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Fig. 29—Mud-flat streams, showing curious frostwork pattern at the head of underwater channels.
Note the pools and the veinlike drainage lines from them. Scale not known.
The photographs reproduced as Figures 28 and 29 were taken northeast
of Cape Charles, Virginia, in the summer of 1920 at low tide. The light-
colored ribbon-like bands represent water-filled channels; and the darker-
colored areas, either wet mud exposed to the air or mud slightly submerged.
However, photographs taken under certain conditions of light may show the
exact line between the exposed and the drowned portions of a land surface.
CHAPTER VIII
SUBMERGED LAND FORMS
(Figs. 30 to 33)
Heretofore the study of beaches, deltas, and other partly submerged land
forms has been chiefly confined to the exposed parts, the underwater forms
being largely matters of conjecture. By means of air photographs not only
can the exposed parts of the delta and beach be studied, but the forms of
shoals and terraces, the underwater portions of river deltas, tidal deltas and
their underwater distributaries, and many other submerged forms can be
shown clearly. Sand bars, terraces, and other submerged forms appear in
many of the photographs already presented; but a few so taken that the bars
and terraces appear to be the chief objects in the picture may be useful for
illustrating the underwater land forms and for demonstrating that these
forms can be successfully photographed. Unfortunately not many
photographs could be found which were taken with the express object in
view of illustrating underwater land features. In most of the available
photographs these features were only incidental, the chief purpose in taking
them being to photograph the shore.
Much has been written concerning the physiographic history of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States, and the question is still being
debated whether the land is rising, sinking, or stationary. To some extent
these questions are answered by the exposed land forms. The submarine
forms are imperfectly known. The possibility of recognizing shoals and
channels from a photograph and of determining in some measure the shapes
of the submerged land forms opens a new avenue of approach to the study
of submarine geography. In some places, especially in regions of drowned
topography, it is possible that, by using the air photograph in working out
the physiographic processes that have produced the land forms that are now
under water, some of the vexing problems of earth history may be solved.
Fig. 30 (left)—Sand bars and drowned terrace about Stove Point Neck, at the mouth of the
Piankatank River, Virginia, as photographed from a height of about 10,000 feet at 11:30 A.M.,
December 11, 1920. West (left) of the neck, at the outer edge of the terrace, the water is 2 to 3 feet
deep at low tide, or 5.7 feet and 6.7 feet at high tide, but deepens abruptly westward, where it is 20 to
30 feet deep in Fishing Bay (see Fig. 32). To the south and east of the point the abrupt descent is at
the side of the deep channel of the Piankatank River. To the right, the bottom, having a wavy
appearance because of sand bars, fades off more gradually under deep water. The mottled area in the
middle of the neck is wooded, and the smoother parts near the point and in the upper part of the neck
are cleared land. Scale, about 1:30,000.
Fig. 31 (right)—Drowned terraces at Gwynn Island at the mouth of the Piankatank River, Virginia, as
photographed from a height of about 10,000 feet at 11:30 A.M., December 11, 1920. At the right is a
part of the island, showing trees, fields, and houses. Bordering the land area is a narrow band of light-
colored beach sand, expanded at Cherry Point into a conspicuous sharply recurved hook. Under the
shallow water can be seen wave marks resembling large ripple marks. The water is 2 to 3 feet deep at
low tide at the outer edge of the light-colored submerged shelf, beyond which the bottom descends
abruptly toward the left to a depth of about 20 feet. North of Cherry Point the waxy bottom shades
off more gradually to the deep channel of the Piankatank. Scale, about 1:30,000.
The Best Conditions for Photographing Underwater
Land Forms
Fig. 32—Part of the Kilmarnock and Mathews, Va., topographic sheets, 1:62,500, published by the
U. S. Geological Survey, showing the location of Figs. 31 and 32; and a cross section along the line
indicated on the map, showing a terrace 26 feet above sea level at the left, one less than 5 feet above
water level on Gwynn Island, one 5 feet or less below water level; and the river channel with abrupt
banks between the shoals. Scale, 1:70,000.
