TY. B.Sc. COMPUTER SCIENCE CS - 356 : Theoretical computer science (2019 Pattern) (CBCS) (Semester - V) Time : 2 Hours} Instructions to the candidates: 1) All questions are compulsory. 2) Figures to the right indicate full marks. Q1) Attempt any Eight of the following : (out of TEN) [8 x 1 = 8] a) Write output function A of Moore and Mealy machines. —>Moore machine: The output function of a Moore machine is a function that maps each state to an output. In formal terms, it's a function: AQ Zout where Q is the set of states, and Zout is the output alphabet. The output is associated with the state, not with the transition. « Mealy machine: The output function of a Mealy machine is a function that maps a state and an input symbol to an output. In formal terms, it's a function: A:Qx ED Deut where Q is the set of states, 5 is the input alphabet, and ¥,,, is the output alphabet. The output depends on both the current state and the input symbol. b) List all the proper prefixes of the string “ABCD’. —>Proper prefixes are all the prefixes of a string, excluding the string itself. For the string “ABCD', the proper prefixes are: @ “(empty string) ew @ "ABT @ "ABC" c) Define Nullable symbol. => nullable symbol in formal language theory is a non-terminal (or symbol) that can derive the empty string (denoted as €). In other words, a nullable symbol A satisfies: Aste where =>* denotes a sequence of production rules. d) Give formal definition of Pushdown Automata. & Scanned with OKEN ScannerA Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a 7-tuple P = (Q,B,1,5,qo, Za, F), where: * Qisa finite set of states. + Sis finite set of input symbols (the input alphabet). Tisa finite set of stack symbols (the stack alphabet). 5 is the transition function, where 6 : Q x (SU {e}) x F + P(Q x I"), representing the possible transitions. qo is the initial state, qo € @. gis the initial stack symbol, Zp € T. + Fis the set of accepting states, F C Q. APDA accepts a language by either final state or empty stack, depending on the type of acceptance used. €) Define right linear grammar. > A ightlinear grammar is a type of context-free grammar in which every production rule is of the form: AvaB o Ast where: « Aand B are non-terminal symbols. « zisa string of terminal symbols (possibly empty). In other words, the non-terminal, if present, must appear at the right end of the production, f) State True or False. DFA do not have muttiple final states. —>False. A DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton) can have multiple final states. There is no restriction on the number of final states in a DFA. It simply means that the automaton can end in any of those final states to accept a string. g) Name the type of language accepted by Turing Machine. —>A Turing Machine can accept recursively enumerable (RE) languages. These are also known as Type-0 languages in the Chomsky hierarchy. More generally, Turing Machines can recognize all languages that can be decided or semi-decided by an algorithm. h) Write the tuples of LBA. — @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner‘An LBA isa restricted form of a Turing machine where the tape is bounded by a linear function of the input length. The 7-tuple of an LBA is defined as: LBA = (Q,5,T,5,q0, B, F) where: © Qisa finite set of states. © Sis the input alphabet. « Tis the tape alphabet, including a special blank symbol. + dis the transition function, where 6: Q x I + Q xT x {L,R, S}. + qois the initial state. + Bis the blank symbol on the tape. «Fis the set of final (accepting) states. i) State true or false. Pumping lemma is used to show that language is not context tree. —>True. The Pumping Lemma for context-free languages is often used to prove that a language is not context-free by showing that the language does not satisfy the conditions of the lemma. j) Write smallest possible string accepted by the following regular expression. 