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Handbook of Borehole Acoustics and Rock
Physics for Reservoir Characterization
Handbook of Borehole Acoustics
and Rock Physics for Reservoir
Characterization
Vimal Saxena
Michel Krief
Ludmila Adam
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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Notices
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
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of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-812204-4
xiii
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Examples of (A) isotropic and heterogeneous, (B) isotropic and homogeneous,
(C) anisotropic and heterogeneous, and (D) isotropic and homogeneous rock. 2
Fig. 1.2 (A) Vertical transverse isotropy, (B) Horizontal transverse isotropy, and
(C) Tilted transverse isotropy. 3
Fig. 1.3 Components of stress tensor. 4
Fig. 1.4 Displacement and strain under stress. 5
Fig. 1.5 Stress parallel to Y-axis on surfaces perpendicular to (A) y-axis, (B) z-axis, and
(C) x-axis. 10
Fig. 2.1 Critical frequency in water-saturated porous media for varying porosity and
permeability with respect to various acoustic measurements. 26
Fig. 2.2 General frequency dependence of P-wave velocity (Vp) and the associated
attenuation (1/Q) with both low and high fluid mobility. 27
Fig. 2.3 Dispersion characteristics of P-wave and S-wave velocity and the associated
attenuation (1/Q) for varying porosity and permeability. 29
Fig. 2.4 Comparison of Biot’s dispersion with Geerstma-Smit approximation for clean
sandstone samples. 31
Fig. 2.5 P- and S-wave excitation in solid and wave propagation in a borehole. 34
Fig. 2.6 Snell’s law for wave travel in the borehole. (A) General refraction. (B) Critical
refraction and head waves. 35
Fig. 2.7 Wavetrain in a fast formation (Vs > Vmud). 36
Fig. 2.8 Wavetrain in a slow formation (Vs < Vmud). 37
Fig. 2.9 Characteristic wavetrain generated in the borehole through various elastic wave
modes and detected by receivers in acoustic logging. 38
Fig. 2.10 Borehole schematic for wavetrain travel in the borehole. 38
Fig. 2.11 Leaky modes for receivers at different offsets. 39
Fig. 2.12 Pseudo-Rayleigh (pR) waves for receivers at different offsets. 40
Fig. 3.1 (A) Single transmitter dual receiver monopole sonic. (B) Effect of tool angle.
(C) Effect of varying borehole diameter. 44
Fig. 3.2 (A) Borehole compensated (BHC) measurement and (B) long-spaced sonic
(LSS) measurement. 46
Fig. 3.3 (Left) Array sonic tool configuration and recorded waveforms from different
receivers (right) in a fast formation. 48
Fig. 3.4 (Left) Monopole wavetrain in fast formation and (right) time snapshot of
acoustic wave evaluation and spreading in formation. 49
Fig. 3.5 (Left) Monopole wavetrain in slow formation and (right) time snapshot of
acoustic wave evaluation and spreading in formation. 50
xv
List of Figures
Fig. 3.6 (A) Dipole tool configuration and (B) wavetrain excitation at borehole by dipole
tool frequency. 51
Fig. 3.7 (Left) Acoustic wavetrain in slow formation on dipole excitation and (right) time
snapshot of acoustic wave evaluation and spreading in formation. 53
Fig. 3.8 Sonic scanner tool configuration. 54
Fig. 3.9 High-quality compressional and shear with radial profiling by the sonic scanner
tool. 55
Fig. 3.10 Influence of interference with tool flexural waves in wireline dipole and LWD
dipole tools. 57
Fig. 3.11 Quadrupole sonic excitation; (A) positive and negative pressure pulse in
orthogonal direction and (B) screw waves. 57
Fig. 3.12 Quadrupole wave dispersion effect for fast and slow formations. 58
Fig. 3.13 Quadrupole dispersion curves and effect of mud slowness and collar thickness. 58
Fig. 3.14 Field comparison between LWD and wireline sonic data. 60
Fig. 3.15 Seismic while drilling (SWD) configuration. 62
Fig. 3.16 (Left) First motion detection (FMD); (A) Correct first-motion detection,
(B) Noise effect: Early detection and reduced travel time, and (C) Cycle skipping:
Delayed detection and increase travel time and (right) frequency filtration from
waveform. 64
Fig. 3.17 Slowness-time-coherence (STC) semblance processing concept. 66
Fig. 3.18 Flexural wave frequency dispersion and estimated shear in the dipole tool. 67
Fig. 3.19 Slowness time coherence (STC) processing result for P, S, and St waves. 68
Fig. 3.20 Dispersion correction of dipole shear data. 70
Fig. 3.21 Borehole size effect on flexural wave dispersion. 71
Fig. 3.22 (A) The processed dispersive flexural waveform array, (B) slowness-time plane
through nondispersive STC processing, and (C) slowness-time plane through
dispersive processing. 73
Fig. 3.23 Waveform and slowness dispersion at representative depth and slowness-
frequency projection. 75
Fig. 3.24 Cramer-Rao bounds as a function of signal-to-noise ratio (central dashed),
slowness standard deviation (solid), and SD of calculated bound. 77
Fig. 3.25 Configuration of various overlapping subarrays with apertures ranging from 0.5