The photographic study of underwater land forms is relatively new, and
little information concerning it is available. It is annoyingly obvious to the
air observer that at times he can see nothing beneath the surface of the
water, whereas at other
Fig. 33—A drowned valley: Lambs Creek, 8 miles southeast of Yorktown, Va., one of the estuary-
streams tributary to Chesapeake Bay, showing the broad mouth narrowing upstream and the irregular
margins caused by partial submergence of the valley slopes, eroded before the rise of the water to its
present height. Even the vertical photograph, which does not register relative elevations, shows a
distinct difference between the shore line of this type of body of water and rivers with broad, low
flood plains. The large trees close to the margin of the river and the cultivated fields just back of them
indicate a relatively high bank. Scale, about 1:9,000.
times he can see with great distinctness. In trying to ascertain the most
favorable conditions for such observation, it was found that submerged
objects are seen best when the sky is evenly overcast or when it is
uniformly clear. Sometimes when the sky is only partly cloudy the surface
of the water seems to act as a mirror and nothing is seen but the reflection
of cloud and sky. Waves have less effect on the visibility of objects beneath
the surface than was expected, although they diffuse the reflected light to
some extent and consequently weaken the image on the negative. But the
reflected light from the surface of the water is stronger than that coming
from objects under water. Hence, to photograph underwater features
successfully, a time should be chosen when direct reflection of light from
the sun or from a brightly illuminated cloud will not enter the lens.
Experience in both the air and the laboratory shows that the best results
are likely to be obtained when the sunlight strikes the surface at an oblique
angle. In summer favorable times are mid-forenoon or mid-afternoon under
an evenly illuminated sky. In winter the sun is low enough at midday to
avoid direct reflection into the lens. But experience also indicates that often
photographs taken at moments when the eye caught the image of a
submerged object show only the surface of the water.
CHAPTER IX
THE PLAIN FROM THE AIR
(Figs. 34 to 41)
A River on the Great Plains
The difficulty of photographing a plain from a point on its surface needs
no emphasis, but its successful representation by means of air photographs
is illustrated by many figures in this book. The Great Plains of the west-
central part of the United States are illustrated here by a view of the Red
River (Fig. 36), which shows the flat surface of the land and the broad
sandy bed of the river only partly covered by the intricately woven strands
of the braided channels—a scene characteristic of the Great Plains.
Meandering Streams on the Coastal Plain
The ox-bow curves of meandering streams are among the features of the
earth’s surface most familiar to the student of physical geography; yet,
heretofore, they have been illustrated only by maps, constructed at great
labor and expense. Comprehensive photographs of them are rare and are, at
best, imperfect and unsatisfactory for purposes of illustration. On the other
hand, meandering streams lend themselves admirably to air photography.
Equally familiar to the student of geography and physiography is the term
“abandoned meander.” These ancient stream courses, many of which are
now occupied by marsh, brush, or forest, have been still more difficult to
illustrate by means of photographs. In some instances wooded meanders
like those near Columbus, Ga. (Fig. 34), long ago abandoned by the stream
that formed them, are shown in air pictures in a manner but little less
conspicuous than the meanders of the present-day stream. It is believed that
instructors will find Figure 34 useful, not only in illustrating meandering
streams and abandoned meanders but also in showing how meanders
develop.
