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 4.1 The Role of Energy Conversion
Shahid Islam, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada and King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Ibrahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

4.1.1 Introduction 2
4.1.2 Background 4
4.1.3 Systems and Applications 7
4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat 7
4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel 7
4.1.3.2 Thermal Efficiency of Energy Conversions 8
4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State 9
4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors 10
4.1.4.2 Heat Engines 14
4.1.4.3 Thermal Efficiency 15
4.1.4.4 Refrigerators 16
4.1.4.4.1 Coefficient of performance 17
4.1.4.5 Heat Pump 18
4.1.4.6 Absorption Chillers 19
4.1.4.7 The Carnot Heat Engine 20
4.1.5 Renewable Energy Conversions 21
4.1.5.1 Biomass Energy Conversion 21
4.1.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion 22
4.1.5.3 Ocean Current Energy 24
4.1.5.4 Solar Thermal Energy Conversions 25
4.1.5.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion 28
4.1.6 Case Studies 29
4.1.6.1 Case Study 1 30
4.1.6.1.1 Thermodynamic assessment 30
4.1.6.1.2 Results and discussion 33
4.1.6.2 Case Study 2 34
4.1.6.2.1 Thermodynamic assessment 34
4.1.6.2.2 Results and discussion 35
4.1.7 Future Directions 36
4.1.8 Concluding Remarks 37
References 37
Further Reading 38
Relevant Websites 39

Nomenclature m_ Mass flow rate (kg/s)

A Area (m) n Number of moles
C Compressor P Pressure (kPa)
_
Ex Exergy rate (kW) Q_ Heat rate (kW)
ex Specific exergy (kJ/kg) r Radius (m)
g Gravity (m/s2) R Refrigerant
GHV Gross heating value (kJ/kg) S_ gen Entropy generation (kW/K)
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) s Specific entropy (kJ/kg K)
H Total enthalpy of the flow T Temperature (K)
HHV High heating value (kJ/kg) v Specific volume (m3/kg)
K Thermal conductivity (W/m2 K) V Velocity (m/s)
L Length of semiconductor (m) W _ Work rate (kW)
LHV Lower heating value (kJ/kg) Z Figure of merit

Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00401-6 1

2 The Role of Energy Conversion

Greek Symbols y Total energy of flowing fluid

D Change c Exergy efficiency
r Density (kg/m3) o Humidity ratio (kgwater/kgair)
Z Energy efficiency

Subscripts H High
a Charging water inlet state HE Heat exchanger
abs Absorber hp Heat pump
act Actual i Inlet state
avail Available L Low
avg Average n n type semiconductor
b Charging water exit state p p type semiconductor
c Cold P Pump
c Discharging water inlet state prod Products
chrg Charging rev Reversible
cond Condenser s Source
cool Cooling effect of absorption chiller st Storing
d Discharging water exit state t Turbine
dest Destruction th Thermal
dis Discharging TEC Thermoelectric cooler
E exit state TEG Thermoelectric generator
en Energy u Utilization
eva Evaporator vap Vaporize
gen Generator 0 Reference environment
h Hot 1, 2,….67 State number

Acronyms HTF Heat transfer fluid

AFUE Annual fuel utilization efficiency LiBr–H2O Lithium bromide–water
CHP Combined heat and power multigen Multigeneration
COP Coefficient of performance MBE Mass balance equation
EBE Energy balance equation ORC Organic Rankine cycle
EES Engineering equation solver PTSC Parabolic trough solar collector
EnBE Entropy balance equation TEC Thermoelectric cooler
ExBE Exergy balance equation TEG Thermoelectric generator
HAWT Horizontal axis wind turbine TES Thermal energy storage
HEX Heat exchanger VAWT Vertical axis wind turbine

4.1.1 Introduction

A huge number of energy conversion processes occur naturally. Humans have invented a large number of additional energy
conversion methods throughout history. Energy conversion devices can be classified according to chemical and physical principles,
and the different forms of energy at the inlet and exit states of the device. In this chapter, different types of energy conversion
fundamentals including renewable energy will be discussed and explained. The simplified process of changing energy from one
form to another is referred to as energy conversion as represented in Fig. 1.
The term “heat-power engineering” was commonly used for “energy conversion engineering” before World War II. The energy
of available sources like the sun, fossil fuels, and nuclear fuels can be transformed into useful energy such as electricity, rotation,
propulsion, cooling, and heating through energy conversion engineering [1]. Energy conversion engineers face the biggest chal-
lenges, like selection of the appropriate method, minimizing losses, reducing pollution, and reducing overall cost of the developed
systems, respectively.

Energy conversion
Energy source Useful energy
technology

Fig. 1 Conversion of energy sources to useful outputs.

 The Role of Energy Conversion 3

45

Energy consumption (1000 TJ)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
Petroleum products Hydro
Natural gas Coal
Liquid biofuels Other renewable energy
Fig. 2 Global energy consumption and projection. Data from Energy Information Administration US. Annual energy outlook report. Available:
https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/0383(2017).pdf; 2017 [accessed 20.03.17].
Electricity generation capacity (GW)

40 History Projections
Additions
30 Solar
20 Wind
10 Oil and gas
0 Nuclear
10 Coal
Retirements
20
30
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
Fig. 3 Additions and retirements of annual electricity generating capacity in gigawatts. Reproduced from Energy Information Administration US.
Annual energy outlook report. Available: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/0383(2017).pdf; 2017 [accessed 20.03.17].

The demand for energy is estimated to increase at a much faster rate in the near future. Fig. 2 provides an overview of the energy
consumption through previous years and an estimate of the future energy consumption, based on different energy sources [2].
Renewable energy sources (except hydropower) continue to offer more potential than actual energy production.
The demand of energy is increasing worldwide due to growing population and higher living standards. The combustion of
fossil fuels, mainly coal, natural gas, and petroleum, supply most of the energy demand of the world. The utilization of fossil fuels
through combustion to meet the increasing energy demand results in fast depletion of fossil fuel reserves and environmental
degradation like acid rain, smog formation, global warming, ozone depletion, and health hazards. The energy conservation and
search for alternative sources of energy are crucial to encounter with energy crisis and pollution. In the past, various investigations
have been done on the conservation of energy in fossil fueled power generation systems. It is important to exploit alternative
sources of energy to mitigate environmental concerns and global warming.
Conservation and energy efficiency have exhibited compelling results over the past three decades. In addition to this, energy
efficient processes offer potential to relieve some of the dependence on the import of petroleum products and compensate
increased electric power demand to some extent [3]. Fig. 3 represents the additions and retirements of the annual electricity
generating capacity in gigawatts from different energy sources according to the US Energy Information Administration annual
energy outlook report [2].
The projections show that the use of coal to generate electricity is going to end by 2040, whereas the use of solar, oil, and gas
energy sources will increase considerably. The environmental concerns and the limitations of the resources available on Earth are
the deriving factors to increase the conversion of solar energy into electricity. The use of new concepts and alternatives to convert
renewable energy are gaining acceptance due to strict environmental legislations.
Currently the focus on the renewables is short term as compared to the long term objectives due to limited research and budget
constraints. Nevertheless, open attitudes are established as new and previously discarded ideas are now being implemented. Some
4 The Role of Energy Conversion

Table 1 Illustrations of energy conversion processes corresponding to the initial form of the available energy and converted form of energy

Initial energy Converted energy (form)

(form)
Heat Mechanical Electrical Radiant Chemical

Heat Convector, radiator, Thermodynamic Thermionic and – –

heat pipe engines thermoelectric
generators
Mechanical Friction churning Turbines Electric generator, – –
MHDa
Electrical Resistance, heat pump Electric motor – Lamp, laser Electrolysis, battery
charging
Radiant Absorber – Photovoltaic cell – Photolysis
Chemical Burner, boiler – Fuel cell, battery – –
discharge
Nuclear Reactor – – – –
a
Magneto-hydrodynamic generators.
Source: Modified from Sorensen B. Renewable energy conversion, transmission and storage. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press.

System

Energy in Process
Energy out

Surroundings
Loss
Fig. 4 Layout of energy conversion process with loss to surroundings.

of the examples are combined gas and steam turbine cycles, solar and wind energy-based farms, rotary combustion engines,
multigeneration, solar concentrators, photovoltaic (PV) solar power, waste driven devices, turbocharged engines, fluidized-bed
combustors, and coal- and biomass-based integrated gasification combined cycle power plants. The modification in the old
technologies and the continuous development of new ones are necessary to meet the rapidly growing energy demand of the world.
Hence, energy conversion engineering is an exceedingly appealing, complicated, and feasible field at present due to increased
environmental concerns [1].
The conversion of one form of energy to another form depends on the process, requirements, and the quality of the available
initial form of the energy. The process and the connections between the different forms of available energies are tabulated in
Table 1.
The most usable form of energy in a substance is usually in the form of extremely structured chemical bonds such as gasoline
and sugar. It is possible to convert all other forms of energy to heat completely but the complete conversion of the heat to other
energy forms is not possible because of factors like heat loss, friction, and other constraints. Therefore, the thermal efficiencies (Zth)
of the energy conversion are considerably less than 100%. Typical steam power converts about 35%–40% of the heat to electricity
whereas typical automobile engines based on gasoline operate at about 25% efficiency. Some amount of thermal energy is lost
when it is converted to other forms of energy as represented in Fig. 4. In some cases it is very difficult to conserve the waste energy,
for instance, 90% of the electrical power/energy is wasted in the form of heat in a light bulb while only 10% is converted to
electricity. This clearly indicates that energy conversion efficiency has some distinct limits. Hence, a low temperature thermal
reservoir is required as a sink to convert energy to useful work [4–7].

4.1.2 Background

The study of the history of science and engineering presented in Table 2 shows some of the key ideas and inventions along with the
names of inventors. Some of these inventions are the landmarks for the energy conversion engineers. The significant inventions are
tabulated in Table 2 as it is not possible to present the complete history associated with energy conversion. Most of these
milestones were the achievements of teams of recognized individuals whose talents were essential part toward success. Table 2 also
portrays how these ideas, events, and scientific and technological advancements are linked with each other and their dependence
on their predecessor [8].
 The Role of Energy Conversion 5

Table 2 Significant developments of techniques in energy conversion

Name of scientist/company Year Development/invention

Giovanni Branca 1629 Proposal of impulse steam turbine

James Watt 1765 The idea of separate steam condenser
James Watt 1775 First Boulton and Watt condensing steam engine
John Barber 1791 Ideas and patent of gas turbine
Benjamin Thompson 1798 Mechanical energy conversion (Count Rumford) to heat observed in boring
process of cannon
Robert Fulton 1807 First commercial steamboat
Robert Stirling 1816 Stirling engine
N. L. Sadi Carnot 1824 Fundamentals of an ideal heat engine (foundation of thermodynamics)
Michael Faraday 1831 First generator (electric current)
Robert Mayer 1842 Heat and work equivalence
James Joule 1847 1st Law of Thermodynamics (basic ideas developed)
James Joule 1849 Mechanical equivalent of heat measured
Rudolph Clausius 1850 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) 1851 Alternate of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Etienne Lenoir 1860 Internal combustion (IC) engine with no mechanical compression
A. Beau de Rochas 1862 4-stroke cycle (IC engine )
James C. Maxwell 1865 Mathematical principles linked with electromagnetics
Niklaus Otto 1876 Four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine
Charles Parsons 1884 Steam turbine with multistage and axial-flow reaction
C.G.P. de Laval 1889 Convergent-divergent nozzle used in impulse steam turbine
Rudolph Diesel 1892 Diesel engine with mechanical compression
– 1895 1st Hydroelectric power (Niagara Falls)
Albert Einstein 1905 Equivalence mass/energy
Ernst 1926 Schrodinger mechanics of quantum wave
Frank Whittle 1930 Patent application for turbojet engine
Frank Whittle 1937 Static test of 1st jet engine
Otto Hahn 1938 Nuclear fission discovered
Hans von 1939 1st turbojet engine flight (Ohain)
J. Ackeret, C. Keller 1939 Gas turbine (GT) electric power generation in a closed-cycle
Enrico Fermi 1942 University of Chicago demonstrated nuclear fission
– 1957 Electricity produced through nuclear fission at Shippingport, Pennsylvania
NASA 1969 Man landed on moon with vehicle powered by rocket
Electricité de France 1986 Fast breeder reactor with a capacity of 1200 MW at Superphénix, 1st grid power
Junghans, Germany 1990 Radio-controlled clocks quartz clocks and watches
Linus Torvalds 1991 Collaboratively written first version of computer operating system (Linux)
iRobot Corporation 2002 First version of vacuum cleaning robot (Roomba) was introduced
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov 2004 Graphene discovered
Nicholas Negroponte 2005 Low-cost laptop called OLPC launched by MIT
Apple 2007 Touchscreen cellphone called the iPhone was introduced
Apple 2010 Touchscreen tablet computer, the iPad, came to market
Elon Musk 2013 A giant, pneumatic tube transport system (Hyperloop) was developed
Jean-Pierre Sauvage, J. Fraser Stoddart, 2016 Miniature machines out of molecules were built
and Bernard Feringa

Source: Modified from Sorensen B. Renewable energy conversion, transmission and storage. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press and Woodford C, Technology timeline.
Available: http://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html; 2017 [accessed 25.10.17].

