Reproduction

Reproduction is important because it ensures the survival of species of living organisms.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

One parent is involved Two parents are needed

Genetically identical off spring are Off spring are not genetically identical
produced.
Fast compared to sexual reproduction. Slow.
Can produce a large number of Common in plants not in animals
offspring at one time. (large numbers)
Do not produce variations Produce variations

Cannot survive in changing Can survive in changing environments

environments
Common in the plant kingdom Common in the animal kingdom and
plants belong to higher level
(hierarchy).-flowering plants.
Examples Examples

Binary fission of bacteria Plants

Male-pollen grain
Budding of yeast and Hydra Female-ovules
Flower is the reproductive unit.
Cloning of plants and animals
Animals
Corms -ginger Male-sperm
runners-gotukola Female-egg
bulbs-onion, Gametes are produced In reproductive
Tubers-potato organs.
leaves-bryophyllum
spores-ferns
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Flower is the main reproductive organ in flowering plants.

Main stages

Pollination

Fertilisation

Seed formation /dispersal

Germination
Main parts of a flower
Part of the flower Function
stem Supports the flower in a suitable
position for pollination
Sepals Protects the bud

petals Brightly coloured to attract insects.

Provide a landing platform for insects.
Anther Contains the developing pollen grains.
(male reproductive cells).
Filament Holds the anther

Stigma Receives pollen during pollination

Style Supports the stigma

Ovary Contains ovules

Ovules Contains the female egg cell

Pollination

Pollination is the way the pollen is transferred to the stigma.

Pollens are carried by different agents.

By Insects - Insect pollinated flowers

By Wind- wind pollinated flowers.

Fertilisation

Growth of pollen tube and fertilization

When pollen lands on the stigma of a flower a pollen tube starts to grow down
through the style towards the ovary. Digestive enzymes are produced by the tip of
the pollen tube, enabling it to grow through the tissue. Pollen tube enters the
ovary through a small gap known as the micropyle and thus reaches the ovule. At
this point fertilization takes place and a zygote is formed.(The nucleus of the
male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete).
Once fertilization has occurred following changes take place.
1. Zygote develops into an embryonic plant with small radicle (root) and plumule (shoot).

2 .The contents of the ovule develop into a food store for the young plant (embryo).

3. Ovule wall becomes the seed coat.(testa).

4. The ovary wall becomes the fruit coat.

Seed germination
Cotyledons are the first leaves produced by plants. Cotyledons are not
considered true leaves and are sometimes referred to as "seed leaves,"
because they are actually part of the seed or embryo of the plant.1
The seed leaves serve to access the stored nutrients in the seed,
feeding it until the true leaves develop and begin photosynthesizing.

(The cotyledons contain the stored food reserves of the seed. As these reserves
are used up, the cotyledons may turn green and begin photosynthesis, or may
wither as the first true leaves take over food production for the seedling .)

Germination

Factors Affecting Germination

 Germination is the start of growth in the seed

 Three factors are required for successful germination:
o Water - allows the seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start
working so that growth can occur
o Oxygen - so that energy can be released for germination
o Warmth - germination improves as temperature rises (up to a maximum) as the
reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes
 As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it makes
no difference whether it is present or not.

Investigating Germination

 Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool

 Set each test tube as shown in diagram below
 Leave tubes in set environment for a period of time: A, B and C incubated at 20°C; D
placed in a fridge at 4°C
 Compare results and see which tube has the greatest number of germinated seeds
 Conditions
required for germination

Conditions required for germination - results:

Seed dispersal

Seed dispersal is important to prevent overcrowding.

Seed germination
Conditions needed for seed germination are,

Water

Oxygen

A suitable warm temperature

During germination following changes take place.

 The food store is used up
 Radicle and plumule grow
 Radicle grows down into the soil.
 Plumule grows upwards towards the light, where it can start the
process of photosynthesis.
Dicotyledons and monocotyledons
Investigating the conditions needed for germination
Sexual reproduction in humans

There are 4 main stages in sexual reproduction

 Gametogenesis-gametes are produce.(male gametes-sperm/spermatozoa,

female gametes-eggs/ova(ovum)
 Male gamete is transferred to the female gamete.(reproductive system)
 Fertilization occurs.
 A zygote is formed.