10+(0+1 1)0*1 — Let's break down the regular expression 10+(0+1 1)0*1: + 1:The string starts with". + 0+: The‘0' repeats one or more times. «(0+ 1): The group #1 1 canbe expanded as either 0+ followed by 1 and 1, soit represents a sequence like 01 1 or 000111, etc. * 0*: Zero or more occurrences of ‘0’. «1: Ends with 'T’. The smallest string that can be accepted by this regular expression is the one that minimizes each part. It would be: 10111 This is because 10+ gives't' followed by one'0', (0+1 1) gives'111,and o*1 gives 1’. Thus, the shortest string is "10111". Q2) Attempt any four of the following : [4 x 2 = 8] & Scanned with OKEN Scannera) Explain Reduction with the help of example. —>In the context of formal languages and automata theory, reduction refers to a method of transforming one problem into another. The idea is to simplify a complex problem by reducing it to a previously solved problem or a problem that is easier to solve. For example, suppose we have two problems: @ Problem A: Deciding whether a given string belongs to a regular language. @ Problem B: Deciding whether a given string belongs to a specific context-free language. Reduction allows us to take Problem A and transform it into Problem B. If we know how to solve Problem B, then solving Problem A becomes easier by reducing it to Problem B. Example: Let's consider the decision problem for regular languages. Suppose we are given a DFA A and a string w, and we need to determine whether the DFA accepts the string. One way to ‘solve this problem is by reducing it to a simpler problem, like checking if a given string is a member of a specific finite set of strings We might do this by constructing a new finite automaton A’ from the original A, where A’ accepts a set of strings that would allow us to answer the original question. This reduction simplifies the problem into a more manageable form b) Construct FA for regular expression. (01+10)*+ 11 —>Let’s break down the given regular expression: (07 + 10) + 17*. ‘Step 1: Construct NFA for the expression (01+10)* @ = (01+10): This part means that either the string "01" or "10" can appear. @ = We need an NFA that recognizes "01" and "10". For this, we can create two branches in the NFA: @ One branch that recognizes "01" (starting from the initial state, transitioning on ‘0'to anew state, then transitioning on '1' to the final state). @ Another branch that recognizes "10" (starting from the initial state, transitioning on 1’ to a new state, then transitioning on ‘0’ to the final state). We now repeat this part (due to the star operator *), meaning we allow any number of repetitions of "01" or "10". This can be modeled by adding a loop in the NFA. ‘Step 2: Add the "11" part @ = The "11" part can be modeled simply as two transitions on '1' from a state to another, leading to a final state. Combining everything We will combine the two parts using an OR operator (+): @ =~ Wehave one branch that recognizes the regular expression (01410), which can be represented by an NFA. @ Another branch that recognizes the string "11", which can also be represented by a simple NFA. NFA construction: @ Create an NFA for (01+10)x. @ = Create an NFA for "11". © Connect both NFAs to a new initial state with epsilon transitions, allowing the NFA to choose which part to evaluate. & Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Adda final accepting state that is reachable from both parts. ‘Step 3: Convert NFA to DFA (if needed) If you want to convert the NFA to a DFA, you would apply the powerset construction (subset construction) algorithm to transform the NFA into an equivalent DFA. c) Differentiate between DFA and NFA. = Feature DFA NFA Determinism Deterministic: exactly one transition Nondeterministic: multiple transitions possible for each state and input symbol. fora state and input symbol. Transition 5:Q xB Qionestateforeach 5: Q x E+ 2° (setof states for each input) Function input). Epsilon No epsilon transitions (no transitions May have epsilon (empty string) transitions, Transitions without consuming input). States Can have only one active state at any Can have multiple active states simultaneously time, (due to nondeterminism). Conversion Can be easily simulated by hardware © Can be converted to a DFA, but the resulting DFA or algorithms, may have exponentially more states. Recognition Recognizes the same languages as Can recognize the same languages as DFAs Power NFAs (regular languages). (regular languages). d) Write down the closure of each state from the following FA. 0 \ 2 S10 iQ € Pe => €) Define types of Turing Machine. —>Turing Machines (TMs) are fundamental models of computation used to define and study the concept of algorithmic processes and computability. A Turing Machine consists of a tape (infinite memory), a tape head (which reads and writes on the tape), and a finite set of states. While the basic Turing Machine operates according to a set of rules that govern the machine's transition between states, various types of Turing Machines have been introduced to study different computational scenarios. @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerQ3) Attempt