The capacity to perform work is called energy. The different forms of available energy are heat, gravitational, electrical,
chemical, light, and nuclear. The summation of all forms of energy such as internal, kinetic energy, and potential energy in a
system is the total energy possessed by the system. The sum of chemical, nuclear, sensible, and latent energies is the internal energy
associated with a system. The rotation and vibration effects of atoms and molecules are the main cause of sensible internal energy.
The combination of latent and sensible forms of internal energy is the thermal energy of a system. The natural sciences have placed
boundaries on the classification of different forms of energy, such as interactions between neutrons and protons in the nucleus are
atomic energy and energy of chemical bonds is chemical energy. The energy due to the molecular structure of a substance is
independent of reference conditions [9].
The energy resources available in nature are connected to the energy services through energy systems. An extensive array of
energy harnessing technologies is used to transform primary energy resources into useful commodities. The advanced technologies
have also been developed to move energy to the location where energy service is required. For example, human travel is service, the
6 The Role of Energy Conversion

car is service technology, and gasoline is energy commodity produced in a refinery through crude oil. Therefore, crude oil can be
categorized as a primary energy resource [10].
The shares of several primary sources available in a country are referred to as an energy mix. The main factors that define the
structure of an energy mix are availability of the resources, geopolitical and environmental context, and the development of
specific technologies to extract a particular energy resource in the context of political interest [10].
The stored potential energy in hydrogen can be released through fusion as in the sun. Sunlight is among the one of the
converted energies as result of fusion in sun. Furthermore, this sunlight is converted into gravitational potential as it helps water to
evaporate, then this water rains on the elevated areas of the earth. This rain water is stored in dams, which produce electricity with
the help of turbines due to the potential energy of the rain water. Solar energy is also responsible for weather conditions like
hurricanes, rain, wind, snow etc. Plants capture and convert water and carbon dioxide into proteins and carbohydrates through a
chemical process called photosynthesis. This potential of chemical energy is the cause of the development and growth of biological
cells [9].
The energy extracted from the environment is called primary energy and can be categorized in three groups:

1. renewable energy (e.g., solar energy, wind, biomass, ocean, hydropower, and geothermal energy)
2. nonrenewable energy (e.g., crude oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear fuel)
3. waste

Primary energy can be transformed to a useful form of secondary energy through the transformation process depicted in Fig. 5, [11].
Primary energy from nonrenewable energy sources like oil, natural gas, and coal provide 85% of the total demand of the world
[7,12]. The projections of the world energy show that fossil fuels will still be dominating by 2035. According to the principle of
supply and demand, the increase in the price of fossil fuels due to depletion will in turn make it economical to exploit renewable
energy sources such as wind, solar, and biomass [7,12]. In most of the cases electrical energy is the final useful form of energy. The
type of final energy form required sets a limit between the energy consumption and production [13,14].
The transformation of other forms of energy to electrical is based on the seven fundamental approaches [9]:

1. Static electricity is generated from the transport of charge and physical separation. The mechanical separation and transpor-
tation of the charge increase the difference between positive ( þ ve) and negative (  ve) charges, which results in static
electricity. The lightning phenomenon is the best natural illustration of static discharge.
2. Electromagnetic induction is a process in which kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy through three main devices:
an electrical generator, an alternator, and a dynamo. This is the most widely used commercial process of electricity generation
that uses the mechanical energy to drive a generator. The mechanical energy can be produced through different modes like
hydro, tidal, wind, and heat engines.
3. Electrochemistry is a method of transforming chemical energy into electricity, such as, fuel cells and batteries.
4. Thermoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon of conversion of temperature differences at low and high temperature junctions
of the device to electricity. Thermocouples, thermionics, and thermopiles are the best examples of the thermoelectric effect.
5. Photoelectric effect is a process in which light is transformed into electricity, like solar cells.
6. Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electricity as a result of mechanical strain induced in electrically anisotropic crystals.
7. Nuclear transformation is the generation and acceleration of the charged particles. It is possible to directly convert nuclear
energy to electrical energy through beta decay in small scale projects.
Some most commonly used devices or the processes to convert one form of energy to another form are tabulated in Table 3.
The output energy in the form of electrical and mechanical are in high demand from energy sources as these forms can be
converted to any other useful form easily.

Secondary energy
Primary energy

Petroleum products,
Crude oil, coal, derived solid fuels
Transformation

natural gas, nuclear and gases

To consumption

Waste Electricity and heat

Solar, biomass, wind, Bio fuels

hydro, geothermal

Fig. 5 Transformation of primary form of energy to secondary form of energy. Modified from Schobert HH. Energy and society. New York, NY:
Taylor & Francis; 2002.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 7

Table 3 Conversion of one form of energy to other through some devices/processes

Process Input/available form of Energy Useful form of energy

Steam engine Heat Mechanical

Hydroelectric dams Potential/gravitational Electrical
Photosynthesis Solar Chemical
Diesel/petrol engine Chemical Mechanical
Windmills Mechanical Electrical
Electric motor Electricity Mechanical
Fuel cells Chemical Electrical
Generator/electric Mechanical Electrical
Bulb/electric Electricity Light and heat
Battery Chemical Electrical
Ocean thermal Heat Electrical
Resistance heater Electricity Heat
Nerve impulse Chemical Electrical
Bioluminescence Chemical Light
Muscular activity Chemical Mechanical
Wave power Mechanical Electrical
Geothermal power Heat Electrical
Thermoelectric Heat Electrical
Friction Kinetic Heat
Piezoelectric Strain Electrical

Source: Modified from Wu C. Thermodynamic cycles: computer-aided design and optimization. New York,
NY: Dekker; 2004 and Granet I, Bluestein M. Thermodynamics and heat power. 6th ed Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall; 2000.

Energy conversion technology blossomed after the establishment of thermodynamic fundamentals and electromagnetism,
prior to which the technological advancement was significantly slow. The development and advancement in the nuclear tech-
nology is a result of theoretical and experimental research performed in the first half of the 20th century.
The geothermal production of heat and power depends on the depth of reservoirs. Hydrothermal systems with temperatures
more than 453K are found near the boundaries of plate tectonics. Intermediate temperatures with range 373–453K and low
temperatures below 373K geothermal systems are also present in continental settings with/without hydrothermal resources. On
the basis of the temperature, geothermal energy sources can be categorized as low temperatures below 363K, moderate tem-
peratures between 363 and 423K, and high temperatures above 423K [15].

4.1.3 Systems and Applications

Some important energy conversion systems with their applications are discussed in this section.

4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat

The chemical energy contents of a fuel can be converted to heat through direct combustion. The heat is released as a result of
combustion as this reaction is exothermic. The heat of reaction for a combustion is the same as the heat released as a result of
combustion. The standard heat of combustion of a chemical can be calculated using standard heat of formation of the species in
the product of chemical reactions. For example, combustion reaction of one mole of propane (C3H8) can be represented as
C3 H8 ðgÞ þ 5O2 ðgÞ-3CO2 ðgÞ þ 4H2 OðgÞ þ Heat ð1Þ
Considering the ideal gas state at standard pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 25ºC, the standard heat of chemical reaction
can be written as
X
DHro ¼ v DHfio ¼ vCO2 DHfCO
i i
o
2
þ vfH2 O D þ vC3 H3 DHfC
o
3 H3
ð2Þ
where, vi represents the stoichiometric coefficient of species i, which is negative for reactants and positive for products. In the above
example these coefficients are 3, 4, and  1 for carbon dioxide, water, and propane, respectively.

4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel

The total amount of heat rejected during the process of combustion is called heating value of the fuel [16]. The heating value is
usually measured in units of energy per unit mass of the substance, for example, kJ/kg, kcal/kg, or Btu/m3. The three ways to
express the heating values or calorific values of fuels are the lower heating value (LHV), higher heating value (HHV), and gross
heating value (GHV). HHV is obtained by reversing all the products taking part in combustion to the original precombustion
temperature as well as condensing the water vapor as a result of combustion. The hydrocarbon-based fuels are combusted in the
8 The Role of Energy Conversion

presence of air, which can be expressed as

½C þ H ðFuelÞ þ ½O2 þ N2  ðAirÞ-CO2 þ H2 O ðLiquidÞ þ N2 þ Heat ðHHVÞ ð3Þ
½C þ H ðFuelÞ þ ½O2 þ N2 ðAirÞ-CO2 þ H2 O ðVaporÞ þ N2 þ Heat ðLHVÞ ð4Þ
where, C, H, O, and N represent carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, respectively. The GHV in combustion reaction includes
the heat required to vaporize water and the amount of liquid water present in fuel before burning. This GHV value is extremely
significant for fuels like wood and coal as these substances contain some amount of water before burning.
Net calorific value or LHV is obtained from the difference between HHV and the heat of vaporization (water vapor). The HHV
is commonly correlated to the LHV as
  
nH2 O;out MW H2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV  ðDHvap Þ ð5Þ
nfuel;in MW fuel;in
or
 
mH2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV  ðDHvap Þ ð6Þ
mfuel;in
where, DHvap, nH2 O;out , nfuel,in, MW H2 O , and MWfuel represent heat required to vaporize the water in kJ/kg, number of moles of
vaporized water, moles of fuel combusted, molecular weight of water, and molecular weight of fuel, respectively.

Illustrative Example 1: The HHV of methane (CH4) at room temperature (21ºC) is measured as 55,533 kJ/kg. Convert this HHV
to LHV for a given heat of vaporization of water; DHvap,water ¼ 2454 kJ/kg at 21ºC.
Solution:
Assumption: Combustion of methane is complete, no unburnt methane in products.
The equation of chemical reaction of the combustion process can be defined as
CH4 þ 3=2O2 -CO2 þ H2 O

HHV of methane ¼ 55;533 kJ=kg

From periodic table
MW H2 O ¼ H2 þ1=2O2 ¼ 2 þ 16 ¼ 18 kg=kmol
MW CH4 ¼ C þ 4H ¼ 12 þ 4 ¼ 16 kg=kmol
nCH4 ¼ 1 kmol and nH2 O ¼ 2 kmol
n
Therefore, nHCH2 O ¼ 2=1
4
Heat of vaporization: DHvap,water ¼ 2454 kJ/kg at 21ºC
Hence, using Eq. (5)
  
nH2 O;out MWH2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV  ðDHvap Þ
nfuel;in MWfuel;in
LHV ¼ 55;533 kJ=kg  ð2454 kJ=kgÞ ð2=1Þ ð18=16Þ
LHV ¼ 50;010 kJ=kg

4.1.3.2 Thermal Efficiency of Energy Conversions

The percentage of the thermal energy converted to other forms of useful energy is called thermal efficiency and it is denoted by
“Zth.” Thermal efficiency for devices like furnaces or boilers is the ratio of measure of useful energy to the input energy. In general,
it is not possible to achieve 100% efficiency. Thermal efficiency for steam power plants and other such systems is low. For instance,
the efficiency of most light emitting bulbs ranges between 5% and 10% because of the losses to the environment in the form of
heat. The thermal efficiency of a heater based on electric resistance is close to 100%, whereas, the efficiency of the natural gas-based
furnace is about 80%. The selection of better heating unit is based on efficiency as well as other factors like economic analysis for
the cost-effective selection [11,17–19].
Thermal efficiency associated with the chemical fuels is generally an evaluation of the chemical energy and the useful form of
energy recovered as kinetic energy. The efficiency depends upon the type of heating value of fuel used as input energy because
efficiency is obtained by the ratio of the useful energy extracted and released input energy.
The production of saturated water in boilers involves the sum of latent heat of vaporization and increase in its sensible heat.
The rate of heat gained by the water can be written as
q_ ¼ mðC
_ p;av DT þ DHvap Þ ð7Þ
_ m;
where, q; _ Cp ; DT, and DHvap represents rate of heat gain, mass flow rate, temperature difference at inlet and outlet states, and heat
of vaporization, respectively. Heat is gained in the vaporization process whereas, heat is released in the condensation process as
Vaporization: H2 O ðliquidÞ þ DHvap -H2 O ðvapor Þ ð8Þ
 The Role of Energy Conversion 9

Condensation: H2 O ðvapor Þ-H2 OðliquidÞ þ DHcond ð9Þ

The heat of vaporization at the constant temperature and pressure is the same as heat of condensation.
At constant temperature and pressure: DHvap ¼ DHcond ð10Þ
The LHV is actual magnitude of the heat that a boiler can produce because some of the combustion heat is required to
evaporate water that is lost with the flue gases. The precise amount of the air supply is important for the efficiency of the boilers.
The excess amount of air will result in loss of heat through the furnace. Conversely, less air will result in incomplete combustion
and unburnt fuel. The water vapors are released to the stack during the combustion process so the net calorific value of the fuel
does not include this portion of energy.
The manufacturers of the furnaces often state the thermal efficiency in steady state but annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE)
should also be considered before selection, which provides better estimate of energy effectiveness for a year.

