a wide range of assembly possibilities. In
­ 2 and internal volume of 87 m
surface area of 146 m ­ 3, had this context, the objective of this review was to present the
3 2
a mean permeability value of 3.69 ­m /m ·h. latest developments in wood-based building materials and
systems over the last 5 years.
Envelope Systems Summary Materials offered on the market for structural systems are
well established and the results are iterative innovations.
Recent innovations in wooden construction have addressed Prefabrication is ever evolving to meet the needs of industri-
the central concern of performance loss in humid environ- alization, for example with the adaptation of the light frame
ments, as well as the loss of thermal performance caused by system and development of several connectors for modular
thermal bridges and defects in the wooden system or in the construction. The industrialization of the building construc-
insulator used. To increase the quality and performance of tion industry is a hot topic worldwide and a research topic
wood-based constructions, researchers have proposed alter- of interest in respect to sustaining the use of wood in the
native solutions, including use of an external insulation for future, especially from an industrial engineering perspective.
wood frame systems [107] [110] and more water-resistant Connections always attract the attention of the research com-
insulation membranes in wooden envelopes [103]. In terms munity. Hybrid structural systems are also being developed,
of thermal performance, advanced insulation materials such in some cases to take advantage of the properties of different
as VIPs, aerogels, and PCMs are promising solutions for materials, and in other cases to improve the environmental
wood-framed buildings. These materials offer several advan- impact of energy-intensive materials. The most common
tages, including low thermal conductivity, high durability, combinations are wood and steel or wood and concrete
and homogeneity. Studies have argued that these materials composites. Research in this area is expected to continue to
can significantly delay peak heat fluxes, improve indoor develop in the coming years and should lead to the use of
temperature control, and reduce energy demand [114] [121] wood materials in mid- and high-rise buildings. The building
[132]. envelope system is complex with many materials related to
While hermetically sealed envelopes in wood buildings various functions. Interactions between materials are key to
can provide good thermal performance, they also pose a risk improve the quality of construction and its energy efficiency.
of pressure buildup during a fire, while potentially hinder- This is especially true with the development of many bio-
ing safe evacuation. To mitigate this risk, researchers have based insulation materials, some of which are organic and
suggested using alternative materials, such as wood com- moisture sensitive. Advanced materials such as cellulose
posites, silica boards, and glass fiber-reinforced bamboo aerogel will be more prevalent in the market in the coming
scrimber, that incorporate fire-resistant additives [136] [138] years as their processing costs decrease due to technological
[139–141]. Furthermore, modifications can also be made to developments. Building envelopes can be subject to defects
the design of envelopes to enhance fire safety for the occu- because they are systems with many components. Research
pants of these buildings [143]. efforts to simplify these systems will be of interest in the
In respect to design, recent studies suggest that incorpo- coming years, for example, the installation of insulation on
rating modifications into wood construction such as differ- the exterior side of the light-frame wall assembly. Building
ent technologies and configurations, dynamic envelopes and physics is a well-known science, and its application to new
shape-morphing envelopes can lead to enhanced air quality designs and materials will be essential to ensure the quality
and psychophysiological aspects for occupants and reduction of building envelope construction in the future.
in energy demand [147] [104] [148]. For example, innova- Structural and envelope systems, the skeleton and skin
tive wooden envelopes called mono-material wood walls of a building, respectively, are important systems that offer
(MMWW), constructed with solid wood and designed for significant potential for use of wood and bio-based materi-
enhanced thermal insulation and airtightness, have showed als. These systems can play a key role in the environmental
promising structural, thermal, and airtightness performance impact of the building estate by using wood, a renewable
[150]. Further research and implementation of these tech- resource, and its derivatives.
nologies could contribute to more sustainable wood build-
ings in North America and beyond.

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34 Current Forestry Reports (2024) 10:21–38

Funding The authors are grateful to the Natural Sciences and Engi- 11. Blanchet P, Pepin S. Trends in chemical wood surface improve-
neering Research Council of Canada for financial support through its ments and modifications: a review of the last five years. Coat-
IRC and CRD programs (IRCPJ 461745-18 and RDCPJ 514294-17), ings. 2021;11:1514.
the industrial partners of the NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Eco- 12. Hassan OAB, Öberg F, Gezelius E. Cross-laminated timber
responsible Wood Construction (CIRCERB), the industrial partners of flooring and concrete slab flooring: a comparative study of
the Industrialized Construction Initiative (ICI), and the Créneau Accord structural design, economic and environmental consequences.
Bois Chaudière-Appalaches (BOCA). J Build Eng. 2019;26:100881.
13. Li J, Rismanchi B, Ngo T. Feasibility study to estimate the
Compliance with Ethical Standards environmental benefits of utilising timber to construct high-
rise buildings in Australia. Build Environ. 2019;147:108–20.
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests. 14. Karacabeyli E, Lum C. Technical guide for the design and
construction of tall wood buildings in Canada. FPInnovations
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not [Internet]; 2014. [cited 2022 Aug 23]; Available from: https://​
contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any web.​fpinn​ovati​ons.​ca/​tallw​ood/
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[Internet]. 1st ed. Zurich, Switzerland: International Associa-
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[cited 2022 Aug 23]. Available from: https://​struc​turae.​net/​
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