any two of the following : (Out of THREE) [2 x 4 = 8] a) Construct a DFA for a language over = = {0,1} LINL2 L1 = {All strings starting with ‘0} L2 = {All strings not having ‘01’ as substring} = Where: + Lys the set ofall stings starting with ‘0’ (ie, strings that start with'0' and can have any number of 0's and 1's afterit) + Lzis the set of all strings that do not contain the substring ‘01’ (Le, strings that do not have’01' appearing anywhere in them). To construct a DFA for Ly ( Lz, we need to build a DFA that accepts strings that: 1. Start with’ 2. Do not contain the substring ‘07. Step 1: Recognizing strings starting with 0" For the language L,, the DFA needs to start by ensuring the string begins with’0. If the frst characteris, we reject the string immediately. Otherwise, the DFA moves to a state where itprocesses the rest of the string, ‘Step 2: Avoiding the substring 01" For La, the DFA must ensure that the substring 01" is not present anywhere in the string. This means if we encounter a‘0', we can safely continue, but if we encounter a‘1', the DFA must not have previously seen a'0' (since 01" is prohibited). States and Transitions: + State gp Initial state (also the accepting state for strings that start with 0}. + On'0, stay in gp (we can still have more O's). + 0n'1',go toi (since the string starts with'T, i's not valid for £1). + State qi: State after encountering 'Y. + On'0, go to g (this would form ‘01’, which is invalid for Za). © On’'T’ stay in q; (we can continue processing 1's). ‘+ State qo: State after encountering 01". + Thisis a rejecting state because once we encounter 01, the string is no longer valid for £2 @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerTransitions: + From: © On'0' = qo 2 Ont ag + Fromq: + On'0'~ © Ont = gi ‘+ From qp: (Reject state) + Onboth'0'and't’ ~ q ‘Accepting states: + Only q is an accepting state, as it represents strings that start with ‘0' and avoid ‘01’, DFA Diagram: hs OConycode qo qo a at a2 (Rejec at! 42 qo b) Construct the following CFG int Normal Form (CNF) $-> aSa | bSb| a|b|aa| bb => @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerGiven grammar: + SaSa\ bSb|a|b| aa| bb To convert this grammar to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF), we need to ensure that: 1. All productions are of the form A —+ BC or A ++ a where A, B,C are non-terminals and a is a terminal 2. No epsilon (empty string) or unit productions are allowed (except potentially for the start symbo)). ‘Step 1: Eliminate the terminal symbols from the productions. We have the productions: + §aSa\ bSb|a| b| aa| bb First, introduce new non-terminals for each terminal symbol: © Let saand Bb, Now, we rewrite the grammar in terms of A and B: * § ASA) BSB\A|B\AA| BB Step 2: Convert the productions to CNF. # S + AS.Ais already in CNF. * S— BSBisalsoinCNF. +S + Aand $+ B are in CNF (terminal productions) +S + AA and § + BB are already in CNF (binary productions). So, the CNF grammars: B Copyeede S = ASA | BSB] A] BAA | BB Aine Bab c) Construct TM which accepts the language that start with 0 and ends with 1. @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerWe need a Turing Machine that accepts strings which: Start with’ End with 1. ‘Steps: 1 . Initial Check: Ensure the string starts with‘ ‘and ends with" felther condition is violated, reject the string . Marking the first and last characters: * Start from the leftmost end, check if the first character is ‘0’. If i's not, reject. ‘+ Then move to the rightmost end to check if it ends with 'T’. If it doesn't, reject. + After checking, mark the first'0' and last't’as processed (replace them with blanks). Repeat: Move towards the middle of the string and repeat the process until we've checked the entire string ‘Accept/Reject: If we find any character that violates the starting’0' or ending 1’ condition, reject. Otherwise, Ifthe entire string has been successfully processed, accept it ‘Turing Machine Deseription: states: + ay: Stort state. Check the first character for 0 + a1: After checking the first 0", move right to find the last + ae: Check and mark the + ay: Move back to the left to check the next unmarked character. = ay Accept state. + ag: Reject state. Transitions: + ay (story +10, move to qi and mark’0! with blank (X). = IY, goto reject state qs = a (Scan right): ‘+ Move right to find the last 1". 