4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State

Many engineering devices like engines, compressors, and turbines are classified as steady-flow devices once they start operating
under steady state for long hours after completing their transient start-up duration. Under steady state operation the fluid flow
across the control volume is steady so such devices are called steady-flow processes. This means that the properties of fluid may
change while flowing through a control volume but these remain constant during the entire process. The amount of mass energy
and volume at inlet state of a steady-flow system must be equal to the exit state as shown in Fig. 6.
The mass balance at inlet and exit states can be written as
X X
_ ¼
m _
m ðkg=sÞ ð11Þ
in in oui out

The fluid properties may change over a cross section between inlet and exit but the rate of change remains constant at inlet and/
or exit. The interactions of heat and work between surroundings and steady-flow system remain unchanged with time. Hence, in a
steady-flow process heat transfer rate and power obtained to or from the system remain constant. Fig. 7 represents the balance of
mass flow rate and enthalpy when a stream is split in two streams at the exit.
The enthalpy is considered in systems with ideal fluid flow instead of internal energy and the work (PV) performed by fluid
flow is included within enthalpy. The mass balance of the above system can be written as
m _2þm
_1 ¼m _3 ð12Þ
The energy balance equation (EBE) can be written as
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð13Þ
The general equation of all forms of energy (mass, heat, and work) balance across a control volume can be expressed as
E_ in ¼ E_ out ðkW Þ ð14Þ

Mass in

Control
volume

mCV = Constant

ECV = Constant Mass

out

Fig. 6 Mass and energy balance in a control volume.

.
m1 .
m2
h1
Control h2
volume .
m3

h3

Fig. 7 Mass flow rate and enthalpy in a control volume.

10 The Role of Energy Conversion

Heat loss . Electric

Qout .
Hot water heating Win
out element
. .
m2 = m1
Control
volume .
m1
Hot water tank Cold
water in

Fig. 8 Water heater operating in steady state.

Fig. 9 Industrial steam turbine with capacity from 2 to 250 MW. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://www.energy.
siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].

A water heater in a steady state operation is represented in Fig. 8. Mass of cold water m _ 1 enters the tank with heat Q _ in , where
electric heating element performs work W_ in and heats up the water. The heat lost to the environment is Q _ out . The energy balance in
the form of heat, work, and mass can be written as
X X
Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ ¼Q
my _ out þ W
_ out þ _
my ð15Þ
in out

The unit mass of the fluid flowing possesses the summation of enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.
V2
y¼hþ þ gz
2
By substituting the value of “y” in above equation
X  V2
 X 
V2

Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ hþ
m þ gz ¼ _ out þ W
Q _ out þ _ hþ
m þ gz ð16Þ
in 2 out 2
The energy balance relation is easy to use in the case when the amount and the direction of transfer of heat and work are well
known. Conversely, when both of these parameters are unknown then direction for work or heat interactions are assumed. The
general form of energy balance or the first law associated with a steady-flow system can be represented as
X   X  
_ W _ ¼ V2 V2
Q _ hþ
m þ gz  _ hþ
m þ gz ð17Þ
out 2 in 2
_ or W
The negative value of Q _ shows that the assumption of heat or work transfer was made in the wrong direction and needs to
be reversed. The above expression can be simplified for a single stream as
 
_ W _ ¼m V 2  V12
Q _ h2  h1 þ 2 þ g ðz2  z1 Þ ð18Þ
2

4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors

Turbines drive electric generators in steam, hydro, or gas-based power plants. The turbine blades are fixed to a shaft, which rotates
due to the force of the working fluid on the blades. The rotating shaft is coupled with the generator, which converts mechanical
energy into electricity. Fig. 9 represents the blades of an industrial steam turbine.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 11

Fig. 10 An oil-free SST-600 steam turbine including active magnetic bearing. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://
www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].

Fig. 10 shows an oil-free steam turbine (SST-600), which includes an active magnetic bearing for efficient operation. Pumps,
fans, and compressors work opposite to the turbine as they increase the pressure of the working fluid. These devices are driven
through mechanical energy, which rotates the shaft so the work input is required to drive them. The function of these three devices
is similar but there is a difference in the tasks.

• Compressors: Intake low pressure gas and compress it to a very high pressure.
• Fans: Mobilize gas while there is slight increase in the pressure as well.
• Pumps: Perform work similar to the compressors except that they handle liquids unlike gas in the compressors.
 
_
The turbines are very well insulated so heat transfer is approximately equal to zero QE0 . The heat transfer for compressors is
also assumed zero as except for the cases where inlet cooling is provided. It is also important to note that fans, pumps, and
compressors require work input to drive whereas, turbines produce work output. The change in the potential energies associated
with these devices is negligible therefore it is assumed zero (Dpe E 0). The change in the velocities in these devices is also too low
to cause any major change so the kinetic energies of these devices are also taken as zero (Dke E 0). In turbines, the fluctuation in
the fluid velocities are often too high, which results in substantial change in the kinetic energy but this change is minor as
compared to change in the enthalpy, therefore, kinetic energy is evaded from the analysis [6,20].
Recent developments have successfully produced highly efficient and sustainable compressors for numerous applications
within process industries as presented in Fig. 11. A wide range of turbocompressors are available to suit specific needs.

Illustrative Example 2: The intake of an air compressor receives air at 101.325 kPa and 290K and compresses it to 607.95 kPa and
450K. The air flows at a rate of 0.025 kg/sec. The heat loss during the compression process is 20 kJ/kg. Calculate the power required
to drive the compressor assuming that net change in kinetic and potential energies is zero (Figs. 12 and 13).
Solution: Compression process is steady and power input is required.
Assumptions:

1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Ideal properties of air are taken from Engineering Equation Solver (EES).
3. Negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies (Dke ¼0 and Dpe ¼0).

Analysis: Compressor is assumed as a system with control volume. Work is supplied and heat is lost. Mass crosses the system
boundary so m_1¼m
_2¼m _
dEsystem
E_ in  E_ out ¼ ¼ 0 ðSteady stateÞ
dt
E_ in ¼ E_ out
_ in þ mh
W _ out þ mh
_ 1 ¼Q _ 2 ðDke ¼ 0 and Dpe ¼ 0Þ
W _ in ¼ mq_ out þ mðh
_ 2  h1 Þ
12 The Role of Energy Conversion

Fig. 11 Single-stage turbocompressor. Adapted from A unique portfolio of turbocompressors for all industries. Available from: https://www.
energy.siemens.com/hq/en/compression-expansion/product-lines/; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].

qout = 20 kJ/kg
P2 = 607.95 kPa
T2 = 450K

Air

m = 0.025 kg/s
.
Win =?
P1 = 101.325 kPa
T1 = 290K

Fig. 12 Layout of compressor with inlet and exit parameters.

P1 = 3 MPa
T1 = 673K
V1 = 60 m/s
z1 = 12m

Steam turbine

Wout = 6 MW

P2 = 15 kPa
x2 = 90%
V2 = 190 m/s
z2 = 5m

Fig. 13 Layout of turbine with inlet and exit parameters.

Using EES to find the values of ideal air at specified temperatures

h1 ¼ h@290K ¼ 290:4 kJ=kg
h2 ¼ h@450K ¼ 452:1 kJ=kg

Substituting the values in above equation

_ in ¼ ð0:25 kg=sÞ ð20 kJ=sÞ þ ð0:25 kg=sÞ ð452:1  290:4ÞkJ=kg
W
_ in ¼ 4:54 kW
W
 The Role of Energy Conversion 13

Illustrative Example 3: Steam enters an adiabatic steam turbine at 3 MPa and 773K, and leaves at 15 kPa with 90% quality of
steam. Turbine produces 6 MW power. The velocities and the heights at inlet and exit are 190 m/s and 12 m, and 60 m/s and 5 m,
respectively.

1. Calculate change in enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

2. Calculate work done per kg of the steam.
3. Determine rate of mass flow of steam.

Solution: The inlet and exit temperature, pressure, velocity, and quality of the steam are given as shown in Fig. 8. Calculations
of changes in kinetic and potential energies, work done per unit mass, and mass flow rate have to be performed.
Assumptions:
1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Real fluid properties of steam are taken from EES.
3. Turbine is adiabatic.

Analysis:
The turbine is considered as a system with control volume. Mass crosses the system boundary so m _2¼m
_1 ¼m _

1. Using EES to find the value of enthalpy h1 as

P1 ¼ 3 MPa

T1 ¼ 773K

h1 ¼ 3456 kJ=kg

The fluid is a mixture of liquid and vapor at the outlet of turbine so

h2 ¼ hf þ x2 hfg

h2 ¼ 2361 kJ=kg

Dh ¼ h2  h1 ¼ ð2361  3456Þ kJ=kg

Dh ¼  1095 kJ=kg

 
V22  V12 ð190 m=sÞ2  ð60 m=sÞ2 1 kJ=kg
Dke ¼ ¼
2 2 1000 m2 =s2

Dke ¼ 16:25 kJ=kg

 
  1 kJ=kg
Dpe ¼ g ðz2  z1 Þ ¼ ½ 9:8 m=s2 ð12  5Þm
1000 m2 =s2

Dpe ¼  0:068 kJ=kg

2. E_ in  E_ out ¼
dEsystem
dt ¼ 0 ðSteady stateÞ
 
V 2  V12
wout ¼  ðh2  h1 Þ þ 2 þ g ðz2  z1 Þ ¼  ðDh þ Dke þ DpeÞ
2

wout ¼  ½1095 þ 16:25  0:068 kJ=kg ¼ 1078 kJ=kg

3. Mass flow rate needed to produce 6 MW of power

_ out
W 6000 kJ=s
_ ¼
m ¼ ¼ 5:57 kg=s
wout 1078 kJ=kg
14 The Role of Energy Conversion

Discussion: It is important to note that the magnitude of potential energy is too low while the magnitude of kinetic energy is
negligible as compared to the enthalpy. Therefore, for the calculation of most of the engineering problems both of these energies
are usually omitted as inclusion will not make any significant difference.

4.1.4.2 Heat Engines

It is easy to convert work to energy but the conversion of energy to work is not easy. For example, if a shaft rotates in a container of
water the work will be converted to heat up water but if we heat up water with a shaft in it then the shaft will not rotate. This
means that conversion of heat to work is possible with some mechanical device called a heat engine. Heat engines:

1. Use high temperature source like furnace, solar energy, nuclear reactor, etc. to provide heat.
2. Convert partial amount of heat to work.
3. Reject waste heat to sink (low temperature reservoirs like rivers, etc.).
4. Operate based on a complete cycle.

A simple heat engine that absorbs heat from a high temperature source and rejects it to the sink is shown in Fig. 14.
The devices that operate in a closed loop or cycle including heat engines use a fluid that absorbs heat from the source and
rejects it to a sink; this fluid is called a working fluid. The wider sense of heat engine includes internal combustion engines, which
burn hydrocarbon line gasoline, and this fluid does not complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The definition of heat engine is best suited to the external combustion engine such as the steam turbine or steam power plant.
Steam is generated by heating the water through an external source, which runs the turbine, and then working fluid is cooled close
to the atmospheric conditions in a condenser and then is pumped back to the boiler with the help of a pump. The simplified
schematic of a power plant is shown in Fig. 15.

Heat source
high temperature

Qin

Heat
engine Wnet, out

Qout

Heat sink
low temperature
Fig. 14 Schematic of a heat engine operating between heat source and sink.

Energy source
Qin

Boiler

Pump Wout
Turbine

Win

Condenser

Energy sink Qout

Fig. 15 Layout of a power plant with steam as a working fluid.