Fig. 34—The Chattahoochee River south of Columbus, Ga., showing the results of progressive
lateral shifting of a meandering stream. In the upper part of the illustration to the left (west) of the
stream are light-colored concentric markings which probably represent the gradual shifting of the
stream toward the right. As interpreted from the information at hand, this section of the stream at one
time occupied a position much farther west than now. It cut away the bank on the east, forming a
curved course, depositing sand and mud on the inside of the curve. This typical feature of stream
erosion and deposition is to be noted from the picture of the present course of the stream. At the
outside of each meander stretches of the bank appear light-colored and denuded of the trees and
bushes that line the bank elsewhere. These are scours, a slipping away of the bluff caused by the
cutting of the stream into the foot of the bank at points where the velocity of the outside of the
current, and consequently its corrosive power, is increased as it swings round the curve. The inside of
the sharpest meander shows also the deposit of material due to the fact that the velocity of the inside
of the current is checked by the bank, causing it to deposit some of its load. Added to this deposit is
much of the material brought by cross-currents from the opposite-lying scour. The light-colored
banks are probably successive deposits. Finally, either by a gradual wearing away or by some whim
of the current at flood tide, the river chose a shorter course, leaving its old channel as an abandoned
meander. Farther south several abandoned meanders may be distinguished, each distinctively marked
by a steep bank on the outside of the curve and concentric bandings on the inside. The abandoned
channels are especially marked by the trees and brush that fill them in many places. It appears that a
well-developed growth of trees is to be found only along the river banks in this region and the growth
in the abandoned channels is probably due to the fact that in flood time there is much seepage of
water into these old channels if not an actual overflow from the present course of the stream. At the
bottom of the picture is to be seen the recently made land under cultivation. The fields appear striated
and checkered, obscuring the concentric banding. The illustration is from a mosaic made up at Camp
Benning near-by of many photographs matched together, hence there are certain differences in shade
due to dark and light prints. Scale, about 1:38,000.
Fig. 35—Map of the same area shown in Fig. 34 enlarged from the corresponding sections of the
Columbus and Seale, Ga.-Ala., topographic sheets, 1:62,500, published by the U. S. Geological
Survey. The cross section at the bottom lies along the line indicated on the map and extends
somewhat beyond the right border of the map. The section shows between the hills the broad lowland
over which the Chattahoochee River has meandered. Scale, 1:38,000.
Fig. 36—A river channel in the Great Plains. The Red River northeast of Wichita Falls, Tex., as
photographed from a height of 8,000 feet, September 12, 1918. Between the bluffs is seen the dark-
colored water of the braided stream flowing on a broad sandy bed more than a mile wide, which is
completely covered with water only at flood time. The river forms the Texas-Oklahoma boundary,
and frequent changes in the position of the channel during periods of high water make the exact
position of the interstate boundary uncertain and give rise to disputes and litigation over the
ownership of land. North of the river (top of figure) to the right are sand dunes with a sprinkling of
trees and bushes; in the middle of the channel there is an island of light-colored sand. The stream
channel bites sharply into the southern bluff, which is cut by many strong gulches. Across the river is
the familiar sand flat built of the material washed downstream at flood time and spread out by the
subsiding water. The channel at this point shows the changes that have taken place in the position of
the stream and, where the stream crosses the sandy floor, affords an example of braiding. Scale, about
1:23,000.
Fig. 37—A characteristic glacial drift plain in southwestern Michigan. There appear, at the left, the
round surface of a terminal moraine and gullied slopes, which show mottled in the picture; morainic
hollows and kettleholes once partly filled with water but now filled with peat or occupied by marshes
formed by the accumulation of peat from plant growth until carbonaceous matter has replaced the
water of the original lake; in the center, a relatively smooth outwash plain characterized by straight
roads and well-cultivated fields; and, at the right, a brush-lined creek, a small reservoir, and the town
of Flowerfield. Scale, about 1:20,000.
Fig. 38—The same area as shown in Fig. 37, enlarged from the advance edition, 1:48,000, of the
Schoolcraft, Mich., topographic sheet to be published by the U. S. Geological Survey. This advance
sheet results from an experiment in the use of airplanes for mapping. The area was photographed
with a mapping camera. From the photograph a base map was constructed, which was verified on the
ground; on this base the contour lines were added by instrumental survey. Scale, 1:20,000.