to 3.5 ft. (A) 0.5 ft resolution; 28 waveform, (B) 1 ft resolution; 54 waveform,
(C) 1.5 ft resolution; 80 waveform, (D) 2 ft resolution; 100 waveform, (E) 2.5 ft
resolution; 108 waveform, (F) 3 ft resolution; 98 waveform, and (G) 3.5 ft
resolution; 64 waveform. 78
Fig. 3.26 Enhancement of vertical resolution with decreasing sub-array apertures ranging
from 3 to 0.5 ft. 79
Fig. 3.27 Ray tracing for formation and mud arrivals in a borehole (A) without altered
zone and (B) with altered zone. 81
Fig. 3.28 Effect on deeper (P3) arrivals in (A) waveforms from different source types and
(B) waveforms with varying invasion in the quadrupole tool. 83
Fig. 3.29 Six least-time paths for acoustic signal from transmitter to receiver under
influence of altered zone. 84
Fig. 4.1 Conceptual model for composite with two-phase porous media. 92
Fig. 4.2 (A) Bulk modulus, (B) shear modulus for a fluid saturated sandstone: Voigt-
Reuss bounds and VRH approximation. 94
xvi
List of Figures
Fig. 4.3 (A) Bulk modulus (B) shear modulus for a fluid saturated sandstone: HS bounds
and comparison to Voigt-Reuss bounds. 95
Fig. 4.4 Bulk and shear modulus for a dry frame porous sandstone rock from HS upper
bound and Voigt upper bound. 96
Fig. 4.5 Composite sphere model of Hashin (1962). 97
Fig. 4.6 Comparison of BMM and MS bounds with HS bounds for a sand-water
composite. 98
Fig. 4.7 Bulk modulus derived from the KT model for porous sand with varying aspect
ratio of ellipsoidal inclusions under (A) dry and (B) water-saturated inclusion
scheme. HS + and HS - represent Hashin-Shtrikman bounds for the bulk
modulus of the composite. 103
Fig. 4.8 Wet shear modulus derived from the KT model for porous sand with varying
aspect ratio of wet ellipsoidal inclusions. The brackets () denote the respective
aspect ratio while HS + represents the upper HS bounds for the composite. 103
Fig. 4.9 (A) Normalized bulk modulus and (B) Normalized shear modulus for a
composite with wet ellipsoidal inclusion as estimated from DEM. Results are
compared with HS lower and upper bounds. α ¼ 1 denotes spherical inclusion.
Shear lower bound (not indicated) is zero. 111
Fig. 4.10 Computation of parameters a and b for dry spherical pore inclusions. 114
Fig. 4.11 Normalized bulk modulus for composite with water-wet spherical inclusion
from M-DEM for various critical porosities. Results compare with DEM
estimation, HS upper bound, and Reuss bound. 117
Fig. 4.12 Hertz-contact conceptual model. 119
Fig. 4.13 Coordination numbers from Murphy (1982) and Dutta et al. (2010) 125
Fig. 4.14 Modified lower Hashin-Shtrikman (LHS) bound using Hertz-Mindlin contact
theory. 127
Fig. 4.15 Generalized cases of cemented-contact scheme. (A) Cement with grain contact.
(B) Cement distribution with grain contact. (C) Cement with no-grain contact. 128
Fig. 4.16 Constant-cement model for dry and wet sand in comparison with modified
lower HS bound. 131
Fig. 4.17 Biot’s constant from the Krief and Murphy-Schwartz schemes. 133
Fig. 4.18 Biot-Gassmann-Krief model to predict (A) Normalized bulk modulus,
(B) Normalized shear modulus water saturated for clean sandstone.
# Michel Krief. 135
Fig. 4.19 Dry frame compressional and shear moduli in consolidated and unconsolidated
porosity domains. 137
Fig. 5.1 Slowness-porosity plot for Raymer-Hunt-Gardner and Time-average equations.
Background lines are plotted with different Biot-Krief exponents in the Biot-
Gassmann-Krief model. # Michel Krief. 145
Fig. 5.2 (A) Vp–Vs clean sand and shale line and (B) Vp/Vs–Vs profile for different
lithologies from Castagna’s (1993) equation. 147
Fig. 5.3 Biot’s constant and porosity of carbonate samples with variable Krief exponents.
# Michel Krief. 150
Fig. 5.4 (Left) Biot’s constant-porosity and (right) Gassmann coefficient-porosity in
Gulf carbonate. # Michel Krief. 151
Fig. 5.5 Velocity in water-saturated shaly sand with 15% clay from different equations
(A) Vp (B) Vs. 152
xvii
List of Figures
xviii
List of Figures
Fig. 6.12 Match between Stoneley-derived field permeability and measured whole core
permeability. 186
Fig. 6.13 Match between Stoneley and NMR-derived permeability. 187
Fig. 6.14 Normalization of Stoneley permeability index with cored permeability. 188
Fig. 6.15 Comparison of Stoneley permeability indices from Stoneley attenuation and
slowness in carbonate (Schlumberger Oilfield Review, January 1995). 189
Fig. 6.16 Computation of membrane impedance with multi-frequency analysis. 193
Fig. 6.17 Effect of mud-cake impedance on Stoneley slowness difference between
permeable and non-permeable formations. 194
Fig. 6.18 Sensitivity analysis of Stoneley permeability with Stoneley slowness. 196
Fig. 6.19 Sensitivity analysis of Stoneley permeability with (A) shear slowness and
(B) formation density. 196
Fig. 6.20 Dynamic permeability for (A) 10% porosity and (B) 20% porosity formations. 198
Fig. 7.1 Fluid effect on velocity for shaly sand. (A) Combined data from Han et al.