1f°Y7, go 10 a = 170, continue moving right. + az (dark and check) = UF mark with blank (9, move left, = ttnot'Y, reject. + ay (Move lett and 1 seat) ‘+ Keep repeating until the string te compl ly processed oF find violations, = 44 (Accept): Ifthe entire string has been processed correctly. + a5 (Reject): I any violation #s found, reject the string & Scanned with OKEN ScannerQ4) Attempt any two of the following : (Out of THREE) [2 x 4 = 8] a) Construct a PDA for the language L = {a’n b’n [n>=1} = The language 1. consists of strings where the number of a's is equal to the number of Bs, and al the 's appear before the b's. To construct a Pushdown Automaton (PDA) for this language, we can utilize the stack to keep track of the a's that have been read, and then for each b, we pop one symbol from the stack, ensuring that the number of u's and t's are the same. PDA Construction: + states: @ = {2100247} Alphabet: 5 = {a,b} ‘Stack Alphabet: = {.4, Zo} (where is a symbol to represent an a and Zo Is the stack start symbol) Start state: gy Final state: qy Transitions: 1. (qos, Za) + (qo, AZo) (Push Ato stack when reading « and the stack is empty) 2 (yaya) + (qv, AA) (Push Ato stack when reading « and the stack has 1) 3. (q0,b, A) > (ase) (Transition to state q1 and pop one A for each t) 4. (aisb, A) + (ae) (Continue popping A for each b) 5. (15,20) > (aj, 20) (ifthe stack is empty (only Zo remains), transition to final state) ‘A if ithas b) Construct a Mealy mact substring ‘101’. it outputs —> e for the language L over = = {0, 1} which outputs if it has substring ‘110’, otherwise it outputs ‘C’. @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner+ ‘if ithas substring "101" + ‘Biifithas substring'110° + Cothenwise. Mealy Machine Construction: + states: = {o0,01, 42-9351} + Alphabet: 3 = {0,1} © Output Alphabet: { 4, B,C} + Start State: 9) + Final States: Not applicable, since we only care about the output and not acceptance or rejection. + Transitions: + From gy (no significant pat ofthe string matched yet) +» (q,0) > q2,€ (no match, output C) © (gi.1) + q1,€ (potential start of 101’ or'110%, output C) + From q (matched looking for'0'to complete'101' or 110): + (q1,0) + 41, (found 10, continue to check for'101,, output A) © (q1) > q1,€ (still no match, output C) + From q (matched 10; now looking forthe last symbol): © (q2.1) > qa, (found 101’, output A) + (q2,0) + qo, B (found'100; output B, and reset state) + From q3 (matched"101; stay inthis state as we need to keep outputting A): + (3,0) + 9, B (found 10Y already reset and output 8) + (gil) + qis€ (Continue with 101" substring, output C) + From qy (weve matched "10, the output wil be ‘8’ here): + (q1,0) + q,B (reset on'110', output 8) * (a1) > a1, (outputc) c) Write a short note on Chomsky’s hierarchy. —>Chomsky's hierarchy is a classification of formal languages based on their generative power and the complexity of the grammars that generate them. The hierarchy consists of @ = Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages @ These languages can be recognized by a Turing machine, meaning the machine may not halt for some inputs (i.e., the machine can loop indefinitely). @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Grammars: Unrestricted grammars (no restrictions on production rules). @ = Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages @ = These languages can be recognized by a linear-bounded automaton (LBA). @ Grammars: Context-sensitive grammars (rules where the length of the left side must be less than or equal to the length of the right side). @ Type 2: Context-Free Languages @ = These languages can be recognized by a pushdown automaton (PDA). @ Grammars: Context-free grammars (rules where the left-hand side of a production has a single non-terminal symbol). @ Examples include many programming language constructs, such as arithmetic expressions and balanced parentheses. @ Type 3: Regular Languages @ These languages can be recognized by a finite automaton. @ Grammars: Regular grammars (rules with at most one non-terminal symbol on the left-hand side). @ These languages can be described by regular expressions. Key Properties: @ = Type 3 languages are the simplest, with the least generative power, while Type 0 languages are the most powerful, capable of expressing anything that can be computed by a Turing machine. @ Each type is a subset of the next higher type, meaning all regular languages are context-free, all context-free languages are context-sensitive, and all context- sensitive languages are recursively enumerable, but not vice versa. The Chomsky hierarchy helps to formalize the relationship