 The Role of Energy Conversion 15

The different quantities represented in Fig. 15 may be explained as

Qin ¼Heat addition in boiler from high temperature source to the steam
Win ¼Work output delivered by the turbine
Qout ¼ Heat rejection in condenser to atmosphere or any other low temperature sink
Wout ¼Work input required to pump the water back to the boiler

The net amount of the work obtained through this power plant is the difference between the total work output and total work
input as
Wnet;out ¼ Win  Wout ðkJÞ ð19Þ

The net change in the internal energy of a closed system operating in a cycle is zero. There are four components connected with
each other through pipes in the above steam power plant and the same working fluid is flowing through them; hence this can be
treated as closed loop. Therefore, the net amount of work output can also be calculated from the difference between the heat
supplied and heat rejected as

Wnet;out ¼ Qin  Qout ðkJÞ ð20Þ

4.1.4.3 Thermal Efficiency

The amount of heat rejected from the system cannot be zero, therefore, the net amount of the work obtained from a heat engine is
always less than the heat supplied to it. The fraction of the heat input converted to the useful work output is called the thermal
efficiency Zth. The thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be written as
Net amount of work output
Thermal efficiency ¼
Total amount of heat input

Wnet;out
Zth ¼ ð21Þ
Qin
where, Wnet,out ¼ Qin  Qout therefore,
Qout
Zth ¼ 1  ð22Þ
Qin

Illustrative Example 4: Two heat engines are operating at the same heat source of 250 kJ. The heat sink of engine 1 and engine 2
are 187.5 and 175 kJ, respectively. Find net amount of work done and thermal efficiencies of both engines.
Solution:
1. Heat engine 1 with sink 187.5 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ

Qin ¼ 187:5 kJ

Eq. (20) can be used to calculate the net amount of work output.
Wnet;out ¼ Qin  Qout

Wnet;out ¼ 250  187:5 ¼ 62:5 kJ

Thermal efficiency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Qout
Zth ¼ 1 
Qin

187:5
Zth ¼ 1  ¼ 25%
250
2. Heat engine 2 with sink 175 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ

Qin ¼ 175 kJ
16 The Role of Energy Conversion

W net,out = 60 kW
Fuel in m fuel
Qin

Qout
Exhaust out
Fig. 16 Schematic of an internal combustion engine.

Eq. (20) can be used to calculate net amount of work output.

Wnet;out ¼ Qin  Qout

Wnet;out ¼ 250  175 ¼ 75 kJ

Thermal efficiency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Qout
Zth ¼ 1 
Qin

175
Zth ¼ 1  ¼ 30%
250

Illustrative Example 5: An engine of a car delivers 60 kW of power while working with 27% of thermal efficiency. The car is
burning liquid propane whose heating value is 46,340 kJ/kg. Calculate rate of fuel consumption.
Solution: The rate of fuel consumption or the mass flow rate of fuel is to be calculated while power output and thermal
efficiency are given.
Assumptions: The engine of the car provides constant power (Fig. 16).
Analysis: The car engines convert chemical energy of the fuel to mechanical. In this case, 27% of the total energy of fuel is being
converted to power. According to the thermal efficiency amount of energy required to produce 60 kW power can be found as
_
_ in ¼ W net;out ¼ 60 kW ¼ 222:2 kW
Q
Zth 0:27
which means 222.2 kW thermal energy should be supplied to the engine to get 60 kW output for a 27% efficient engine. Hence
mass flow rate can be determined as
222:2 kW
_ ¼
m ¼ 0:0048 kg=s ¼ 17:28 kg=h
46;340 kJ=kg
Discussion: The fuel consumption depends on efficiency of the engine, which means engines with high efficiency consume less
fuel as compared to the engines with less efficiency.

4.1.4.4 Refrigerators
The heat transfer from high temperature source to low temperature sink occurs naturally in the universe and there is no need for a
special device for this purpose. However, the reverse process is not possible without some special device called a refrigerator. The
refrigerators transfer the heat from low temperature space to high temperature region.
The operation of refrigerators is also cyclic just like heat engines. The refrigerant is a working fluid, which circulates in a closed
loop in refrigerators. The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is most widely used, and is based on four main components:

• Compressor: Compresses refrigerant from vapor phase to liquid phase and condenser pressure.
• Condenser: The high temperature compressed refrigerant condenses after rejecting its heat through the condenser to the
surrounding medium.
• Expansion Valve: The temperature and pressure of the refrigerant is dropped remarkably because of the throttling effect as it
passes through the capillary tube.
• Evaporator: The low temperature refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator as it absorbs the heat of the refrigerated area/space.
Then working fluid is directed back to the compressor and the loop is completed.

A schematic of the refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 17. The symbols Wnet,in, QL, and QH represent the net amount of work
input, heat gained from the refrigerated space at TL, and heat rejected to the high temperature region at TH, respectively.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 17

Surroundings

QH

Condenser

Compressor
W net,in
Expansion
valve

Evaporator
Refrigerated QL
space

Fig. 17 Schematic of a refrigeration cycle.

Warm heated
space
TH >TL
QH
Compressor

Wnet,in
Expansion
valve

Cold outside QL
air

Fig. 18 Schematic of a heat pump device.

4.1.4.4.1 Coefficient of performance

The efficiency of the refrigerators is represented as coefficient of performance (COP) and denoted by COPR. The COP of the
refrigerator is the ratio of desired output and work input as (Fig. 18)

Desired output QL
COPR ¼ ¼ ð23Þ
Required work input Wnet;in

The ratio of the above equation can also be written in the form of rate for both output and input. The amount of work input in
this case for the closed loop can be expressed as

Wnet;in ¼ QH  QL ð24Þ

Then, Eq. (23) can be rewritten as

QL 1
COPR ¼ ¼ QH
ð25Þ
QH  QL QL 1

It is important to note that the COPR can be more than one, which means that the amount of heat removed from the
refrigerated space can be more than the work input whereas, thermal efficiencies are always less than one. This is why the
efficiencies of the refrigerators are expressed as COP to avoid any confusion.
18 The Role of Energy Conversion

Illustrative Example 6: The heat is rejected from a refrigerator at the rate of 480 kJ/min. The power required to drive the
compressor is 3.2 kW. Find out
1. Coefficient of performance.
2. The rate at which heat is rejected to the surroundings.
Solution: The power required to drive the compressor is provided whereas, COP and rate at which heat is rejected are to be
calculated.
Assumption: Refrigerator operates in steady state.
Analysis:

(1) The COP can be determined as

_L  
Q 480 kJ=min 1 kW
COPR ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:5
_ net;in
W 3:2 kW 60 kJ=min

This means that each kJ of the work input removes 2.5 kJ of heat.
(2) The rate of heat rejection can be calculated as
 
_H¼Q
Q _ net;in ¼ 480 þ 3:2 kW 60 kJ=min ¼ 672 kJ=min
_L þW
1 kW

Discussion: The amount of energy removed from the refrigerator is transferred to the room, which shows that energy can be
converted to another form but cannot be destroyed.

4.1.4.5 Heat Pump

A device that transfers the heat from low temperature region to high temperature medium is called a heat pump. The objective of
the heat pump is to maintain heat in a high temperature medium, which is done by absorbing heat from the low temperature
medium. The household heat pumps usually absorb heat from ambient air and supply it to the inside of the house and thus
maintain high temperature. The performance of the heat pump is also expressed as COP of heat pump.
Desired output QH
COPHP ¼ ¼ ð26Þ
Required work input Wnet;in
whereas, Wnet,in ¼ QH  QL so the above expression can be written as
QH 1
COPHP ¼ ¼ ð27Þ
QH  QL 1  QL =QH
Heat pumps driven by heat source instead of electricity are called absorption heat pumps. The heat source can be propane,
water, natural gas, or heat transfer fluid (HTF) heated up by solar/geothermal source. Natural gas operated heat pumps are known
as gas-fired heat pumps. Gas-fired coolers are also available but these cannot be reversed to be used as heat source [21].
A heat pump driven by R410a is shown in Fig. 19, which can provide a green way of heating/cooling to the buildings with a COP
of 1.5 [22].

Illustrative Example 7: A house has to be maintained at 23ºC by a heat pump device. The amount of heat lost from the house is
90,000 kJ/h when ambient temperature is  3ºC. If the COP of the heat pump is 3, then calculate

1. Power input required to operate heat pump.

2. The rate at which heat is absorbed from ambient air.

Solution: The COP of the heat pump is known whereas, the power required to drive heat pump and rate of heat absorbed from
ambient are to be calculated.

6
3 2
7
Condenser

Evaporator

Space
heating Heat source

8 5 4 1
Compressor
Fig. 19 Schematic of an R410a driven heat pump.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 19

Assumption: Heat pump operates in steady state.

Analysis:
1. Power consumed by the heat pump can be calculated using the definition of COP as
Q_H 90; 000 kJ kJ 1h
_ net;in ¼
W ¼ ¼ 30;000 or 30;000  ¼ 8:33 kW
COPHP 3 h h 3600 s
2. The rate at which the house is rejecting heat is 90,000 kJ/h to maintain 23ºC so the heat must be supplied at the same rate by
the heat pump.
Q_L ¼Q_HW _ net;in ¼ 90;000  30;000 ¼ 60;000 kJ=h

Discussion: It is important to note that 2/3 of the heat requirement of the house is extracted from the ambient air. Conversely,
if an electric heater is used the total amount of heat 90,000 kJ/h will be delivered by electric power input, which is why heat pump
devices are preferable even though initial investment is high.

4.1.4.6 Absorption Chillers

Absorption chillers are generally classified on the basis of refrigerant and the combination of absorber. Most of the absorption
chillers either use the combination of lithium bromide/water or ammonia/water as refrigerant [23]. For space cooling applications,
lithium bromide/water chillers are preferred. The absorption cycle represented in Fig. 20 consists of six major components, namely
generator, condenser, expansion vale, evaporator, absorber, and solution pump [24].
The cost of absorption refrigeration system is high as compared to the vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Moreover,
these are more complex, low in efficiency, require more space, and large cooling towers. The absorption refrigeration systems
should only be adopted when thermal energy is available at an inexpensive rate. These systems are more suitable for industrial and
commercial applications due to the cost and space needed for the installation. The COP of the absorption system can be defined as
Desired output QL QL
COPabsorption ¼ ¼ D ð28Þ
Required input Qgen þ Wpump;in Qgen
The amount of work input required to drive the pump of the system is neglected due to its lower magnitude. When the whole
absorption refrigeration cycle is considered as reversible then the amount of COP is maximum. The COP of a reversible absorption
refrigeration system can be written as
  
QL T0 TL
COPrev;absorption ¼ ¼ Zth;rev  COP ¼ 1  ð29Þ
Qgen Ts T0  TL
where, T0, TL, and TS are the temperatures of environment, refrigerated space, and heat source, respectively.

Illustrative Example 8: The evaporator of an absorption chiller is producing 2200 kJ of cooling effect. The amount of heat
generated in the generator is 1470 kJ. Calculate the COP of the absorption chiller.
Solution: The amount of heat at the generator and the cooling produced in the evaporator are known whereas, COP is to be
calculated.
Assumption: Absorption refrigeration system is reversible.
Analysis: The COP of the reversible absorption refrigeration can be calculated using Eq. (28) as
QL ¼ 2200 kJ

Qgen ¼ 1470 kJ

Heat source 1

3 Pump 2 7
8
Generator HE 5 Absorber
4 5 6
Absorption refrigeration system
12
13
9
Condenser Evaporator Cooling
10 11
14
Cooling

15
water

16

Fig. 20 Schematic of absorption refrigeration chiller.

20 The Role of Energy Conversion

QL 2200
COPrev;absorption ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:5
Qgen 1470
Discussion: It can be observed that 1.5 kJ of cooling can be produced for each kJ of heat supplied at the generator of the
absorption chiller.

4.1.4.7 The Carnot Heat Engine

A theoretical heat engine based on reversible Carnot cycle is known as a “Carnot heat engine.” Thermal efficiency associated with
the heat engine whether reversible or irreversible can be written as
QL
Zth ¼ 1  ð30Þ
QH
where, QH and QL are the ratio of the heat supplied and heat rejected at the high temperature source TH and low temperature sink
TL, respectively. Moreover, this ratio of heat transfer is same as the ratio of the absolute temperatures of heat source and sink for all
reversible heat engines [6]. Therefore, the Carnot efficiency of a reversible heat engine can also be described as
TL
Zth ¼ 1  ð31Þ
TH
Now the comparison of Eq. (30) and Eq. (31) yields
 
QL TL
¼ ð32Þ
QH rev TH
The above relation yields the highest possible efficiency for reversible engines operating between temperatures TH and TL and it
is known as “Carnot efficiency.” It is impossible for a power cycle to yield 100% efficiency as there are irreversibilities associated
with the actual cycle [25]. It is obvious from Eq. (31) that the efficiency can be increased either by increasing the temperature of the
source reservoir or reducing the temperature of the sink. Both of these temperatures have constraints such as the high temperature
supplied to a power cycle is limited by the material of the device and low temperature is restricted by the temperature of the sink
like ambient, lakes, or rivers.
The thermal efficiencies of most of the actual heat engines are under or around 40%, which seems to be very low as compared
with 100%. As a matter of fact, the efficiencies of the actual heat engines should be correlated or compared to the efficiency of the
reversible one under identical operating conditions as this is the factual theoretical limit for comparison.
Fig. 21 represents the efficiencies of the reversible, irreversible, and impossible heat engines while operating between identical
heat source and sink at 1000 and 300K, respectively. The thermal efficiency of the reversible heat engine is determined 70% using
Eq. (31). Therefore, it is obvious that it is impossible to achieve the magnitude of thermal efficiency more than the efficiency of a
reversible heat engine.
There are two corollaries associated with the maximum possible theoretical efficiency of a Carnot cycle operating between high
and low temperature reservoirs. These Carnot corollaries are:

Corollary 1: When two power cycles, an irreversible and a reversible, operate between identical temperature reservoirs then the
maximum thermal efficiency of the irreversible power cycle is always less than the reversible one.
Corollary 2: The thermal efficiencies of reversible power cycles are the same when these operate at identical high and low
temperature reservoirs.