(1986) and Yin (1992) and (B) Khazanehdari and McCann’s (2005) data. 206
Fig. 7.2 Velocities from Gassmann’s model in fluid-saturated clean sandstones. 208
Fig. 7.3 Comparative influence of squirt and Biot’s mechanism on acoustic dispersion. 212
Fig. 7.4 Comparison of measured Ksat with estimated Ksat from Gassmann’s original and
modified equations. 216
Fig. 7.5 (A) Porosity-shale in laminated shaly sand and (B) Fluid substitution in
laminated shaly sand. 217
Fig. 7.6 Water-gas effective fluid modulus through different mixing laws (using Kw
2.4 GPa, Kg 0.05 GPa, Kf in logarithmic scale) 220
Fig. 7.7 Shear weakening at seismic frequencies and shear strengthening at ultrasonic
frequencies. 222
Fig. 7.8 Vp prediction (40 MPa, 20% porosity sand) from patchy saturation and
comparison with different mixing laws. 227
Fig. 7.9 Vp prediction (20 MPa, 34.6% porosity sand) from patchy saturation and
comparison with different mixing laws. 228
Fig. 7.10 Differential compressibility in shaly sand (with Vcl ¼ 0%, 20%, 40%) with
different saturants. 231
Fig. 7.11 Correlation between shear compressibility and estimated dry frame bulk
compressibility. 232
Fig. 7.12 Hydrocarbon saturation from modulus decomposition in shaly sand. 233
Fig. 7.13 Shear compressibility dependence on porosity in carbonate. 234
Fig. 7.14 Hydrocarbon saturation from modulus decomposition in dolomitic limestone. 235
Fig. 8.1 Homogeneity-inhomogeneity and isotropy-anisotropy. 240
Fig. 8.2 (A) Vp and (B) Vs velocity anisotropy in shale for select propagation direction as
a function of pressure. 254
Fig. 8.3 Vp and Vs velocities parallel and perpendicular to layer, and RHG average for dry
clay minerals. 254
Fig. 8.4 Impact of brine saturation on Thomsen anisotropy parameters in (A) Bazhenov
shale and (B) Monterey shale. 256
Fig. 8.5 Relationship between kerogen volume and clay volume. 257
Fig. 8.6 (A) Vp measurement versus modified Backus average prediction on low-porosity
shale, (B) anisotropy dependence on kerogen volume. 257
xix
List of Figures
Fig. 8.7 Rock physics model through elastic bounds in organic clays. 259
Fig. 8.8 Characteristic anisotropy in context with borehole. 260
Fig. 8.9 Plane of polarization parallel (X–Z) and perpendicular (Y–Z) to fracture for
shear wave traveling in Z-direction in a fractured formation. 261
Fig. 8.10 Cross-dipole anisotropy measurement. 262
Fig. 8.11 Field example of four-component cross-dipole waveform data. 263
Fig. 8.12 Anisotropy analysis result from cross-dipole anisotropy measurement. 264
Fig. 8.13 Field example of shear splitting due to stress-induced anisotropy (left)
monopole tool, (right) dipole tool. 266
Fig. 8.14 Flexural wave dispersion for an isotropic rock in unstressed and stressed
conditions. 267
Fig. 8.15 Flexural wave dispersion for an anisotropic rock under (A) unstressed and
(B) stressed conditions. 268
Fig. 8.16 Anisotropy evaluation using Stoneley waves. 271
Fig. 8.17 Anisotropy evaluation using cross-dipole and Stoneley waves. 274
Fig. 8.18 Impact of well deviation on sonic log. 275
Fig. 8.19 Slowness dependence of (A) qSV and SH waves, (B) qP waves, on angle between
borehole axis and TI symmetry axis. 276
Fig. 9.1 (A) Uniaxial compression, (B) perpendicular and parallel stress, (C) Mohr’s
circle. 282
Fig. 9.2 Mohr’s circle with equal and nonzero lateral stress (σ 2 ¼ σ 3 6¼ 0). 283
Fig. 9.3 General stress-strain behavior: (A) linear and nonlinear elasticelastic,
(B) hysteretic. 290
Fig. 9.4 Deformation process stages: (I) pore closure, (II) stable fracture growth,
(III) unstable fracture growth, (IV) postfailure. (A) Stress-strain profile. (B) Pore
deformation. 291
Fig. 9.5 Relative stiffness, strength, and brittleness from stress-strain profiles. 292
Fig. 9.6 Static Young’s modulus from a uniaxial stress-strain profile. 292
Fig. 9.7 Typical static versus dynamic Young’s moduli for sandstone. 293
Fig. 9.8 Effect of confining pressure on ratio of static to dynamic Young’s modulus for
limestone. 295
Fig. 9.9 Typical static versus dynamic bulk moduli for a carbonate. 295
Fig. 9.10 Coulomb failure model and Mohr’s circle diagram. 297
Fig. 9.11 Mohr-Coulomb failure model and Mohr’s circle diagram. 298
Fig. 9.12 Griffith’s failure model: (A) σ 1–σ 3 parabola and (B) failure envelope in Mohr’s
circle. 299
Fig. 9.13 Empirical failure model to define a function (A) f1 for fracture and (B) f2 for yield
in different rocks. 300
Fig. 9.14 Graphical representation of the modified Lade failure model. 303
Fig. 9.15 Comparison between Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown failure criteria in σ 1 – σ 2
space. 305
Fig. 9.16 (A) Comparison between modified Lade and Wiebols-Cook failure criteria and
(B) inscribed and circumscribed Drucker-Pager failure criteria (Colmenares and
Zoback, 2002. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 39). 306
Fig. 9.17 Scatter of predicted vs. measured UCS in shale. 309
Fig. 9.18 Normal and abnormal pore pressure definition. 313
xx
List of Figures
Fig. 9.19 Uniaxial core measurement for pore volume compressibility. 319
Fig. 9.20 Log-derived pore volume compressibility using aspect ratio inversion. 321
Fig. 9.21 Comparing log-derived pore volume compressibility in carbonate with lab
measurements. 322
Fig. 10.1 Conceptual model for the integration of experimental and theoretical rock
physics into the interpretation of geophysical well logs and seismic. In
parentheses are examples of rock properties. 328
Fig. 10.2 Conceptual model of spatial (A) and frequency (B) scaling of elastic dataset.