between grammars and the types of computational models needed to recognize or generate languages. Q5) Attempt any one of the following : (Out of TWO) [1 x 3 = 3] a) Construct a Moore machine over alphabet {0,1} to get I's compliment of a given binary string. = @ scanned with OKEN Scanner1. Understanding 1's Complement: The 1's complement of a binary number Is obtained by flipping each bit of the binary string. So: ‘+ Obecomes 1 + 1 becomes 0 For example: + The 1's complement of 101 Is 010 ‘+ The 1's complement of 1101 Is 0010 2. Moore Machine Construction: ‘A Moore machine is a finite state machine where the outputs depend only on the current state, not the input We need to construct a Moore machine that, upon receiving a binary string, outputs the 1's complement of that string, The machine will start in an initial state and, on each input (0 or 1), flip the bit and transition to the next state. States and Transitions: Welll create two states: ‘= State $0: This state will output 2 1 fora 0 input anda 0 fora 1 Input (since we are computing the 1's complement), ‘+ State $1: Similarly, this state will output a 1 fora 0 input anda 0 fora 1 input For simplicity, let's use two states to represent a toggle behavior where each transition flips the output bit. Moore Machine Diagram: 1. States: + 50: Outputis 1 + St :Outputis 0 2. Transitions: From $0, on input 0, the machine outputs 1 and stays in so. = From so, oninput 1, the machine outputs 0 and moves to s1 From 51, on input 0, the machine outputs 1 and moves to So From S1, on input 1,the machine outputs 0 and stays in st. ‘This Moore machine effectively flips each bit as it processes the input string. State Transition Table: ‘Current State Input Next state output so ° 0 1 so 1 st ° si ° so 1 st 1 st ° b) Show that L = {0%n 14 | n>= }} is not regular. & Scanned with OKEN Scanner1. Defining Regular Langu: A regular language Is one that can be recognized by a finite automaton (either deterministic ‘oF nondeterministic), or equivalently, one that can be described by a regular expression or generated by a regular grammar. 2. The Language 1 = {0"1" 1}: ‘The language £ consists of strings where there are some number of 0's followed by the same number of 1's. For example: = 01 = ool = 000111 This language Is known as the language of balanced 0's and 1's, where the number of 0's is. ‘equal to the number of 1's. 3. Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages: ‘To prove that a language is not regul: languages. The pumping lemma states that If a language Is regular, then there exists some pumping length p such that any string w in the language with length |u| > pcan be split Into three parts, ys, such that: we can use the Pumping Lemma for regular + levlsp + Iwo = zy's © £ forall k > 0 (the string can be “pumped” by repeating the substring v). ‘We will assume that Lis regular and show that It leads to a contradiction. ‘4. Applying the Pumping Lemma: Let us aceume that Z Ie regular. Then, by the pumping lemma, there existe a pumping length p. Now, consider the string uw = 0"1? inthe language L.. Clearly, w © L because it consists of pO’ followed by p 1's, ‘We can split w Into three parts, ys, where: + levi

+ ayfze I for all k > 0 Since |xy| < p,the substring y must consist entirely of 0's (because the first p characters of w are all O's). Thus, y = 0" for some m > 0. Now, consider what happens when we pump y (L.e., repeat 1 multiple times). Specifically, lev's pump y twice, setting k = 2. The resulting string would be: ay?z = 20” “This new string will have more 0's than 1's, which Is not in the language Z, because for any string in £, the number of 0's must equal the number of 1's. Therefore, xy? ¢ L, which contradicts the pumping lemma 5. Conelusion: Since we arrived at a contradiction, our assumption that £ Is regular must be false. ‘Therefore. the language Z: = {0"1" | n > 1} isnot regular. & Scanned with OKEN ScannerLY. B.Sc. (Computer Science) CS - 356 : THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE (2019 Pattern) (CBCS) (Semester - V) Time : 2 Hours} [Max. Marks : 35 Instructions to the candidates : 1) All questions are compulsory. 