Fig. 39—Schoolcraft, Mich., a town typical of the agricultural portions of the north-central United
States, showing the characteristic features—roads, fields, town blocks, and others—by which the
aviator can recognize a locality from a distance. The mottled appearance of the land surrounding the
village is characteristic of air photographs of glacial moraine regions. The picture of the village itself
might be taken as a prototype of the American village with its fairly regular layout of streets, its
business center indicated by a few larger roofs along the widest street, its lawns, trees, and gardens,
the bordering farm lands, and the scattered extensions of the village into points in the direction of the
main roads. Scale, about 1:14,000.
The Glacial Drift Plain
Fig. 40—Map of the town of Schoolcraft, Mich., for comparison with Fig. 39. Enlarged from the
advance edition, 1:48,000, of the Schoolcraft, Mich., topographic sheet to be published by the U. S.
Geological Survey. Scale, 1:14,000.
Some of the characteristics of a third type of plain, the glacial drift plain,
are shown in Figures 37 to 41. Here are pictured glacial lakes, bogs,
marshes, moraines, and outwash plains, peat-filled depressions, kettleholes
and gullied slopes—typical features of a glaciated region. The views show,
also, many of the familiar aspects of the central and western parts of the
United States: the rectangular pattern formed by the land subdivisions
established by the United States Land Office, the checkerboard pattern
being emphasized by the section-line roads; the minor subdivisions into
fields; and the cultivation of a variety of crops.
Fig. 41—Kettleholes and other depressions in glacial till, on the Grand Trunk Railway about 5 miles
southwest of Schoolcraft, Mich. The distance between the eastern (right) edge of this view and the
western (left) of Fig. 37 is about 1 mile. Scale, about 1:15,000.
These photographs were selected from a series taken as an experiment in
map-making. In June, 1920, the United States Air Service sent a plane
equipped with a K-1 camera from Dayton, Ohio, to Schoolcraft, Mich,
where in seven hours’ flying time a fifteen-minute quadrangle, about 220
square miles, was photographed. The prints were matched together and
reduced to a scale of 1:48,000. From them such features as roads, streams,
forests, land corners, etc., were transferred to plane-table sheets, which the
topographic engineers on the ground then used for contouring the relief.
Figure 38 is a part of the preliminary proof of this map. It may be added
that the experiment is regarded as highly favorable to the use of the airplane
camera as an instrument in mapping.
CHAPTER X
MOUNTAIN FEATURES
(Figs. 42 to 52)
In obtaining photographic illustrations from the ground of mountains,
canyons, and associated land forms, the same difficulty, but in exaggerated
form, is encountered that obtains in securing an advantageous point of view
for small objects. The difficulty is overcome in large measure by the use of
aircraft. In an airplane the observer can rise above the obstructions which
interfere with the view desired; can look an isolated mountain peak squarely
in the face, as in the case of the photograph of Mt. Shasta (Fig. 42); can
study the details of its ice cap (Fig. 42) and gaze downward on the lateral
and recessional moraines left by the retreat of the mountain’s glaciers (Fig.
43). Few volcanic craters, occurring as they do at the top of cones, have
been successfully photographed unless some higher mountain stands near-
by on which a favorable viewpoint can be found. From an airplane,
however, one can look into the very throat of a crater, as into that of Cinder
Cone (Fig. 48), near Lassen Peak, California.
Much attention has been given to the interrelations of canyons, gorges,
and mountain ridges, but these relations have hitherto been illustrated
chiefly by means of maps and charts. Figures 49, 50, and 52 picture three
relations more expressively than any map. To the experienced geographer a
map may illustrate perfectly the action of a stream working headward into
higher land; but the student to whom the conception of headward erosion is
new will certainly grasp the idea more readily from the picture presented in
Figure 52. No map could give so clear a conception of a maturely dissected
highland as does a photograph like that of the Santa Monica Mountains
(Fig. 50).