The relaxed and unrelaxed regimes refer to fluid flow and pressures in the pore
space of an undrained sample (C). 330
Fig. 10.3 Wave-induced fluid flow (arrows) sketch showing the perturbation of fluids in
the pore space due to elastic wave deformation (compression and dilatation).
The image at t ¼ 0 represents a relaxed state. The fluid returns to its original
equilibrium state within one wave period (T). The different background patterns
refer to elastically soft (dark gray) and stiff (light gray) rock inhomogeneity. 331
Fig. 10.4 Ultrasonic P- (A) and S-wave (B) velocity for basalts and clastic samples. Basalt
samples have low porosity and present micro-fractures. Clastic samples have
variable porosity and clay content. 333
Fig. 10.5 Ultrasonic P- (A) and S-wave (B) velocities for a synthetic carbonate sample with
pore spaces of a different aspect ratio (α). 334
Fig. 10.6 Ultrasonic P- (A) and S-wave (B) velocities as a function of differential pressure.
Granite data from Nur and Simmons (1969). Berea sandstone from Toks€ oz
et al. (1979). Solid symbol is water-saturated, open symbol is dry. 336
Fig. 10.7 Conceptual P- (A) and S-wave (B) attenuation in terms of quality factor (Q) as a
function of differential pressure for sandstones. W: fully-water saturated,
pW: partial water saturation, D: dry. 336
Fig. 10.8 Velocity (A) and bulk modulus (B) as a function of water saturation. Carbonate
data are from forced oscillation and ultrasonic data from Adam et al. (2009).
Sandstone data are acquired with the resonance bar by Winkler and Murphy
(1995). 337
Fig. 10.9 Bulk moduli of a saturated and dry carbonate sample as a function of frequency.
Data at frequencies between 3 and 3000 Hz are acquired with a seismic
frequency system, while MHz data is from pulse transmission. Dashed lines are
hand-drawn to show the dispersion trend. 339
Fig. 10.10 Young’s modulus as a function of apparent frequency acquired with an SFS
system. The fluids are water (diamond) and glycerin (square); circle symbols are for
a dry sample. Triangles are ultrasonic data. 340
Fig. 10.11 Measured and Gassmann-modeled bulk modulus at 100 Hz and 0.8 MHz for
brine-saturated carbonates at low-3.5 MPa (A) and high-31 MPa (B) confining
pressure. 342
Fig. 10.12 P- (circles) and S-wave (squares) velocities as a function of temperature for
a water-saturated granite (1 MHz) and Berea sandstone (resonance bar,
1.7–34 kHz). Open symbols are for when the fluid pressure is being held
constant. Solid symbols are for a closed system, where the fluid pressure
increases as a result of increasing temperature. 343
xxi
List of Figures
Fig. 10.13 Temperature effect on ultrasonic P-wave velocities as a result of saturating fluid
transformations. (A) Fontainebleau sandstone saturated with CO2 for different
pore fluid pressures—symbols. Lines are Gassmann-modeled velocities based on
the experimental CO2 conditions. (B) and (C) are the density and bulk modulus,
respectively, of pure CO2 estimated with the NIST online calculator (2015). 344
Fig. 10.14 Cold Lake sandstone dry (open triangles) and saturated (closed triangles) with
heavy oil, and heavy oil-saturated Berea sandstone (stars) and its corresponding
Gassmann modeling (solid line). 345
Fig. 10.15 Sketch of a P-wave wavefront in a horizontally layered medium with the layering
normal to the z-direction. 346
Fig. 10.16 Modeled elastic waveforms for an anisotropic sample (A). (B) Modeled
waveform and location of piezo crystals (transducers). (C) Modeled ultrasonic
waveforms as a function of offset (zoom of (B)) and transducer width. 347
Fig. 10.17 Laser ultrasonic transmission scans (bottom) and microphotographs (top) of
two organic mudstones. (A) Indurated and preserved organic mudstone with
visible laminations (black arrows). (B) Organic mudstone with microfractures
(arrows) measured at 1 MPa confining pressure. 348
Fig. 10.18 Ultrasonic transducer experimental P- (A) and S-velocities (B) for three
mudstones as a function of differential pressure. Ong et al. (2016) measured a
dry Duvernay mudstone (Canada), Vernik and Liu (1997) a water-saturated
Bakken mudstone (United States), and Dewhust and Siggins (2006) a preserved
and pore-fluid pressure-controlled Muderong mudstone (Australia). 349
Fig. 10.19 Thomsen’s elastic anisotropy parameters for the data in Fig. 10.17. Solid and
open symbols are the ε (P-wave anisotropy) and γ (S-wave anisotropy)
parameters, respectively. 350
Fig. 10.20 Shear modulus of a dry (humidified) sample compared to a fully brine-saturated
carbonate sample measured with the SFS system (100 Hz) and ultrasonic
transducers (0.8 MHz). Frame weakening is observed at low frequencies, while
moduli dispersion dominates the ultrasonic domain. 351
Fig. 10.21 SEM images of the microstructure of a basalt sample before (A) and after (B)
reactions with carbonic acid. Before the reactions, the fresh basalt has glass,
plagioclase (plg), and olivine as frame-forming minerals. After the reactions,
carbonates (carb) precipitate plugging micro fractures and pore spaces. 352
Fig. 10.22 Ultrasonic transducer acquisition geometries: (A) transmission setup,
(B) pulsed echo-setup, and (C) passive recording. Piezo crystals inside
transducers act as sources or receivers. Arrows represent wavepaths. In (C) the
gray fracture (rock fracturing) is the source of ultrasonic waves. 354
Fig. 10.23 Spectral ratio methodology on synthetic waveforms. (A) Waveforms on an
aluminum and a rock sample with a Qr of 50. (B) Normalized amplitude spectra
of the waveforms in (A). (C) Natural logarithm of the ratio of the spectra in (B),
with Qr ¼ 53 from this linear fit. 357