2) Figures to the right indicate full marks. Q1) Attempt any Eight of the following (out of Ten) : [8 x 1 = 8] a) Write the smallest possible string accepted by regular expression.01 (0 +1) 01*. —> the regular expression 01(0 + 1)01* can be broken down as follows: @ = 01 requires the string to start with "01". @ = (0 +1) means the next character can either be "0" or "1". @ 01* means zero or more occurrences of "0" followed by exactly one "1" at the end. The smallest string that satisfies this is: @ ‘010 This string has "01" followed by "0" (from the (0 + 1) part) and no extra "0" or "1" after it (since 01* allows for zero occurrences of "0" after the "1"). Thus, the smallest string is: "010". b) State True or False. PDA accepts only non-regular sets. —>False. ‘A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) can accept both regular languages (using only its finite state control) and context-free languages (by using its stack). Therefore, PDAs can accept more than just non-regular sets. c) Define ambiguous grammar. —>A grammar is ambiguous if there exists at least one string that can be derived in multiple ways, i.e., the string can have more than one leftmost derivation or more than one parse tree. d) What are the types of grammar in Chomsky hierarchy? —>The Chomsky hierarchy consists of four types of formal grammars: @ = Type 0: Unrestricted grammar — no constraints on production rules. @ Type 1: Context-sensitive grammar — production rules are of the forma — B, where the length of ais less than or equal to the length of B. @ Type 2: Context-free grammar — production rules are of the form A — B, where Ais a non-terminal and B is a string of terminals and/or non-terminals. @ = Type 3: Regular grammar — production rules are of the form A — aB or A -. a, where A and B are non-terminals and a is a terminal. ) What is Reduction? —>In computational theory, reduction refers to the process of converting one problem into another problem in such a way that a solution to the new problem can be used to solve the original problem. It is often used to prove that one problem is at least as hard as another (e.g., proving that a problem is NP-complete by reducing a known NP-complete problem to it). f) State True or False. String consists of only Non-Terminal symbol. & Scanned with OKEN Scanner—>A string in a formal language consists of terminals, not non-terminals. Non-terminal symbols are used in grammar rules to derive strings, but they do not appear in the strings themselves. A string is a sequence of terminal symbols g) Define non-deterministic Turing machine. —>A non-deterministic Turing machine (NDTM) is a theoretical model of computation that, at each step, can choose from multiple possible actions. Unlike a deterministic Turing machine, which has only one possible transition for each state and symbol, a non- deterministic Turing machine can "branch" into multiple states simultaneously, effectively exploring multiple computation paths at once. The machine accepts an input if at least one of these paths leads to an accepting state. h) If A = {€) find the value of | A |. —>The set A = {€} contains the empty string (denoted by €). Since there is only one element in the set, the size of the set is: |al=1. i) Write down the €-closure of each state from the following FA. t@14©—3© j)State two differences between NFA and DFA. = @ Ina DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton), for each state and input symbol, there is exactly one transition, while in an NFA (Non-deterministic Finite Automaton), there can be multiple transitions for the same input symbol from a given state. @ A DFA does not allow ¢ (epsilon) transitions (transitions without consuming input), whereas an NFA can have € transitions. Q2) Attempt any Four of the following (out of Five) : [4x 2 = 8] a) Explain two methods for defining language. Accepted by PDA. —>A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a computational model that is used to recognize context-free languages. There are two primary methods to define the language accepted by a PDA: @ = Acceptance by Final State: @ inthis method, a PDA accepts a string if it reaches a final (accepting) state after processing the entire input string. @ The PDA starts in the imitial state, processes the input symbol by symbol, and uses the stack to store additional information. The input is accepted if, after consuming the entire string, the PDA reaches a designated accepting state. @ Acceptance by Empty Stack: © _ Inthis method, a PDA accepts a string if, after reading the entire string, the stack is empty. @ = The PDA doesn't necessarily need to reach a final state but instead relies on the stack to be empty, indicating that all the symbols have been "balanced" or processed in away that satisfies the grammar rules of the language. b) Explain types of regular grammar. & Scanned with OKEN Scanner