High-temperature source
TH = 1000K

Rev. Irrev. Impossible

HE HE HE

th = 70% th = 45% th = 80%

Low-temperature sink at
TL = 300K

Fig. 21 Schematic of the efficiencies of the reversible, irreversible, and impossible heat engines (HE). Reproduced from Cengel YA, Boles MA.
Thermodynamics an engineering approach. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 21

The comparison of the thermal efficiencies associated with reversible and the actual heat engines while operating between
identical temperature reservoirs is as follows:
8
> oZth;rev irreversible heat engine
<
Zth ¼ Zth;rev reversible heat engine ð33Þ
>
: 4Z
th;rev impossible heat engine

Illustrative Example 9: A Carnot heat engine operates between high and low temperature reservoirs at 705 and 29ºC, respectively.
The engine extracts 600 kJ of heat from the source in a cycle. Calculate
1. Thermal efficiency of the engine.
2. Heat lost to sink during each cycle.
Solution: The temperatures of heat source and sink, and heat extracted are known Carnot efficiency and heat lost to sink are to
be calculated.
Assumption: Heat engine is reversible.
Analysis:

(1) The thermal efficiency of a reversible Carnot heat engine can be calculated using Eq. (31) as
TL ð273 þ 29Þ
Zth;C ¼ 1  ¼1 ¼ 0:69 ¼ 69%
TH ð273 þ 705Þ
(2) Now by using Eq. (33), the heat rejected to the sink can be calculated as
TL ð273 þ 29ÞK
QL;rev ¼  QH ¼ ð600 kJÞ ¼ 185:3 kJ
TH ð273 þ 705ÞK

Discussion: It can be observed that 31% loss in the efficiency is because this percentage of the heat supplied is lost to the sink.

4.1.5 Renewable Energy Conversions

The natural sources of energy like sunlight, wind, geothermal, biomass, rain, and tides are treated as renewable energy resources,
which are replenished naturally after use. The energy from the sun is considered as a sustainable and a renewable source. In
addition to this, solar thermal systems can provide power indirectly. Some of the important renewable energy sources are
discussed below.

4.1.5.1 Biomass Energy Conversion

Biomass is a biological material that is largely extracted from living or dead matter available on the earth [26]. The biomass
resources can be converted biofuel, heat, and power [27]. There are four technologies available to convert biomass into useful
energy depending upon the types of biomass and specific energy product [28].

1. Thermal conversion: Biomass feedstock is heated with or without oxygen and converted to other forms of energy. Direct
combustion, torrefaction, and pyrolysis are the main processes involved in thermal conversion.
2. Thermochemical conversion: The combination of heat and chemical processes is applied to biomass to convert it into other
forms of energy products. Gasification is one of the most important thermochemical conversion processes.
3. Biochemical conversion: The biomass is broken down into liquid-based fuels through bacteria, enzymes, or microorganisms
which involves fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
4. Chemical conversion: Biomass is converted into liquid fuels by using chemical agents.
The generation of electricity from biomass is considered as an inefficient use of biomass as the efficiency of such plants is only
25%. Efficiency levels of up to 80%–90% can be achieved through cogeneration technologies, whereas biopower efficiencies are
25%. The waste heat at the exit of the steam turbine is used to produce heat in combined heat and power (CHP) plants.
The steam exiting the turbine loses a portion of the heat contents in it. This heat at the exit of the turbine is usually wasted to
the atmosphere. The fuel gases also contain significant amount of thermal energy, which is vented to the outside air. The efficient
recovery and utilization of the waste heat is the main focus of CHP systems. The production of heat along with the electricity
generation yields higher overall energy and exergy efficiencies, reduced cost, and less CO2 emissions. The ideal application of these
kind of systems is in pulp and paper mills as the demand of both heat and electricity is high in such industries. The high cost
associated with the waste heat recovery unit can only be justified when the demand of heat is high. The district heating plants in
Europe are successfully operating based on CHP technology with proven efficiency.
Many researchers have studied biomass energy-based cogeneration systems for numerous industries like palm oil, rice, wood,
sugar, and paper [29]. The technoeconomical overview of the variety of biomass samples has yielded competitive results for
almond shell and olive stone [30]. The variety of biomass gasification processes are feasible energetically and exergetically for the
22 The Role of Energy Conversion

production of hydrogen and power [31]. The study of ignition and combustion characteristics of small particles of biomass and
biomass energy-based multigeneration have yielded imperative results [31–34]. A biomass feedstock-based CHP plant is displayed
in Fig. 22.

4.1.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion

Wind energy conversion machines have been developed by the mankind over the past 2000 years. In the early stages of the
development this process was mostly based on hit and miss trial method. There are two major classifications of the windmills

1. Horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a horizontally placed shaft.
2. Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a vertically placed shaft.

Both types of wind turbines are displayed in Fig. 23 along with their main features. The whole drivetrain mechanism is located
on the tower in HAWT. The major two disadvantages of this type of windmill are gravity causes cyclic stresses on the blades so
these should be oriented in the direction of the wind, and servicing is difficult as the driving mechanism is mounted on the tower.
The advantage of this type of wind mill is that it can access stronger winds available at high altitudes by placing the rotor at a tall
tower. Conversely, the drivetrain of VAWT is located on the ground. Hence, there are no gravitational stresses on the rotor as well
as no problem with the orientation of the blades. However, in VAWT, it is not possible to install the blades at high altitudes to

Combustion gases
Flue gas Chimney
cleaning

Heat
exchanger

Combustion
chamber Generator
Biomass
feedstock HP
steam
Feed
water
Boiler Residual heat Electricity
Heat

Fig. 22 Biomass-based combined heat and power power plant. Modified from Biomass Innovation Centre: fueling rowth through clean
technology. Available from: http://www.biomassinnovation.ca/CombinedHeatAndPower.html; 2017 [accessed 28.10.17].

Rotor diameter
Rotor
blade

Generator
Rotor Gear box
diameter Rotor
tower

Wind direction Wind direction

for an upward for a donward
rotor Hub rotor
Tower Fixed pitched
height
rotor blade
Equator height
Rotor Generator
base

Gear box

Fig. 23 A schematic of horizontal-axis wind turbine and vertical-axis wind turbine. Modified from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca
Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 23

extract more useful work available due to strong winds. In addition to this, the blades of VAWTs experience severe fluctuating
aerodynamic load arising as a result of rotation.
The propeller-type HAWT are generally classified as

1. Rotor orientation: Upwind of the tower or downwind of the tower.

2. Blade articulation: Rigid or teetering.
3. Number of blades: Usually composed of two or three blades.

The most common types of modern VAWT have curved blades that are fixed in pitch. A massive 722 ft (220 m) wind turbine
located at Maade, Denmark is considerably taller than the London Eye. It is the biggest and most powerful in the world with a
production capacity of 260,000 kWh. The power produced by this wind turbine in 24 h can meet the electricity requirement of
hundreds of homes for a month [35]. The harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blade development is possible using
the PC computer with the CATIA designing system and the Gerber Garment cutter system. The blade fabricated from composite
laminated materials yields better results. The contour of the airfoil can be formed by a continuous structural pocket and a fiberglass
skin [36].
The kinetic energy of the wind is converting into rotational kinetic energy in the turbine. This rotational energy is converted to
electrical energy with the help of a generator coupled with wind turbine and then this electrical energy can be supplied to domestic
or industrial users through the national grid. The speed of the wind and the swept area of the turbine are the two main factors that
define the conversion of available energy. It is important to calculate the economic viability by making initial estimates of output
power and energy output of each turbine before planning or establishing a new wind form. In 1919, German physicist Albert Betz
concluded that it is impossible to convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a
rotor. This statement is known as the Betz limit or Betz’s law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind
turbine is 0.59, which means that maximum energy extracted by any windmill is no more than 59% of the wind energy. This is
known as the “power coefficient” and is defined as

CP;max ¼ 0:59

Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and is a function of
wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine – strength
and durability in particular – the real world limit is well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35–0.45 common even in the best
designed wind turbines. In general, when all the losses associated with gear box, bearings, and generator are considered then
about 10%–30% of the wind energy is transformed to electricity. Therefore, the power that can be extracted from the wind is
represented as

1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP ð34Þ
2
where, r, A, and v3 represent density of air, swept area, and wind speed respectively. The swept area depends upon the length of the
turbine blades. Fig. 24 represents direct drive type 2 MW wind turbine with adaptronic blades.

Illustrative Example 10: A windmill has length of the blades 48 m and power coefficient is 0.4. The wind is flowing at the speed
of 15 m/s. Calculate the power produced by the wind turbine. Take the density of the air as 1.23 kg/m3.

Fig. 24 Schematic of direct drive type wind turbine of 2 MW with adaptronic blade. Reproduced from Rasuo B, Dinulovic M, Veg A, Grbovic A,
Bengin A. Harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blades development process: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;39:874–82.
24 The Role of Energy Conversion

Solution: Length of blade, wind speed air density, and power coefficient are given while power produced by the wind turbine
needs to be calculated.
Assumption: Wind is flowing at constant speed.
The swept area of the turbine can be calculated as
A ¼ pr 2
A ¼ 3:14  482
A ¼ 7234:6 m2

The power produced by the turbine can be calculated using Eq. (34)
1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP
2
1
Pavail ¼  1:23  7234:6  153  0:4
2
Pavail ¼ 6 MW

Discussion: The wind turbine can produce 6 MW of power. It is important to check the behavior of the turbine at different
wind speeds because smooth operation of the wind turbine is more important. In actuality, a design with high power output at
high wind speeds requires more maintenance.

4.1.5.3 Ocean Current Energy

The continuous directed movement of seawater generated by the forces like solar heating, wind, salinity differences, breaking
waves, wind, salinity and temperature differences, and the gravitational pull of the sun and moon causes ocean current energy. The
direction and strength of the current depend heavily on the depth of contours, configurations of shoreline, and the interactions
with other currents. Primarily, the ocean currents are horizontal water movements and can flow for miles and create a global chain.
The ocean currents’ influence on the temperature of the regions also plays an important role in forecasting the climate of many
regions on the earth. The kinetic energy of the movement of the tides can be harnessed by underwater turbines, which are similar
to small wind turbines. The ocean current turbines are usually installed on the seabed experiencing high velocities of ocean
currents. The electricity is generated through the rotation of the tidal turbine blades due to the movement of the water. The
conversion of wind energy is an aerodynamic process whereas, the conversion of water movement is hydrodynamic process. Ocean
current turbines can convert the water velocities of as low as 1 m/s to generate electrical power [37].
An ocean current turbine is represented in Fig. 25, where the ocean current is seen to rotate the blade of the turbine, converting
the kinetic energy of the current to electrical power. An ocean current turbine can produce the same power as a wind turbine with a
larger rotor size due to the large density difference between seawater and air (water is typically 800 times denser than air). It has
been determined that for the same size turbine, a water speed of around one-tenth of the speed of the wind can generate the same
electrical power [37].
The power density in flowing water such as an ocean current can be expressed as follows:
1 3
Pa ¼ rV ð35Þ
2
For a turbine having Zelec as the conversion efficiency for ocean current energy to electricity, the electrical power density
generated is found as
Pe ¼ Zelec Pa ð36Þ

Ocean level

Ocean current
Ocean current
turbine

Ocean floor

Fig. 25 Schematic illustration of the working of ocean current turbine.

 The Role of Energy Conversion 25

Oil prices greatly influence efforts to harness ocean energy, with activity increasing when oil prices are high and vice versa.
Recent concerns about increasing global CO2 emissions and other environmental issues have increased efforts to derive energy
from oceans.