  Male reproductive system.
 Male reproductive organs develop during the growth of the embryo.
 Presence of reproductive organs is called the primary sexual
characteristics.
 These organs remain dormant until teens and at puberty they become
active.
 At this time the hormone testosterone is produced and they develop
secondary sexual characteristics.

Secondary sexual characteristics of males

Structure of male reproductive system.
Female reproductive system

 Female reproductive organs develop during the growth of the embryo.

 Presence of reproductive organs is called the primary sexual
characteristics.
 These organs remain dormant until teens and at puberty they become
active.
 At this time the hormone estrogen and progesterone is produced and
they develop secondary sexual characteristics
 Secondary sexual characteristics of females,
Gametes & Fertilisation

Gametes

Male Female

Sperm-23 ovum/egg-23
(Haploid/n) (Haploid/n)

Fertilization (fusion of two nuclei)-happens in the fallopian tubes

/oviducts

Zygote (first 1-3 weeks)

(Diploid/2n)

Embryo (3-8 weeks)-implants in the uterus lining.

 Fetus (from 9th week)

Baby

Gestation period

The gestation period is how long a woman is pregnant. Most babies are born
between 38 and 42 weeks of gestation.

Cow 279–292

Deer (white-tailed) 201

Dog (domestic) 58–65, Average 61

Donkey 365

Fertilisation

 Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm cell)
and a female gamete (egg cell).
 It occurs in the oviducts.
 Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of fertilisation and
successful development of an embryo.
Menstrual cycle
Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones

 The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of

a follicle in the ovary
 An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the
hormone oestrogen
 Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus
wall and inhibits production of FSH
 When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release
of LH from the pituitary gland which causes ovulation (usually around
day 14 of the cycle)
 The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts
producing progesterone
 Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus
wall)
 If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and
progesterone levels drop
 This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is
removed through the vagina – commonly known as having a period
 If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce
progesterone, preventing the uterus lining from breaking down
and aborting the pregnancy
 It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts
secreting progesterone and continues to do so throughout the
pregnancy
Pregnancy & Birth
Growth & Development of the Fetus

 After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus
 This takes about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several(mitosis) times
to form a ball of cells known as an embryo
 In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the thick lining (implantation) and continues
to grow and develop
 The gestation period for humans is 9 months
 Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks, during which time
the embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the uterus lining
 After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed and the embryo is
now called a fetus
 The remaining gestation time is used by the fetus to grow bigger in size.

The fetus in the uterus
 The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from
the mother’s blood plasma)
 This protects the fetus during development by cushioning it from bumps to the mother’s
abdomen
 The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta for exchange of
nutrients and removal of waste products
 The Placenta

Adaptations of the placenta

Large surface area

Short distance

Network of capillaries

Maintains a higher concentration gradient

 During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by gaining the glucose, amino
acids, fats, water and oxygen it needs from the mother’s blood
 The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta
 The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the umbilical cord
 The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood in the placenta;
substances like carbon dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus’s blood so that they
do not build up to dangerous levels
 Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion due to difference in
concentration gradients
 The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin
wall for efficient diffusion
 The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting into the fetus’s
blood
 Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such as viruses, eg rubella) are
stopped from passing through the placenta (this usually depends on the size of the
molecule)
 This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke during pregnancy as molecules
like nicotine can pass across the placenta
 After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does not hurt as there are
no nerves in it, just two blood vessels
 It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few days leaving the
belly button behind
 The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is pushed out due to
contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus – known as the afterbirth
Stages of Birth
After 9 months fetus doesn’t have enough room in the uterus, so it sends hormonal signal to the mother to
start the birth process. The hormone makes the uterus wall to contract rhythmically. Initially these
contractions are mild and later becomes stronger. Strong contractions break the amniotic membrane.

