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Thermodynamics notes class11

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies the transformation of heat into other forms of energy, focusing on macroscopic systems characterized by pressure, volume, and temperature. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total heat energy change in a system is the sum of the internal energy change and the work done, while the second law introduces limitations on energy conversion and heat transfer. Key concepts include thermal equilibrium, specific heat capacities, and thermodynamic processes such as isothermal and adiabatic processes.

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5 views

Thermodynamics notes class11

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies the transformation of heat into other forms of energy, focusing on macroscopic systems characterized by pressure, volume, and temperature. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total heat energy change in a system is the sum of the internal energy change and the work done, while the second law introduces limitations on energy conversion and heat transfer. Key concepts include thermal equilibrium, specific heat capacities, and thermodynamic processes such as isothermal and adiabatic processes.

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farookhanmats
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CHAPTER-12

THERMODYNAMICS

The branch of physics which deals with the study or transformation of heat
into other forms of energy and vice-versa is called thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. It deals with bulk systems and
does not go into the
molecular constitution of matter.
• A collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules confined
within certain boundaries
such that it has a certain values of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature
(T) is called a ; thermodynamic system.
Thermal Equilibrium

A thermodynamic system is in an equilibrium state if the macroscopic


variables such as pressure, volume, temperature, mass composition etc that
characterise the system do not change in time. In thermal equilibrium, the
temperature of the two systems are equal.
Heat, Work and Internal Energy

Energy that is transferred between a system and its surroundings whenever


there is temperature difference between the system and its surroundings is
called heat.

— Work is said to be done if a body or a system moves through a certain


distance in the direction of the applied force. It is given as

dW = PdV

where P is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder.

— If we consider a bulk system consisting of a large number of molecules,


then internal energy ; of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies and
potential energies of these molecules.

This energy is possessed by a system due to its molecular motion and


molecular configuration. The internal energy is denoted by U.

U = Ek + Ep

where Ek and Ep represent the kinetic and potential energies of the


molecules of the system.

• Internal energy of a system is a macroscopic variable and it depends only


on the state of the system. Its value depends only on the given state of the
system and does not depend on the path taken to arrive that state.
First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is simply the general law of conservation of


energy applied to any system. According to this law, “the total heat energy
change in any system is the sum of the internal energy change and the work
done.”

When a certain quantity of heat dQ is subjected to a system, a part of it is


used in increasing the internal energy by dU and a part is used in performing
external work dW, hence

dQ = dU + dW

SIGN CONVENTION:

Heat supplied to the system dQ is positive

Heat taken from the system dQ is negative

Work done by the system( expansion) dW is positive

Work done on the system( compression) dW is negative

When temperature increases dU is positive

When temperature decreases dU is negative

For gases, the specific heat capacity depends on the process or the conditions
under which heat capacity transfer takes place. There are mainly two
principal specific heat capacities for a gas. These are specific heat capacity at
constant volume and specific heat capacity at constant pressure.

• From First Law of Thermodynamics we find a relation between two


principal specific heats of an ideal gas. According to the relation

Cp-Cv = R

Here Cp and Cv are molar specific heats under constant pressure and
constant volume condition.
Thermodynamic State Variables

Thermodynamic state variables of a system are the parameters which


describe equilibrium states of the system. For example, equilibrium state of
gas is completely specified by the values of pressure, volume, temperature,
mass and composition.

• Equation of State

The equation of state represents the connection between the state variables
of a system. For example, the those equation of state of an ideal/perfect gas
in represented as

PV = nRT

where n is number of moles of the gas and R is gas constant for one mole of
the gas.

Thermodynamic state variables are of two kinds, extensive and intensive.


Extensive variables indicate the size of the system but intensive variables do
not indicate the size. Volume, mass, internal energy of a system are extensive
variables but pressure, temperature and density are intensive variables.

Thermodynamic Processes

Any process in which the thermodynamic variables of a thermodynamic


system change is known as thermodynamic process.

• Quasi-Static Processes

Processes that are sufficiently slow and do not involve accelerated motion of
piston are quasi-static processes.

In this process, the change in pressure or change in volume or change in


temperature of the system is very small.
• Isothermal Process

A change in pressure and volume of a gas without any change in its


temperature, is called an isothermal change. In such a change, there is a free
exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings.

• Adiabatic Process

A process in which no exchange of heat energy takes place between the gas
and the surroundings, is called an adiabatic process.

Reversible Process

A process which can retrace so that the system passes through the same
states is called a reversible process, otherwise it is irreversible.

Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:

(i) Many processes like free expansion or an explosive chemical reaction take
the system to non-equilibrium states.

(ii) Most processes involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative effects.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

This principle which disallows certain phenomena consistent with the First
law of thermodynamics is known as the second law of thermodynamics.

Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct an engine, operating in


a cycle, to extract

heat from hot body and convert it completely into work without leaving any
change anywhere i.e., 100% conversion of heat into work is impossible.
Claussius Statement: It is impossible for a self-acting machine, operating in a
cycle, unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from a cold body to a
hot body. In other words, heat cannot flow itself from a colder body to a
hotter body.

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