Illustrative Example 11: A turbine of radius 6 m is generating electricity driven through an ocean current moving with a speed of
3.7 m/s. Calculate the electrical power density and the total electrical power generation. Assume that 37% of the ocean current can
be converted to the electrical power. The density of ocean water is 1028 kg/m3.
Solution:
Assumptions: Conversion of ocean current to electricity is assumed to be 37%.
The power density in the ocean current can be calculated by using Eq. (35), as
1 3  
Pa ¼ rV ¼ 0:5  1028  3:73 ¼ 26; 036 W=m2
2
Now Eq. (36) can be used to get the electrical power density generated using ocean current
Pe ¼ 0:35 Pa ¼ 0:35  26; 036 ¼ 7713 W=m2 ¼ 9:113 kW=m2
The total electrical power generated can be evaluated as
Ptotal;e ¼ Pe  A ¼ 7:713  p  62 ¼ 1030 kW
Discussion: The total electrical power generated by the ocean current plant is 1.03 MW. The power produced is directly
proportional to the radius and cube of velocity of the ocean current.

4.1.5.4 Solar Thermal Energy Conversions

Solar thermal energy has been used for space and water heating in the past. Additional solar thermal applications have been
developed, which include refrigeration, air conditioning, crop drying, process heat for industries, and electric power generation.
Solar collectors are divided in many categories depending on the geometry [38]. Solar thermal collector consists of an absorber,
insulation, a trap, and a heat transfer medium.
1. Absorber: An absorber is made out of a thermally conducting dark surface.
2. Insulation: Insulation reduces heat loss where it is placed.
3. Trap: Trap allows to pass radiation with short wavelength while it blocks radiation with long wavelength.
4. Heat transfer medium: Mediums like air, water, or oil transfer the solar heat to useful work.

The solar radiation is concentrated on the absorber with the help of reflectors. The advanced solar collectors are able to provide
temperatures in the range of 10001C or even higher. The desired temperature and economics of the solar thermal application
depend upon the design and the selection of working. Some types of solar thermal collectors are tabulated in Table 4 on the basis
of their temperature range.

Illustrative Example 12: The mass flow rate of isobutane in the closed PTSC cycle is 25 kg/s as shown in Fig. 26. Therminol VP-1
exits parabolic solar trough collectors at 202, then enters the solar heat exchanger at 3201C and leaves at 701C after heating up
isobutane to 239.41C. The water at ambient pressure enters the condenser at 251C and leaves at 42.41C. Isobutane exits ORC
turbine at 351C. The pressures at inlet and exit of the pump are 75 and 2500 kPa, respectively. Determine (1) net rate of work done
by the ORC turbine; (2) the net rate of work done required to drive the pump; and (3) the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
ORC turbine. Take the ambient temperature to be 251C, and the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and pump to be 85%
assuming no pressure drop across the solar heat exchanger.
Solution:
For the schematic of the closed PTSC system (Fig. 26), the rate balance equations can be written.
For the solar heat exchanger the balance equations can be expressed as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass balance equation ðMBEÞ: m _ 2 ðfor Therminol VP  1Þ

Table 4 Types of solar collectors with concentration ratio and typical range of temperature

Type of collector Concentration ratio Typical range of temperature (1C)

Flat plate solar collector 1 Z70

Flat plate collector with high efficiency 1 60–120
Fixed concentrator 2–5 100–150
Parabolic trough solar collector (PTSC) 10–50 150–350
Parabolic dish collector 200–2000 250–700
Solar tower with central receiver 200–2000 400–1000

Source: Reproduced from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
26 The Role of Energy Conversion

ORC turbine
3 Isobutane
1
Solar
collectors

Solar heat exchanger

Electricity
generator
5

Therminol VP-1 2 Pump Condenser

4 6

7 8

Fig. 26 Schematic of a parabolic trough solar collector power generation cycle.

m _4
_3¼m ðfor isobutaneÞ

EBE: m _ 4 h4 ¼ m
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3

Entropy Balance Equation ðEnBEÞ: m _ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;evap ¼ m

_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3

_ 1 ex1 þ m
Exergy Balance Equation ðExBEÞ: m _ 4 ex 4 ¼ m
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ des;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex
For the condenser, the balance equations can be written as
_5¼m
MBE: m _6 ðfor isobutaneÞ

m _7
_8 ¼m ðwater circulation for coolingÞ

EBE: m _ 7 h7 ¼ m
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 6 h6 þ m
_ 8 h8

EnBE: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;cond ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 6 s6 þ m
_ 8 s8

_ 5 ex 5 þ m
ExBE: m _ 7 ex 7 ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ m _ des;cond
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex
For turbine, the balance equations can be written as
_3¼m
MBE: m _5

_ 3 h3 ¼ m
EBE: m _ act;turb
_ 5 h5 þ W

_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;turb ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 5 s5

_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
ExBE: m _ act;turb þ Ex
_ 5 ex5 þ W _ des;turb

For pump, the balance equations can be written as

_4¼m
MBE: m _6

EBE: m _ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ W _ 4 h4

_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 4 s4

_ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 ex4 þ W
ExBE: m _ des;p
_ 4 ex4 þ Ex
For Therminol VP-1 one can obtain the following properties from EES.
For state 1,
)
T 1 ¼ 251C h1 ¼ 601:4 kJ=kg
P1 ¼ 202 kPa s1 ¼ 1:393 kJ=kg K
 The Role of Energy Conversion 27

Table 5 Input and calculated data for the PTSC system in illustrative example 9

State no. Fluid type P (kPa) m_ (kg/s) T (1C) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg)

0 Water 101.3 – 25 104.8 0.3669 0

0 Isobutane 101.3 – 25 598.9 2.513 0
0 Therminol VP-1 101.3 – 25 20.14 0.06853 0
1 Therminol VP-1 202 35 320 601.4 1.392 325.4
2 Therminol VP-1 202 35 70 93.17 0.296 5.18
3 Isobutane 2500 25 239.4 1034 3.164 241.5
4 Isobutane 2500 25 35 284.9 1.278 54.14
5 Isobutane 75 25 75 689.5 2.837  5.61
6 Isobutane 75 25 35 616.7 2.614  12.25
7 Water 101.3 25 25 104.8 0.3669 0.0038
8 Water 101.3 25 42.4 177 0.602 2.1

Similarly for state 2,

)
T 2 ¼ 701C h2 ¼ 93:17 kJ=kg
P2 ¼ 202 kPa s2 ¼ 0:296 kJ=kg K

For reference state enthalpy and entropy for Therminol VP-1

)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 20:14 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 0:06853 kJ=kg K

Also, for the reference state enthalpy and entropy for isobutane,
)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 598:7 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 2:513 kJ=kg K

For reference state enthalpy and entropy for water

)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 104:8 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 0:3669 kJ=kg K

The specific exergy at state 1 can be calculated as

ex 1 ¼ h1  h0  T 0 ðs1  s0 Þ ¼ 186:7 kJ=kg
Similarly for state 2
ex2 ¼ 5:18 kJ=kg
Table 5 provides the input and calculated process data required for the system in illustrative Example 9.

1. Using the energy rate balance for the turbine, the rate of work done by the turbine can be determined as
_ act;turb ¼ m
W _ 3 ðh3  h5 Þ ¼ ð25 kg=sÞð1034  689:5ÞkJ=kg ¼ 8612:5 kW
2. Similarly, the volume of isobutane at state 6 using EES
v4 ¼ 0:5775 m3 =kg

_ act;pump ¼ v4 ðP4  P6 Þ ¼ 0:5775ð2500  75Þ ¼ 1400 kW

W

So, the net output work rate of the system is

W _ act;turb  W
_ net ¼ W _ act;p ¼ 8612:5  1400 ¼ 7212:5 kW

3. The energy efficiency of the turbine can be found as

W_ net 7212:5
Zen;orc ¼ ¼  0:85 ¼ 34:5%
_ 1 ðh1  h2 Þ
m 35ð601:4  93:17Þ
4. The exergy efficiency of the ORC turbine can be found as
W_ net 7212:5
cen;orc ¼ ¼  0:85 ¼ 54:7%
_ 1 ðex1  ex 2 Þ
m 35ð325:4  5:18Þ
28 The Role of Energy Conversion

4.1.5.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion

The word “geothermal” means heat of the earth, as it is adapted from the Greek word “geo” (earth) and “therme” (heat) [39]. The
amount of heat and power that can be produced through geothermal source depends largely on the reservoir depth. More than
453K temperatures are possible to achieve near plate tectonic boundaries. Geothermal energy sources can be classified on the basis
of the temperature as below 363K (low temperatures), between 363 and 423K (moderate temperatures), and above 423K (high
temperatures) [15,40]. Intermediate and low temperatures are present with or without hydrothermal resources in continental
settings [41]. Geothermal fields can be used for both direct utilization of heat or power production depending upon the reservoir
temperature and the requirements.
In binary cycles, hot geothermal fluid is not in direct contact with the turbine; instead it is used to heat up a secondary fluid,
which vaporizes and runs the turbine. There are many technical variations associated with binary plants and Kalina cycles [42]. The
geothermal hot fluid and the ORC working fluid circulate in separate closed loops. The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is feasible
even for the low temperature geothermal resource. The binary geothermal cycle is environmentally friendly as it does not produce
any emissions. The basic layout of a geothermal power plant is depicted in Fig. 27. The utilization efficiency of the geothermal
power plants can be found as

W_ net
Zu ¼ ð37Þ
_ b ½hA  h0  T0 ðsA  S0 Þ
m

where, W _ net represents the net power obtained through geothermal cycle; m_ b , hA, h0, T0, sA, and s0 represent mass flow rate of brine,
enthalpy of brine at inlet, enthalpy at dead state, dead state temperature, entropy at inlet, and entropy at dead state, respectively.
Geothermal plants with huge capacity have been installed around the world. Geysers Geothermal Complex, installed in
California with a capacity of 1517 MW, is one of the largest geothermal plants in the world, as shown in Fig. 28 [43]. The plant is
actively producing 900 MW power.
Some geothermal power plants in the world on the basis of the installed capacity for power production are tabulated in Table 6.

Illustrative Example 13: Brine enters the heat exchanger at a temperature of 440K. The mass flow rate of brine is 95 kg/s and net
power of the geothermal cycle is 1200 kW. Find the utilization efficiency at dead state temperature 25ºC.
Solution: The mass flow rate of geothermal fluid and net power of the cycle are given while utilization efficiency need to be
calculated.
Assumption: Pressure losses in heat exchangers are negligible.
Analysis: (1) The utilization efficiency of a geothermal cycle can be calculated using Eq. (37) as

W_ net
Zu ¼
_ b ½hA  h0  T0 ðsA  S0 Þ
m

2 3
Superheater

1
seperator
Flash

ORC
turbine Electricity generator

9
8
10 4
Pump 1
Condenser

14
Mixing
chamber
11
15
Preheater

5
6
12 7

Pump 3
Geotherrmal Pump 2
reservior
13 Reinjection

Fig. 27 Schematic of a basic geothermal power plant. Reproduced from Islam S, Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of
a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
 The Role of Energy Conversion 29

Fig. 28 Geysers Geothermal Complex, California, United States. Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world.
Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].

Table 6 Top 10 geothermal power plants around the world

No. Name Location Installed capacity (MW)

1 Geysers Geothermal Complex California, United States 1517

2 Larderello Geothermal Complex Italy 769
3 Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station Mexico 720
4 Makban Geothermal Complex Philippines 458
5 CalEnergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants United States 340
6 Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant Iceland 303
7 Tiwi Geothermal Complex Philippines 289
8 Darajat Power Station Indonesia 259
9 Malitbog Geothermal Power Station Philippines 232.5
10 Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant Indonesia 227

Source: Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world. Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-
power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].

The enthalpy and entropy values at inlet temperature 440K and dead state 298K are determined using EES as
hA @440K ¼ 705 kJ=kg

sA @440K ¼ 2:009 kJ=kg K

h0 @298K ¼ 103:93 kJ=kg

s0 @298K ¼ 0:36384 kJ=kg K

1250
Zu ¼ ¼ 11:92%
95  110:39
Discussion: Typical geothermal plants have thermal efficiency of about 15% but the utilization efficiency is quite low. This is
because preheat is required to heat up the working fluid and the preheater accounts for large irreversibilities due to high finite
temperature difference.

4.1.6 Case Studies

In this section, there are multiple case studies presented to include the analyses of selected renewable energy-based integrated
systems for multigeneration. Case study 1 presents the advantages of integrating thermoelectric devices in multigeneration systems;
30 The Role of Energy Conversion

Solar field Heat Heat Organic Electricity

Parabolic trough Solar heat
rankine
solar collectors exchanger
cylce
Heat
Heat Heat
Solar field Photovoltaic Cooling Thermoelectric
panels cooler Absorption Cooling
Heat refrigeration
Electricity Electricity chiller

Thermoelectric
Electrolyzer
generator Heat

Heating Heat Thermal energy Heat

Heat pump Condenser
storage system Heat

Fig. 29 Flow diagram of multigeneration system including thermoelectric generator.

whereas, solar and geothermal-based renewable energy are combined in Case study 2 for improved performance of the multi-
generation system. These studies include the assessment of subsystems as well as overall systems.