Fig. 10.24 Pulse-echo setup with one transducer showing the reflection interphases for two
events (A). Example of a recorded S-wave pulse-echo train propagating in a
sedimentary core sample (B). 359
xxii
List of Figures
Fig. 10.25 (A) Resonance bar system sketch. [a] or [b] are two possible locations of the
rigid supports for the sample. (B) Resonance ultrasound system. The
transducers could also be placed flat on the sample ends. 361
Fig. 10.26 Elastic moduli dependence on strain amplitude. Murphy (1982) shear modulus
data (squares) are acquired with a resonance system on a 1 m Massillon
sandstone at 66–78 Hz and is 92% water saturated. Young’s modulus data
(circles) combine a seismic frequency system and an axial cycling loading
(0.001–0.05 Hz) acquired on a brine-saturated tight sandstone. 363
Fig. 10.27 Seismic frequency system setup after Spencer (1981) and Batzle et al. (2006)
(A). Sketch of the strain gauge signals for a particular frequency (B). Data of
calculated strains with frequency applied on a carbonate sample (C). 364
Fig. 10.28 Seismic frequency system data measured on a brine-saturated carbonate sample
with a system shown in Fig. 10.27. (A) P-wave velocity as a function of
frequency. (B) Inverse of the P-wave quality factor estimated from the strain-
stress phase lags for the same sample. 366
Fig. 10.29 Multi-transducer (A) and multipath transducer (B) pulse-transmission systems.
(A) Design from (Sarout et al., 2014), where P-wave transducers can be
substituted/combined with S-wave modes. (B) Multipath transducer setup
redrawn after Lokajı́ček and Svitek (2015). The rock sample is spherical and is
rotated along the θ and λ angles, providing 3-D P- and two orthogonally
polarized S-wave pathways on the sample. 368
Fig. 10.30 Example setups for a scanning laser-ultrasonic system. (A) Transmission setup
where the sample is rotated around the cylinder’s vertical axis. (B) Transmission
setup where the sample is translated along the cylinder’s vertical axis.
(C) Reflection setup with the receiver laser on the translational stage. 369
Fig. 10.31 Noncontacting laser ultrasonic rotational scans on an isotropic (A) and
anisotropic (B) cylinder. The waveforms recorded on an aluminum sample are
plotted every 10 degrees to illustrate some of the wave modes recorded and the
repeatability of the system on an isotropic material. The anisotropic
ultramylonite sample has foliation parallel to the cylinder axis. The acquisition
setup for both samples is that of Fig. 10.30A. 370
Fig. 10.32 Scanning acoustic microscopy setup. 371
Fig. 11.1 Cement bond log-variable density log (CBL-VDL) sonic tool. 380
Fig. 11.2 Wave train and corresponding VDL. 382
Fig. 11.3 CBL in (A) bad cementation and (B) well-bonded cement zone. 383
Fig. 11.4 Compensated cement bond tool. 384
Fig. 11.5 Ultrasonic tool (A) device configuration, (B) reflections, (C) evaluation concept. 386
Fig. 11.6 Cement channel evaluation by ultrasonic tool. 388
Fig. 11.7 Cement evaluation by ultrasonic imaging tool. 391
Fig. 11.8 Casing evaluation by ultrasonic imaging tool. 392
Fig. 11.9 Tool setup for flexural wave, third-interface wave, and normal ultrasonic echo
pulse. 395
Fig. 11.10 Interpreting flexural attenuation (A) with acoustic impedance and (B) with SLG
mapping for class G cement. 397
Fig. 11.11 Cement evaluation by flexural attenuation, ultrasonic measurement, and SLG
map. 398
xxiii
List of Figures
Fig. 11.12
Advanced cement evaluation by combining TIE with flexural attenuation. 400
Fig. 11.13
Characteristic synthetic seismogram of an (A) openhole and (B) casedhole. 401
Fig. 11.14
Synthetic waveform of (A) bonded casing and (B) un-bonded casing. 402
Fig. 11.15
Casedhole dipole before (left) and after (right) tool centralization, low-
frequency firing, and optimized T-R spacing. 405
Fig. 11.16 Casedhole hydrocarbon evaluation in shaly-sand potential reservoir. 407
Fig. 11.17 Bypass hydrocarbon evaluation through casedhole sonic in shaly sand. 408
Fig. 12.1 HS and Voigt-Reuss bounds in a quartz-calcite-clay composite: (A) matrix bulk
modulus, (B) matrix shear modulus, (C) HS and VRH averages for matrix
modulus in a quartz-clay composite. 413
Fig. 12.2 Brie’s fluid modulus for a water-gas mixture with variable e. 414
Fig. 12.3 Water saturated velocity prediction from Han, Eberhart-Han-Zoback (EHZ),
Castagna-Batzle-Eastwood (CBE) relationships, (A) VP prediction (B) VS
prediction. 416
Fig. 12.4 Water-saturated Vp-Vs profile from Castagna and Han’s relations. 417
Fig. 12.5 Dry bulk and shear moduli from various models. 418
Fig. 12.6 Shear velocity from Vp in carbonate from Greenberg-Castagna’s relation. 420
Fig. 12.7 Flowchart for dry frame effective medium moduli from Wu’s self-consistent
theory. 421
Fig. 12.8 Flowchart for effective medium moduli from DEM theory. 423
Fig. 12.9 Flowchart for Gassmann’s fluid substitution using log data. 426
Fig. 12.10 Flowchart for velocity prediction and fluid substitution from Xu-White model. 428
Fig. B.1 Hydrocarbon gas properties as a function of temperature, pressure, and
composition for light gas (G ¼ 0.6) and heavy gas (G ¼ 1.2): (A) gas density and
(B) gas bulk modulus. 440
xxiv
Preface
Seismic technology has been an integral part of hydrocarbon exploration since the first
seismic exploration patent in 1917 and the first field test in Oklahoma in 1921. Borehole
acoustics was first patented in 1935 and successfully developed later as a continuous
velocity logging tool, providing a much finer vertical subsurface perspective than seismic
acoustics. Rock physics is the crucial discipline that interfaces acoustic wave amplitude and
velocities, from seismic or borehole sonic measurements, with petrophysical characterization.