Fig. 42—A glaciated volcanic Cone: Mt. Shasta, California, 14,162 feet high, as seen by an airplane
observer from the northeast, showing Hotlum Glacier in the foreground and Wintun Glacier at the
extreme left. The monadnock which separates the two main lobes of Hotlum Glacier appears as the
dark-colored mass of rock in the midst of the ice. To be noted are the many indications of movement
in the glaciers shown by curved lines, eddies, and crevasses, and the glacial streams flowing away
from the ends of the glaciers. The long lobe at the left center shows the formation of both lateral and
recessional as well as terminal moraines.
Fig. 43—A glacial gorge on the northeastern face of Mt. Shasta, California, below Hotlum Glacier
(see Fig. 42), the lower end of which is to be seen in the upper part of the photograph. At the left are
two ridges, one the edge of a sheet of flow lava, the other, in part at least, a lateral moraine. In the
center, at the bottom of the gorge, between the two white lines which represent glacial streams, is a
system of concentric ridges which are probably recessional moraines. At the right is the western slope
of the gorge. (This figure is the lower overlapping continuation of Fig. 42.)
Fig. 44—Yosemite Valley, California, a typical ice-shaped gorge, showing at the left the granite face
of El Capitan, about 3,000 feet above the bottom of the famous gorge, and, at the right, the pinnacle
of Sentinel Rock and the well-known form of Half Dome. At the sky line in the center of the picture
is Clouds Rest, and well down in the gorge Washington Column and the Royal Arches can be
distinguished.
These photographs have the advantage of appealing to the mind through
the sense of vision and will serve the same purpose as plaster models. Thus,
in Figure 52, a variety of topographic forms are to be distinguished,
including slightly dissected highlands with sharply incised gorges; maturely
dissected highlands made up now of canyons and ridges; a mountain valley
broadening out toward an intermontane plain; several arroyos; and many
minor features.
In the interpretation of the features shown in a vertical view of a
mountainous country the orientation of the photograph is of prime
importance. When viewed in proper orientation, that is, as already pointed
out (p. 5), with the shadows falling toward the observer, mountains and
valleys appear in their correct relation. But, if the position of the picture is
reversed, a mountain will look like a depression and a valley like a ridge.
This reversal of the image can be tested by looking at Figures 49 or 52 from
both viewpoints. However, since the vertical photographs will be compared
with maps of the same area, it is thought better to place them on the page as
if they were maps. In order to make them appear natural the prints can be
turned in the necessary direction.
Fig. 45—Map of the Yosemite Valley, showing the area included within the angle of vision of Fig.
44. The map, a reduced section from the Yosemite and Mt. Lyell, Cal., topographic sheets, 1:125,000,
published by the U. S. Geological Survey, is oriented for direct comparison with the photograph.
Scale, 1:167,000.
Fig. 46—Mountains of volcanic origin: Cinder Cone with, in the distance at the right, Lassen Peak in
the northern Sierra Nevada, California, as seen from an airplane over Lake Bidwell. Beyond the lake
appears the rough surface of lava poured out as molten rock less than two hundred years ago (see U.
S. Geol. Survey Bull. 79, 1891). Surrounding the cone is a light-colored ash field, sparsely forested at
the right, which was formed about two hundred years ago. The mountain in the middle of the
photograph having a smooth surface is Cinder Cone, rising 640 feet above the general level of the ash
field and consisting of fragments of lava—the so-called ash and cinders—blown from the crater at
times of eruption.
Fig. 47—Map of the region between Cinder Cone and Lassen Peak in the northern Sierra Nevada,
California, showing the area included within the angle of vision of Fig. 46. The map, a reduced
section from the Lassen Peak, Cal., topographic sheet, 1:250,000, published by the U. S. Geological
Survey, is oriented for direct comparison with the photograph. Scale, 1:307,000.
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