4.1.6.1 Case Study 1

The primary objective of this presented case study is to improve the performance of a solar energy-based integrated system through
a unique integration of thermoelectric devices (see Fig. 29). The novel integrated multigeneration system is assessed thermo-
dynamically and an exergy analysis is conducted. The major subsystems of the proposed system are an absorption chiller an ORC,
an electrolyzer, and a heat pump. The presented system generates electricity for off grid areas of countries with abundant amount
of solar radiations like Saudi Arabia. The heat of the PV panels is extracted to run thermoelectric devices, as well as the efficiency of
the PV panels is increased due to decrease in the operating temperature. The absorption chiller delivers the cooling to the cold
store, heat is supplied to industries, and thermal energy storage (TES) system supplies uninterrupted hot water to industrial and
domestic users even in the absence of solar energy (at night), and hydrogen for chemical and petrochemical industries.
Islam et al. [44] made following assumptions in order to investigate the performance of the proposed multigeneration system.

• System operating conditions are steady.

• The dead state temperature and pressure are 298K and 101.325 kPa, respectively.
• Negligible or no changes in kinetic and potential energies.
• R410a and water are treated as actual fluids.
• All pumps and turbines are adiabatic.
• Isobutane is the working fluid used in ORC turbine.
• All pumps and turbines operate with 85% isentropic efficiencies.
• TES system losses 10% of heat while discharging period.
• All pressure losses are neglected.
• The typical evaporator used by Al-Ali and Dincer [45] is used.
• Parabolic solar collectors operate with 80% efficiency.

4.1.6.1.1 Thermodynamic assessment

Here, the energy and exergy efficiencies of all subunits of the multigeneration are presented. The model parameters used for the
thermodynamic analysis of the PV panels are tabulated in Table 7.
The figure of Merit has a great influence on the efficiency of the thermoelectric device and can be written as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DTð 1 þ ZT  1Þ
ZTEG ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  ð38Þ
Th 1 þ ZT þ Tc =Th

where, ZT represents figure of Merit, Th denotes high temperature junction, and Tc symbolizes low temperature junction of the
thermoelectric. Magnitude of figure of merit is selected as “1” for the calculations.
The COP associated with thermoelectric cooler (TEC) can be calculated as [46]
Qc
COPTEC ¼ ð39Þ
PTEG
where, Qc and PTEG represent the amount of heat absorbed and power input to TEC.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
„Percy,” fluisterde Marguerite, terwijl een vuurroode blos haar fijne wangen
en hals overtoog, „als je enkel wist...”

„Ik weet alles, lieve... alles,” zei hij met oneindige teederheid.

„En kun je ’t mij ooit vergeven?”

„Ik heb niets te vergeven, mijn schat; je heldenmoed, je toewijding, die ik

helaas! zoo weinig verdiende, hebben die ongelukkige geschiedenis van het
bal meer dan goed gemaakt.”

„Je wist dus?...” lispelde ze, „altijd...”

„Ja,” zei hij goedhartig, „ik wist... al dien tijd... Maar zoo ik maar had
kunnen vermoeden, welk een edel hart mijn Margot bezat, ik zou je
vertrouwd hebben, zooals je het verdient, en je hadt niet zulke
verschrikkelijke beproevingen behoeven te doorstaan!”

Ze zaten naast elkander, steunende tegen een rotsblok, hij met zijn pijnlijk
hoofd leunend tegen haar schouder.

„Het heeft veel van den blinde, die den lamme leidt, is ’t niet, lieve,” zei hij
met een goedmoedigen glimlach als van ouds. „Waarachtig, ik weet niet,
wie meer pijn doen, mijn schouders of jouw kleine voetjes.”

Hij boog zich voorover om ze te kussen, want ze gluurden uit haar versleten
kousen.

„Maar... Armand...” begon ze met plotselingen angst, toen te midden van

haar geluk het beeld van den geliefden broeder opdaagde voor haren geest.

„Oh! vrees niets voor Armand, lieve,” zei hij met innige teederheid. „Heb ik
je niet mijn woord verpand, dat hem niets zou deren? Hij en de oude
Tournay, en ook de anderen zijn nu aan boord van de Day Dream.”

„Hoe dat?” hijgde ze, „ik begrijp het niet!”

„’t Is toch heel eenvoudig, lieve,” antwoordde hij, met dien grappigen, half
schuwen en wezenloozen lach van vroeger, „begrijp eens... toen ik zag, dat
die woesteling van een Chauvelin niet van plan was, mij los te laten, maar
als een klit zich aan me vast te hechten, kwam het me het verstandigst voor
hem met mij meê te nemen. Ik moest in ieder geval zien bij Armand en de
anderen te komen; op alle wegen zwierven patrouilles en iedereen was op
den uitkijk naar je onderdanigen dienaar. Ik begreep, dat, zoo ik in de
herberg Le Chat Gris uit Chauvelin’s vingers glipte, hij me hier zou
wachten, welken weg ik ook mocht inslaan. Ik moest hem en zijn
machinaties in het oog houden, en een Engelsche kop is even goed, zou ik
meenen, als een Fransche hersenpan. Tot dusver hebben de feiten dit
bewezen, hé?”

Inderdaad had de uitkomst getoond, dat degelijkheid en bedaard overleg

geen eigenschappen zijn van Franschen oorsprong, en het hart van
Marguerite werd vervuld van blijdschap en bewondering, toen hij voortging
op te halen van de vermetele wijze, waarop hij de vluchtelingen, vlak onder
Chauvelin’s neus, had weggevoerd.

„Onder de vermomming van een smerigen ouden Jood,” zei hij vroolijk,
„begreep ik, niet herkend te zullen worden.

Ik had in den vooravond Ruben Goldstein ontmoet te Calais. Voor een paar
goudstukken stond hij mij zijn plunje af en beloofde mij zich voor ieders
oogen schuil te houden, terwijl hij me zijn kar en paard in bruikleen
afstond.”

„Maar als Chauvelin je nu eens ontdekt had?” zei ze zwaar tot adem
komend, „je vermomming was goed... maar hij heeft zoo’n vossenneus!”

„Dan, natuurlijk, zou de toeleg mislukt zijn,” zei hij kalm. „Maar ik ken de
Franschen door en door. Ze walgen zoozeer van een Jood, dat ze altijd op
een meter afstand van hem blijven, en ik geloof, dat ik me zoodanig
gegrimeerd had, dat ik precies op een zoon van Abraham geleek.”

„Jawel!—en toen?” vroeg ze nieuwsgierig.

„Toen heb ik mijn plannetje ten uitvoer gebracht: dat wil zeggen,
aanvankelijk was ik besloten alles aan het toeval over te laten, maar toen ik
Chauvelin zijn orders aan de soldaten hoorde uitdeelen, rekende ik op hun
blinde gehoorzaamheid. Chauvelin had hun op straffe des doods bevolen,
zich niet te verroeren, voordat de lange Engelschman zou zijn aangekomen.
Desgas had me als een hoop vuil, dicht bij de hut neergeworpen; de
soldaten namen geen notitie van den Jood, die burger Chauvelin naar deze
plek had gereden. Het gelukte me, mijn handen van de touwen vrij te
krijgen. Ik draag altijd, waarheen ik ook ga, een potlood en papier bij mij,
haastig krabbelde ik eenige instructies op een reepje papier, en keek toen
eens rond. Ik strompelde naar de hut, onder de oogen van de soldaten, die,
zooals Chauvelin hun had bevolen, zich roerloos verdekt hadden opgesteld;
ik liet mijn briefje door een reet in den muur glijden en wachtte. In dat
kattebelletje gaf ik den vluchtelingen bevel stilletjes uit de hut te sluipen, de
riffen af te kruipen, links aan te houden, totdat ze aan de eerste kreek
kwamen en dan een signaal te laten hooren, waarop dan de sloep van de
Day Dream, die niet ver uit den wal lag, hen zou opnemen. Zij hebben
blindelings gehoorzaamd, gelukkig voor hen en voor mij. De soldaten, die
hen moeten gezien hebben, waren even stipt gehoorzaam aan de orders van
Chauvelin. Zij verroerden zich niet! Ik wachtte een half uur; toen ik
begreep, dat de vluchtelingen in veiligheid waren, gaf ik het sein: „God
save the King!” dat zulk een beweging veroorzaakte.”

Dit nu was de toedracht van alles. Het zag er zoo eenvoudig uit! En
Marguerite kon zich slechts verbazen over de wonderbare vindingrijkheid,
de grenzenlooze vermetelheid, waarmede dit stoutmoedige plan ten uitvoer
was gebracht.

„Maar die ellendelingen hebben je gruwelijk mishandeld!” zei Marguerite

in vreeselijken angst, en benauwd ademhalend, het feit herdenkend.

„Geen nood! Chauvelin zal mettertijd er niets bij verliezen, dat verzeker ik
je! Wacht maar, totdat ik hem naar Engeland teruglok!—La, la, hij zal het
pak ransel, dat hij mij gaf, met interest op interest betalen, reken daarop!”
Marguerite moest lachen. Het deed haar zoo goed nu bij hem te zijn, zijn
vroolijk stemgeluid weer te hooren, dat goed geluimd knipoogen weer in
zijn blauwe oogen te ontwaren, terwijl hij zijn krachtige armen uitstrekte,
hakend naar dien vijand en vooruitloopend op zijn welverdiende kastijding.

Maar eensklaps sprong zij op: de blos van geluk ontweek haar wang; zij had
een sluipenden voetstap gehoord boven haar hoofd en het rollen van een
steenblok van de klip, in regelrechte vaart naar het strand beneden.

„Wat is dat?” vroeg ze, angstig, geschrikt en gealarmeerd.

„Niets! Niets, lieve!” mompelde hij, vroolijk lachend, „je schijnt iets te
hebben vergeten... onzen vriend... Foulkes”...

„Sir Andrew!” stamelde ze met onverholen blijdschap.

„Wel ja! Was je hem heusch vergeten, lieve?” zei Sir Percy opgeruimd.
„Gelukkig ontmoette ik hem niet ver van de „Chat Gris”, voordat ik dat
interessant souper had met mijn vriend Chauvelin... Ik sprak hem toen van
een heel langen weg, die hem naar deze plek zou brengen, langs een erg
slingerend pad, waarvan de trawanten van Chauvelin geen vermoeden
zouden hebben, en ook over den tijd, dat we gereed konden zijn, zie je
vrouwtje?”

„En hij gehoorzaamde?” vroeg Marguerite, met de uiterste verbazing.

„Zonder bedenken. Kijk, daar komt hij; hij stond me niet in den weg, toen
ik hem niet noodig had, maar nu komt hij als geroepen. Ja, ja, hij zal voor
de mooie kleine Suzanne een handig echtgenoot zijn.”

Onderwijl had Sir Andrew Foulkes zich behoedzaam een weg gebaand, ten
einde de klippen te kunnen afdalen: een- of tweemaal stond hij stil, om te
luisteren naar het op fluisterenden toon gevoerd gesprek, dat hem tot
leiddraad kon dienen om Sir Percy’s schuilplaats te ontdekken.

„Blakeney!” waagde hij eindelijk voorzichtig uit te brengen, „ben jij daar,
Blakeney?”
In het volgend oogenblik kwam hij om de rots heengluren, waartegen Percy
en Marguerite leunden. Op het zien van de spookachtige gedaante, die
steeds nog gehuld was in den langen tabbaard van den Jood, bleef Foulkes
plotseling als aan den grond genageld staan.

Doch Blakeney was reeds, met veel inspanning weliswaar, op den been
gekomen.

„Hier ben ik, vriend,” zei hij met zijn grappigen, idioten lach, „in levenden
lijve, al zie ik er in deze mooie plunje als een vogelverschrikker uit.”

„Wel heb ik van m’n leven!” riep Sir Andrew ten uiterste verbaasd, toen hij
zijn leider herkende, „van alle...”

De jonge baronet had Marguerite ontwaard en achtte zich gelukkig den

zonderlingen woordenvloed, die hem op de lippen kwam, nog bijtijds te
kunnen stuiten.

„Ja!” zei Blakeney kalm, „van al de... hm!... Zeg eens, vriend!—ik heb nog
geen tijd gehad—geen gelegenheid wil ik zeggen—je te vragen, wat je in
Frankrijk kwaamt uitvoeren, terwijl ik je gelast had in Londen te blijven?
Insubordinatie? Wat? Wacht maar totdat mijn schouders me niet meer zoo’n
pijn doen en je zult eens zien, welke straf je oploopt!”

„Ik zal ze met berusting ondergaan,” zei Sir Andrew, vroolijk lachend, „nu
ik ze bij uw leven kan ontvangen... Zoudt ge ’t hebben kunnen dulden, dat
ik Lady Blakeney deze campagne alleen, zonder geleide, had laten
ondernemen? Maar, in ’s hemelsnaam, man, zeg me eens, hoe je aan dit
allerzotst kostuum zijt gekomen?”