The foundation for theoretical rock physics can be traced back to seminal works between
the 1940s and the 1960s by Maurice A. Biot and Fritz Gassmann. At the same time,
experimental developments were being led by M. R. J. Wylie, A. R. Gregory, L. W. Gardner,
G. Simmons, A. Nur, and G. R. Pickett, providing the basis for experimental validation of
theoretical modeling. Since then, the field of borehole acoustics and rock physics has
rapidly progressed, developing new petrophysical outlooks to extract quantitative rock
properties from geophysical observations.
Poroelasticity, a subdiscipline of rock physics, aims to characterize rock physical properties
based on elastic wave propagation. Through theory and empirical relationships, it connects
the acoustic data to the intrinsic rock properties such as lithology, pore volume and shape,
fluid type and pressure, geomechanical behavior, tectonic stresses, and the overall rock
architecture such as laminations and fractures. Seismic, borehole sonic, and experimental elastic
core studies aim at characterizing these rock elements; however, they represent the physical
properties at different frequency and scale domains. Rock physics brings these studies together
to develop quantitatively the petrophysical characterization of reservoirs.
While borehole acoustic and rock physics jointly serve to provide broad reservoir characterization,
these disciplines rarely find a complementing platform in a single book. The Handbook of
Borehole Acoustics and Rock Physics for Reservoir Characterization aims to bring both branches
together to understand better the theoretical background and application potential for fundamental
and advanced concepts in borehole acoustics and rock physics for reservoir characterization.
The book provides background modeling concepts and key results, balancing the mathematics
with its applications. Therefore, the book aims to serve as a technical reference for oil and gas
professionals, scientists, and students in multidisciplinary areas of reservoir characterization.
xxv
Preface
The book combines fundamental concepts of rock physics, acoustic logging, waveform processing,
experimental core acoustics, and elasticity modeling. Each chapter demonstrates concepts and
applications through graphical examples derived from field data. Results from core studies and
a detailed explanation of experimental setups and methodologies are included to validate some
of the theoretical concepts and models. The book discusses limitations on acoustic sonic and
experimental data, modeling techniques and presenting practical ways to overcome these
limitations. The book aims to provide the basic theory and petro-acoustic applications behind
the transition from conventional to modern borehole acoustics and the road ahead.
The handbook attempts to encapsulate a wide range of topics on elastic wave propagation, borehole
sonic tool technology, and poroelastic modeling, and their application towards lithology, porosity,
fluid saturation, Stoneley permeability, anisotropy, core acoustics, rock mechanics, and casedhole
acoustics. The book also provides some key workflows supported by examples for easy
implementation and understanding. Each chapter combines historical research from peer-
reviewed literature with technical up-to-date material on the technology. We hope that the
handbook will be of interest to geoscience professionals, students, and academics.
xxvi
Acknowledgments
The book is the result of decades of technical experience and research gained by the authors while
working in industry and academic institutions in the area of petroleum exploration. The authors are
thus thankful for the lineage provided by industry and academics; in particular, they are extremely
thankful for the generous support of Schlumberger for providing key figures. We also acknowledge
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG), Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts
(SPWLA), and European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE) for granting the
necessary permissions for reprinting some of the figures. A special thanks to Derek Crombie
(Lloyd’s Register) for his generous software support.
The thorough editing and technical feedback from Kasper van Wijk have greatly improved the
chapter on core acoustics, and his amazing support has, directly and indirectly, resulted in the
outcomes of that chapter. The authors would also like to thank Gregor Baechle, Aiman Bakhorji,
Angus Best, Stephen Brennan, Shihong Chi, James Clarke, Evert Durán, Bridget Lynne, Marcus
Trimble, Cheng Yii Sim, and Jonathan Simpson, who have contributed toward figures and/or
provided valuable feedback for different parts of the book. Thanks are due to Vasu Guruswamy
(Schlumberger) and Sunil Chaudhary (ONGC) for extending their sincere support. The authors
are indebted to Elsevier for indispensable help from Amy Shapiro, Hilary Carr, and Prem Kumar
Kaliamoorthi for their amazing support during the grueling editorial and production process.
These acknowledgments would be incomplete without mentioning the unflinching support of
the authors’ families, which has made this book possible.
xxvii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
According to the geophysical definition, an isotropic rock looks the same in all directions—
they have no orientation, and measurements in any direction are the same. A rock with random
distribution of pores in a random distribution of matrix material is thus termed “isotropic”
(Fig. 1.1A) while a laminated reservoir rock having alternations of sand and shale is termed
“anisotropic” (Fig. 1.1C). However, such anisotropic rock could still be isotropic laterally with
a random distribution of pores and matrix within an individual layer. Similarly, rock with an
aligned system of fractures would be anisotropic (Fig. 1.1D).