 Amniotic sac breaks

 Muscles in the uterus wall contract
 Cervix dilates (gets wider)
 Baby passes out through the vagina
 Umbilical cord is tied and cut
 Afterbirth is delivered(placenta and umbilical cord)

Human Biology only

Antenatal Care/prenatal care.

 Antenatal (before birth), care is the name given to the care and advice given to expectant
mothers along with checks on fetal growth and development
 Whilst pregnant, expectant mothers are given advice on:
o diet including the need to take folic acid to prevent developmental issues with the
fetus and the importance of a balanced diet
o exercise to stay fit
o health precautions such as avoiding infections, tobacco, alcohol and other drugs

Breastfeeding

 During pregnancy the mammary glands enlarge and become prepared to secrete milk
 Shortly after birth, the mother will be stimulated to release milk due to the sucking action
of the baby at the breast
 Some mothers struggle to breastfeed successfully and so may feed the baby using
formula milk in a bottle.
 Production of milk is stimulated by a hormone released by the pituitary.-prolactin
 The release of milk is stimulated by another hormone secreted by the pituitary-oxytocin
Advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding

Breast milk provides ideal nutrition for babies

Most healthcare professionals recommend exclusive breastfeeding for at least

6 months or much longer.

Breast milk contains everything baby needs for the first 6 months of life, in all
the right proportions. Its composition even changes according to the baby’s
changing needs, especially during the first month of life.

During the first days after birth, your breasts produce a thick and yellowish
fluid called colostrum. It’s high in protein, low in sugar, and loaded with
beneficial compounds. It’s truly a wonder food and not replaceable by formula.

Colostrum is the ideal first milk and helps the newborn’s immature digestive
tract develop. After the first few days, the breasts start producing larger
amounts of milk as the baby’s stomach grows.

Breast milk contains important antibodies

Breastfeeding may reduce disease risk

Breast milk promotes baby’s healthy weight

Breastfeeding may help you lose weight-mother

Breastfeeding helps the uterus contract-mother

Mothers who breastfeed have a lower risk for depression

Breastfeeding reduces your disease risk

Comparing breast feeding/bottle feeding

https://babygooroo.com/articles/why-some-
mothers-cant-breastfeed
Contraception & Fertility
Contraception means avoiding conception (Becoming pregnant)
 Birth control methods are important in keeping family sizes small and
in limiting the increase in human population.
 Humans can use mechanical, chemical, surgical and natural contraceptive
methods to prevent a pregnancy.
 Some birth control methods also give protection from sexually transmitted
infections.

Types of Birth Control

Contraceptive implant

The contraceptive implant is a small flexible plastic rod that's placed under the skin in your upper
arm by a doctor or nurse.

It releases the hormone progesterone into your bloodstream to prevent pregnancy and lasts for 3
years.
 o Chemical

 IUD / IUS
o an intrauterine device or intrauterine system is a small device fitted inside the
uterus by a doctor or nurse
o it releases sex hormones(oestrogen/progesterone) which thicken the mucus
produced in the cervix, making it difficult for sperm to swim into the uterus
o it also thins the lining of the uterus, making it more difficult for a fertilised egg to
implant/.
o an IUD also interferes with passage of sperm through the uterus, in which way it
is acting as a barrier method of birth control
 o

 Contraceptive pill, implant, injection

o may contain just progesterone or a mixture of progesterone and oestrogen

o inhibits the production of FSH-as a result ,no eggs mature to be released by
the ovaries and so pregnancy cannot occur.
o very effective when taken regularly.
o the hormones can also be delivered from a small skin implant or an injection, both
of which last several months and increase the effectiveness as they remove the
risk of forgetting to take a pill regularly.
 How do Contraceptive Hormones in the Pill Work?