„Tra, la, la, het ziet er wel een beetje te opzichtig uit, hé?” lachte Percy
allerjoviaalst. „Maar,” vervolgde hij met plotselingen ernst en met gezag,
„nu je toch hier bent, Foulkes, moeten we geen tijd meer verliezen: die
vlegel van een Chauvelin mocht ons weer eens zijn trawanten op het lijf
sturen!”
Marguerite gevoelde zich zoo gelukkig, ze zou hier langer willen vertoeven,
luisterend naar zijn stem, hem bestormend met allerlei vragen. Maar op het
hooren van Chauvelin’s naam schrikte ze eensklaps op.

„Hoe zullen we terug kunnen?” hijgde ze; „de wegen wemelen van soldaten
tusschen deze plek en Calais, en...”

„We gaan niet terug over Calais, lieve,” zei Percy, „maar juist langs den
anderen kant van kaap Gris-Nez, geen halve mijl van hier. De sloep van de
Day Dream wacht ons daar.”

„De sloep van de Day Dream?” herhaalde zij.

„Ja!” lachte hij weer jolig, „dat is weer eens een andere grap, die ik heb
uitgehaald.”

„Ik had je te voren moeten vertellen dat, toen ik dat kattebelletje in de hut
liet glijden, ik een ander strookje papier voor Armand er had bijgevoegd,
met aanwijzing dit in de houten stulp achter te laten. Dat briefje heeft
Chauvelin met zijn mannetjes de beenen onder den arm doen nemen, om
achter mij aan—zooals hij dacht—terug te hollen naar de herberg „Le Chat
Gris”. Het eerste reepje papier bevatte mijn werkelijke instructies—ook
voor den ouden Briggs, den gezagvoerder van de Day Dream. Briggs
ontving order om meer uit den wal te gaan liggen, ten westen, begrijp je?
Als hij goed en wel uit het gezicht is van Calais, zal hij de sloep naar een
hem en mij bekende kleine kreek zenden, juist aan den overkant van Kaap
Gris-Nez. De matrozen zullen naar mij op den uitkijk liggen—we hebben
een afgesproken signaal, en we komen allen veilig aan boord, terwijl
Chauvelin met zijn mannetjes den inham bewaken, die juist tegenover de
„Chat Gris” ligt.”

„Aan den overkant van Kaap Gris-Nez?” hernam Marguerite. „Maar ik... ik
kan niet loopen, Percy,” kreunde ze hulpbehoevend, terwijl zij zich
inspande op de beenen te komen, maar nauwelijks op haar voeten kon
blijven staan.
„Ik zal je dragen, lieve,” zei hij eenvoudig; „de blinde, die den lamme leidt,
weet je.”

Sir Andrew verklaarde zich ook bereid een handje te helpen, maar Sir Percy
wilde zijn kostbaren last alleen aan eigen armen toevertrouwen.

En die armen, nog altijd krachtig, in weerwil van doorgestane vermoeienis

en mishandeling, omsloten het afgetobde lichaam van Marguerite, en tilden
haar zachtjes op, alsof ze een veer was geweest.

En toen Sir Andrew zich op bescheiden afstand hield, werd er veel gezegd
—of liever gefluisterd—zeer veel, dat het herfstkoeltje zelfs niet opving,
want dit ruischte niet meer.

Al zijn vermoeienis was vergeten; hij scheen stalen spieren te bezitten en

zijn geestkracht aan het bovennatuurlijke te grenzen. Het was een
afmattende tocht, een halve mijl over de puntigste rotsklippen, doch geen
oogenblik faalde zijn moed, of legden zijn zenuwen het af. Voorwaarts
schreed hij, met veerkrachtigen tred, zijn gespierde armen geslagen om de
kostbare vracht.

De rozig getinte dageraad brak aan in het Oosten, toen zij eindelijk de kreek
bereikten, tegenover Kaap Gris-Nez. De sloep wachtte hen: het signaal van
Sir Percy beantwoordend, roeide ze aan; twee stoere Britsche zeelieden
genoten de eer Lady Blakeney naar boord te dragen.

Een half uur later nam de Day Dream hen op. De equipage, ingewijd in de
geheimen van hun meester en met hart en ziel aan hem verkocht, was
volstrekt niet verbaasd hem in zulk een zonderlinge vermomming aan te
treffen.

Armand St. Just en de andere vluchtelingen verbeidden reikhalzend de

komst van hun onversaagden bevrijder. Hij wachtte de betuigingen hunner
dankbaarheid niet af, maar begaf zich zoo spoedig mogelijk naar zijn
afzonderlijke hut, Marguerite aan de zorg overlatend van haar welbeminden
broeder.
Alles was aan boord van de Day Dream ingericht met die verfijnde weelde,
waarop Sir Percy Blakeney zoozeer gesteld was, en tegen het oogenblik, dat
zij allen te Dover behouden zouden aankomen, had hij tijd gevonden zich in
een der kostbare kostumes te steken, die zijn bijzonderen smaak eer
aandeden en waarvan hij aan boord van zijn jacht steeds een ruimen
voorraad had.

De eenige moeilijkheid, die zich voordeed, was Marguerite een paar

bottines te bezorgen, en uitbundig was de vreugde van den kleinen
scheepsjongen, toen Milady te kennen gaf, dat zij in zijn beste paar den
Engelschen bodem gevoegelijk kon betreden.

Voor het overige doen wij er het zwijgen toe—in stilte deelen wij in de
vreugde en het geluk van hen, die zooveel leed hadden doorgestaan en toch
een groot en bestendig geluk deelachtig zijn geworden.

Maar onvermeld mogen we niet laten, dat op het schitterend huwelijksfeest

van Sir Andrew Foulkes, Baronet, met Mademoiselle Suzanne de Tournay
de Basserive—een plechtigheid, die Z. K. H. de Prins van Wales en de
bloem der Londensche samenleving met hun tegenwoordigheid vereerden
—de schoonste onder de schoonen buiten twijfel was Lady Marguerite
Blakeney, en dat het kostuum van Sir Percy bij die gelegenheid het
onderwerp van de dagelijksche gesprekken uitmaakte van Londen’s
jeunesse dorée.

Een feit is het ook, dat Monsieur Chauvelin, de agent der Eéne en
Ondeelbare Fransche Republiek van 1792, aan dien luister ontbrak—na den
gedenkwaardigen avond van Lord Grenville’s bal.—
Bij den uitgever van dit werk zijn mede verschenen:

JEFFREY FARNOL, Langs den grooten weg.

EDM. DE GONCOURT, De broeders Zemganno.

HALL CAINE, Een zoon van Hagar.

MAXIM GORKI, Een Natuurkind.

MAXIM GORKI,
,, ,, Thomas Gordeieff.
MAXIM GORKI,
,, ,, Barrevoeters.

H. S. HARRISSON, Angela’s Levensdoel.

FRANK HELLER, De avonturen van Meneer Collin in Londen.

FRANK HELLER,
,, ,, Youssouf Khan’s Huwelijk.

MEVROUW VAN HEUVELINCK, Langs moeilijken weg.

JEROME K. JEROME, Drie man op een fietstocht, 3e druk.

JEROME K. JEROME,
,, ,, ,, Drie man in een boot.
JEROME K. JEROME,
,, ,, ,, Het Martelaarschap eener Keizerin.

F. FRANKFORT MOORE, De Millionnairs.

PETER NANSEN, Maria.

G. OHNET, Een aanslag op Napoleon.

BARONESSE ORCZY, De Onvindbare Pimpernel.

BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Een Zoon van het Volk.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Een Vrouwenregeering.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, De Kandelaars van den Keizer.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Lady Molly van Scotland-Yard.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Warrige draden.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, De Blonde Godin.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Het Nest van den Sperwer.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, De lieveling der goden.
BARONESSE ORCZY,
,, ,, Miss Elliott.

T. L. R. OEHMKE, Twaalf jaren Koloniaal.

ERWIN ROSEN, In het Vreemdelingen-Legioen.

RUDOLF STRATZ, De roman van een studente.

RUDOLF STRATZ,
,, ,, De Eeuwige Burcht.

GRAAF LEO TOLSTOÏ, Anna Karenina.

CLARA VIEBIG, Het Dagelijksch Brood.

CLARA VIEBIG,
,, ,, Het Slapende Leger.
CLARA VIEBIG,
,, ,, Het Kruis in het Veen.

VERNER VON HEIDENSTAM, Endymion.

P. WENTWORTH, Een huwelijk onder het schrikbewind.

C. N. en A. M. WILLIAMSON, De Kleine Kameraad.

C. N. en A. M. WILLIAMSON,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, De Kranige Chauffeur.
C. N. en A. M. WILLIAMSON,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, De Motorboot.
C. N. en A. M. WILLIAMSON,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, Mijn Vriend de Chauffeur.
C. N. en A. M. WILLIAMSON,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, Carmen’s Nederlaag.

WOLDSTEDT, Kinderen der Zee.

EMILE ZOLA, De Débacle.

Prijs ingenaaid f 1.40, gebonden f 2.25.

Bij den Uitgever van dit werk zijn verschenen:

RUDOLF HERZOG’S WERKEN

DE WISKOTTENS. DE GRAAF VAN GLEICHEN.

HET LEVENSLIED. ZONNIGE JEUGD.
HANZEATEN. KORT GELUK.
DE NEDERRIJNERS. HET GROOTE HEIMWEE.
DE AVONTURIER. HET LIED VAN ALLE TIJDEN.
 JONGE LIEFDE. DE STOLTENKAMPS EN HUNNE
GELUKSKINDEREN. VROUWEN.
DE ADJUDANT.

Prijs f 1.80 — gebonden f 2.90.

WILLIAM LOCKE’S WERKEN

MARCUS ORDEYNE. PENSION BOCCARD.

DE BLANKE DUIF. WRAKHOUT.
AFGODEN. SIMON DE NAR.

Prijs f 2.80 — gebonden f 3.95.

 Inhoudsopgave

1. Parijs: September 1792. 1

2. Dover: „Visscherswelvaren.” 9
3. De Emigranten. 15
4. Het Verbond van de Roode Pimpernel. 21
5. Marguerite. 29
6. Een uitgelezen exemplaar van 1792. 33
7. De geheime boomgaard. 41
8. De agent der Fransche republiek. 46
9. De overrompeling. 53
10. In de loge der opera. 58
11. Op het bal bij Lord Grenville. 64
12. „Of dit—of...?” 70
13. Tegen één uur precies. 72
14. Twijfel. 77
15. Richmond. 82
16. Een vaarwel. 92
17. De geheimzinnige leuze. 98
18. De Roode Pimpernel. 101
19. De Vriend. 109
20. Spanning. 114
21. Te Calais. 120
22. Hoop. 126
23. De valstrik. 130
24. De leeuw en de vos. 135
25. De Jood. 143
26. Op het spoor. 151
27. De hut van Vader Blanchard. 157
28. Gevangen. 165
29. De Schoener. 169
30. De ontsnapping. 180
 Colofon
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2016-05-25 Begonnen.
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Verbeteringen

De volgende verbeteringen zijn aangebracht in de tekst:

Bladzijde Bron Verbetering

2 arristokraat aristokraat
6, 12, 27,
[Niet in bron] „
97, 179
6 ” [Verwijderd]
6, 137 bizonder bijzonder
7 „ [Verwijderd]
8 gedean gedaan
8 vóòr vóór
10 dààr dáár
16 Anthonie Anthony
20 gllmlachend glimlachend
23 herman hernam
23 weing weinig
24, 44,
51, 113,
127, 127, [Niet in bron] ”
145, 174,
188
met haar
echtgenoot; de
26 hoop op [Verwijderd]
hereeniging; de
vlucht
28 Justs Just
32 vervaardigen verwaardigen
33 Comtese Comtesse
34 noemde noemden
36 mauwe nauwe
42, 96 . ,
46 gestengeld gestrengeld
46 glimsterden glinsterden
51 Pimpelnel Pimpernel
56 bijne bijna
62 Burgeres burgeres
63 [Niet in bron] .
68 [Niet in bron] ,
68 boudour boudoir
73 Francourt Fancourt
73 bizonders bijzonders
74 misschen misschien
77, 99 Blakeny Blakeney
82 de van de
86 ’ [Verwijderd]
92 welde welden
95 ontstuimig onstuimig
110 , [Verwijderd]
112 weten-tenschap wetenschap
119 hoogt hoogst
121 Griz-Nez Gris-Nez
127 antwoorde antwoordde
131 yan van
151 en een
155 mines mimes
158 peleton peloton
173 te the
187 , .
188 ; ,
n.v.t. JEFFERY JEFFREY
n.v.t. TOLSTOï TOLSTOÏ
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