The term “homogeneous” is different as it defines the quality of uniformity of composition.
A solid uniform matrix (Fig. 1.1B) or a uniform rock with a uniform system of micro-fractures
(Fig. 1.1D) could still be termed as homogeneous.
A layered system of rock, that is in general anisotropic, can be characterized still further based
on the direction of isotropy within. Therefore, a rock having a laterally uniform system of
layers lying horizontally is commonly termed as “Vertical Transverse Isotropic” (VTI). The
velocities along two individual layers are different, and usually the wave velocity along the
bed is much faster than across the beds. Similarly, if anisotropy is tilted vertically, for example
a system of vertical fractures, the rock symmetry is termed “Horizontal Transverse Isotropic”
(HTI). A rock that is dipping uniformly is termed “Tilted Transverse Isotropic” (TTI). As veloc-
ity changes with direction (Fig. 1.2), the wave propagation modeling is different and measure-
ments vary.
Slow
Fast Slow
Fast
Fast
Slow
The combined components of these stress-strains, in all directions and on all surfaces, constitute
tensors, which are explained further in the next section.
The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a system needs nine components to be completely
specified, since each component of the stress must be defined not only by the direction in
which it acts but also by the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. Defining a set
of internal datum planes aligned with a Cartesian coordinate system allows the stress state at
an internal point P to be described relative to x, y, and z coordinate directions. The first index
i identifies the orientation of the surface upon which stress is acting and the second index
j specifies the direction in which the stress component acts. Therefore, the ith component of
the force acting on a surface (perpendicular to the ith axis) whose outward normal points toward
jth direction is σ ij. Considering an infinitesimal cube surrounding a point of deformation, stresses
on the XY plane (perpendicular to the Z axis) are σ ZX, σ ZY, and σ ZZ pointing towards the X, Y, and Z
axes, respectively (Fig. 1.3). Similarly, stresses on the XZ plane (perpendicular to the Y axis) are
σ YX, σ YY, and σ YZ, and stresses on the YZ plane (perpendicular to the X axis) are σ XX, σ XY, and σ XZ.
The series of all stresses constitute a tensor, called a stress tensor, is shown below:
2 3
σ xx σ yx σ zx
σ ¼ 4 σ yx σ yy σ yz 5 (1.3a)
σ zx σ zy σ zz
In equilibrium, an important property of the stress tensor is that it is symmetrical, for example:
σ ji ¼ σ ji (1.3b)
If the cube is to remain stationary, the normal forces on opposite faces must be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, and the shear tractions that would tend to rotate it must
balance each other. So, for example, if σ XZ is not equal in magnitude to σ ZX the cube will spin
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altrettanto angusto, è, come in ogni altro ordine d'idee e di fatti fra
noi, così anche in questo, il dominio della leggenda. È già stato
osservato da parecchi, che la fioritura leggendaria, nelle età che
l'avrebber portata, scarseggiò in Italia; e ciò perchè, lo dirò con le
parole d'un critico tedesco, [97] «gl'Italiani avevano dietro a sè
un'epoca di grande cultura nell'antichità, le cui traccie non si erano
mai interamente perdute, essi non uscirono da un tempo di barbarie:
e quindi mancavano loro appunto.... tradizioni, la origine delle quali
risalisse a tempi oscuri e mitici». Siffatta condizione storica rivolse
verso fonti oltramontane il naturale appetito delle plebi al
maraviglioso, originando quella poesia romanzesca, la quale
solamente fra noi doveva inalzarsi a creazioni d'arte grandiose e
squisite; siffatta condizione storica, anche per altri o cicli tradizionali,
o temi individui di leggenda, fu causa che il remoto e l'esotico
apparissero quasi essenzial condizione perchè un soggetto
addivenisse leggendario. Ciò premesso, sembrerà piuttosto troppo
che poco, trovare circonfusa del nimbo della leggenda qualche figura
di donna fiorentina, e non dai due primi secoli del Comune, sibbene
da quelli della sua piena maturità.
Al secolo XIV sembra invero appartenere, se si considerano le
circostanze dei fatti, il soggetto della novella, fin dal XV popolare, e
tale conservatasi, specialmente nella sua forma metrica, fino a' di
nostri, di Ippolito e Lionora; [98] una delle tante versioni sotto le quali
si è perpetuata la leggenda dell'amor contrastato, da Piramo e Tisbe
agli amanti veronesi che Guglielmo Shakspeare e Vincenzio Bellini
hanno resi immortali. Ma nella leggenda fiorentina mancano e la
catastrofe tragica, conchiudendosi l'amore con lieta fine, e quasi la
forma stessa di leggenda, alla cui scarna semplicità subentrano le
forme tornite e conversevoli della novella. Ippolito de' Buondelmonti
ama la Lionora, o Dianora, de' Bardi, e n'è riamato, nonostante la
nimicizia che, sebben guelfe ambedue, divide le loro famiglie.