 They work by mimicking some of the hormone levels during pregnancy

 By raising the levels of progesterone and oestrogen, the uterus lining is maintained and
development of another egg cell is prevented
 This means that sex at any time of the month cannot cause pregnancy as no egg is
released to be fertilised

Barrier

 These all work by preventing sperm from reaching the egg

 Condom
o latex sheath worn over the penis
o prevents sperm entering the vagina as ejaculate remains in condom
o also protects against STIs
 Femidom
o latex sheath inserted into the vagina
o prevents entry of sperm into the vagina
 Diaphragm
o a rubber cap that fits over the entrance to the cervix
o prevents entry of sperm into uterus
o often used with a spermicide (cream which kills sperm)
o
Natural

 Abstinence
o avoiding sexual intercourse completely
 Rhythm method
o avoiding sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle when
ovulation occurs
o the exact time ovulation happens can be worked out by monitoring body
temperature and quality of cervical mucus
o this is the least reliable method of birth control.
o Menstrual cycle should be very regular to use this method.

o
Surgical

 Vasectomy
o the sperm ducts are cut, meaning that no sperm is present in the semen when
ejaculation occurs
o very effective but difficult to reverse
 Female sterilisation (tubal ligation)
o the oviducts are cut or tied off, preventing eggs from reaching the uterus or sperm
from reaching the eggs
o very effective but difficult to reverse

o
 Fertility Treatments
https://www.figo.org/news/10-reasons-male-infertility
https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/infertility/
conditioninfo/causes/causes-female
 In situations where couples find it difficult to conceive, fertility treatments can improve
their chances
 There are several different options, depending on what the fertility issue is
 Up to 40% infertility problems are due to a low sperm count, so this is the first thing that
doctors will check. Sperm count must be above 20 million sperm cells per cubic
centimeter.

Infertility

Infertility is a common problem affecting one couple in six. It can be defined as the
incapacity to fulfill pregnancy after reasonable time of sexual intercourse with no
contraceptive measures taken.

Fertility treatments

Artificial Insemination (AI)

 If the male is not producing healthy sperm, donor sperm can be used
 The sperm are placed into the female’s vagina at the fertile point in her menstrual cycle
 Social issues to consider include:
o The male must be able to cope with the fact that the child is not biologically his
o Sperm donors may father multiple children who are not able to know their
parentage

Fertility Drugs

 This method is used when the female is not producing enough eggs
 Hormones, including FSH, are given to her to stimulate egg production
 Social issues to consider include:
 o Several eggs can be released at once so this increases the chance of multiple births
(twins or triplets etc)

In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

 If the female cannot conceive naturally even after taking fertility drugs, or if there are
issues with both male and female fertility in a couple, IVF can be used
 This involves fertility drugs being given to the female to stimulate egg production before
they are harvested from the ovary
 The eggs are then inseminated in a petri dish using sperm from the male (‘in vitro’
means ‘in glass’) and, once embryos have formed, they are placed back into the
uterus of the female
 Several embryos are implanted to increase the chance of one developing further
 Social issues to consider include:
o IVF is relatively expensive and not all couples can afford it
o As several embryos are implanted, the risk of multiple births is quite high
o Some women use IVF to get pregnant at a later age than they would be able to
conceive naturally

Growth and development

A human develops from a fertilized egg into an embryo, then into a fetus.

After birth, the baby grows into a child, then an adolescent, when it becomes
sexually mature.

Finally, he or she becomes an adult.

This is the normal pattern of human development.

Instructions for development are carried in our genes.

Genes control the basic growth pattern.

Examples

Controlling the sex of baby

All the other features are controlled by genes.

Height against time graph

This shows growth spurts –periods of rapid growth and development.

Changes can be easily seen if you plot the gain in height and age.
The Rate of growth changes dramatically between birth and
adolescence.
Growth is fastest soon after birth.
This is called the infant growth spurt.
The rate then decreases rapidly until the child is about 4 years
old.
Between about 4 and 10 years, the rate of growth still decreases,
but more slowly.
At puberty, there is an increase in the rate of growth-the
adolescent growth spurt.
Growth in both sexes has more or less finished by the late teens.
  There is also a change in body proportions during growth.
Examples
A baby’s head is very large in proportion to its body.
 Different organs grow at different rates.
Example
Reproductive organs grow slowly at first and grow faster after
puberty.
The brain and skull grow very rapidly early on, reaching 90 %
of their full size by the age of 6.