Disperato del proprio amore, il giovane si consuma e ne inferma; e
alla madre, che piangendo lo interroga, rivela la segreta cagione del
suo languire. L'amore materno spinge le donne, non avvisando altro
mezzo, a pregare una zia di Lionora, abbadessa nel convento di
Monticelli, che procuri di far trovare insieme i due amanti. Il che
avuto effetto e giuratasi fede di sposi, e stabilito come rivedersi con
maggior agio nella casa di Lionora, nel recarvisi Ippolito nottetempo,
è fermato dalla famiglia del Potestà. Egli, per salvare l'onore della
donna amata, si dà per ladro, e tale persiste a dichiararsi,
nonostante l'onta e la desolazione de' suoi; tacendo, a quel che
sembra, le donne, per ispavento che, risapendosi il vero, le due
famiglie e respettive consorterie non s'arrovescino l'una contro
l'altra, e prima vittima sia lo stesso Ippolito. Il giovine generoso,
condannato a ignominiosa morte, prega, per la salvezza almeno
dell'anima, «che vi piaccia, nel mandarmi alla giustizia, che io faccia
la via alla casa de' Bardi, acciò che gli possa domandare perdono
dell'odio che io come inimico ho portato loro»; ma in realtà,
«solamente per vedere una volta Lionora, prima che morisse». Gli è
concesso; e il lugubre corteggio, a suon di trombe e con lo
stendardo della giustizia alla testa, s'incammina: Lionora si fa alla
finestra, e gli sguardi de' due sposi s'incontrano: allora ella «come
furiosa discende la scala, a malgrado di tutte le donne di casa...., si
gitta fuori della porta, afferra per la briglia il cavallo del cavaliere del
Potestà, e grida: Finchè la vita mi starà nel corpo, tu non menerai
Ippolito alla morte, la quale lui non ha meritata.» E si gitta nelle
braccia del condannato. Il cavaliere non sa che si fare, la gente
romoreggia; la Signoria chiama a sè i due giovani: «Ippolito, legato
con la corda intorno al collo, e Lionora scapigliata e piangente,
seguendoli gran copia di popolo». La giovine si fa innanzi e domanda
ragione: «cioè, che voi mi rendiate il mio marito e sposo; altrimente
io appello a Dio ed al mondo, chiamando vendetta di tanta
ingiustizia, pregando Dio che con i suoi giusti occhi riguardi le vostre
inique sentenze e malvagi giudizi.» La Signoria, verificati i fatti,
chiama i padri de' due sposi: «li quali intendono la cosa per dritto
modo, e quivi in presenza de' Signori e del popolo, fermano il
parentado. E dove già duecento anni i Buondelmonti e i Bardi erano
stati inimici a morte, divennero amicissimi per il parentado che tutti
parevano d'uno sangue.» Vedete, o Signore gentili, che la leggenda
ha pur voluto dare la sua eroina a Firenze, e l'ha chiesta all'amore.
Amorosa pure è la leggenda della sepolta viva; che il suo rozzo
cantastorie quattrocentista riferisce al 1393. Ginevra degli Amieri
(Almieri, per corruzione popolare) è amata da Antonio dei Rondinelli,
ma dal padre sposata invece a Francesco degli Agolanti. Infermatasi
e tramortita è, in que' sospetti di morìa, creduta estinta, e la
seppelliscono da Santa Reparata. Ritorna ai sensi dentro la tomba, si
accorge dell'atroce suo caso, si raccomanda alla Vergine, e guidata
da un debole raggio di luna che trapela da uno spiraglio del sepolcro,
sale una scaletta, riesce a smuovere la pietra testè murata; ed ecco
la sua bianca figura, che rasente al Campanile, pel chiasso che poi
da lei si vorrebbe essere stato chiamato della Morte, incamminasi
alla casa del marito. Batte, ed è il marito stesso che si affaccia alla
finestra;
La sventurata
VII.
Signore e Signori,
Fra pochi giorni, su quel terreno che la religione e l'arte hanno fatto
sacro all'Italia e al mondo civile, converrà da tutte le nazioni, alle
solenni fratellanze del pensiero, un devoto unanime pellegrinaggio.
Santa Maria del Fiore avrà avuto, dopo quasi seicent'anni dalla prima
pietra, il suo compimento. [109] Ma i nostri vecchi, lasciando questa
gloria al secolo che ora tramonta, non potettero prevedere, nè
avrebbero osato augurarsi, che la pietra ultima sarebbe stata
consegnata alle fondamenta dalla mano invitta di Colui che la patria
italiana doveva salutare suo unificatore, suo padre, suo re; [110] che
le feste dell'opera degnamente compiuta avrebbero inauguratori i
figli di lui, il Re la Regina i Principi d'Italia; dell'Italia finalmente
pacificata e concorde in tutte le sue terre, di nazione storica
rivendicatasi a nazione vivente, e del l'avvenire affidata dalla
coscienza del proprio diritto, e dal valore de' suoi soldati che
combattono e muoiono, senza contare i nemici, nel nome di lei e del
dovere. [111] Santa Maria del Fiore si apparecchia a dischiudere le
sue porte ai sovrani benedetti da Dio e dal popolo; e di sotto ai
novelli marmi del suo limitare fremeranno in quel giorno le ossa, e
per gli spazi delle arcate severe si affolleranno invisibili, intorno agli
Eletti della nazione, i magnanimi spiriti dell'antica Firenze. Il
difensore a viso aperto e tutelatore della patria, l'Uberti, «si ergerà
col petto e con la fronte» dalla tomba sua vera, [112] drappellando
nel cospetto del Re prode e leale la vecchia insegna del popolo
fiorentino, la Croce, oggi per virtù di Casa Savoia insegna di popolo e
di re. Ma a Guido Cavalcanti, nel suo riaffacciarsi dal sepolcro al
«dolce lume» del sole, «ferirà gli occhi» una visione gentile, come
quelle da lui già idoleggiate nella sdegnosa fantasia, e gli farà
ripetere li amorosi suoi versi, [113] per entro a' quali trepida,
interrogando, l'affetto:
8.
25. G. Villani, l. c.
31. Vedi il citato mio studio su Beatrice; ed ivi anche ciò che
concerne il matrimonio stesso dell'Alighieri con la Donati.
51. Vedi nel mio libro Dino Compagni e la sua Cronica, II, 519.