(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Aerodynamics 6th

Edition pdf download

https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-
aerodynamics-6th-edition/

Download more ebook from https://ebooksecure.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooksecure.com
to discover even more!

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Aerodynamics 6th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-
aerodynamics-6th-edition/

Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 7e 7th Edition John D.

Anderson Jr. - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/fundamentals-of-
aerodynamics-7e-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Multinational Finance 6th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-
multinational-finance-6th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 6th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-
electric-circuits-6th-edition/
(eBook PDF) Canadian Fundamentals of Nursing 6th
Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-canadian-fundamentals-
of-nursing-6th-edition/

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 6th Edition (eBook

PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/fundamentals-of-electric-
circuits-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(Original PDF) Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision 6th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-fundamentals-of-
clinical-supervision-6th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Canadian fundamentals of nursing 6th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-canadian-fundamentals-
of-nursing-6th-edition-2/

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences 6th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-thermal-
fluid-sciences-6th-edition/
 John Anderson

Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics
S I XTH E D ITION
 CONTENTS

Preface to the Sixth Edition XV 1.13 Historical Note: The Illusive Center
of Pressure 89
1.14 Historical Note: Aerodynamic

PART 1
Fundamental Principles 1
Coefficients 93
1.15 Summary 97
1.16 Integrated Work Challenge: Forward-Facing
Axial Aerodynamic Force on an Airfoil—
Chapter 1 Can It Happen and, If So, How? 98
Aerodynamics: Some Introductory 1.17 Problems 101
Thoughts 3
1.1 Importance of Aerodynamics: Historical Chapter 2
Examples 5 Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles
1.2 Aerodynamics: Classification and Practical and Equations 105
Objectives 11
2.1 Introduction and Road Map 106
1.3 Road Map for This Chapter 15
2.2 Review of Vector Relations 107
1.4 Some Fundamental Aerodynamic
Variables 15 2.2.1 Some Vector Algebra 108
1.4.1 Units 18 2.2.2 Typical Orthogonal Coordinate
Systems 109
1.5 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 19
2.2.3 Scalar and Vector Fields 112
1.6 Center of Pressure 32
2.2.4 Scalar and Vector Products 112
1.7 Dimensional Analysis: The Buckingham
2.2.5 Gradient of a Scalar Field 113
Pi Theorem 34
2.2.6 Divergence of a Vector Field 115
1.8 Flow Similarity 41
2.2.7 Curl of a Vector Field 116
1.9 Fluid Statics: Buoyancy Force 52
2.2.8 Line Integrals 116
1.10 Types of Flow 62
2.2.9 Surface Integrals 117
1.10.1 Continuum Versus Free Molecule
Flow 62 2.2.10 Volume Integrals 118
1.10.2 Inviscid Versus Viscous Flow 62 2.2.11 Relations Between Line, Surface,
and Volume Integrals 119
1.10.3 Incompressible Versus Compressible
Flows 64 2.2.12 Summary 119
1.10.4 Mach Number Regimes 64 2.3 Models of the Fluid: Control Volumes and
1.11 Viscous Flow: Introduction to Boundary Fluid Elements 119
Layers 68 2.3.1 Finite Control Volume Approach 120
1.12 Applied Aerodynamics: The Aerodynamic 2.3.2 Infinitesimal Fluid Element
Coefficients—Their Magnitudes and Approach 121
Variations 75 2.3.3 Molecular Approach 121

vii
viii Contents

2.3.4 Physical Meaning of the Divergence 3.4 Pitot Tube: Measurement of Airspeed 226
of Velocity 122 3.5 Pressure Coefficient 235
2.3.5 Specification of the Flow Field 123 3.6 Condition on Velocity for Incompressible
2.4 Continuity Equation 127 Flow 237
2.5 Momentum Equation 132 3.7 Governing Equation for Irrotational,
2.6 An Application of the Momentum Equation: Incompressible Flow: Laplace’s
Drag of a Two-Dimensional Body 137 Equation 238
2.6.1 Comment 146 3.7.1 Infinity Boundary Conditions 241
2.7 Energy Equation 146 3.7.2 Wall Boundary Conditions 241
2.8 Interim Summary 151 3.8 Interim Summary 242
2.9 Substantial Derivative 152 3.9 Uniform Flow: Our First Elementary
2.10 Fundamental Equations in Terms of the Flow 243
Substantial Derivative 158 3.10 Source Flow: Our Second Elementary
2.11 Pathlines, Streamlines, and Streaklines Flow 245
of a Flow 160 3.11 Combination of a Uniform Flow with a
2.12 Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and Strain 165 Source and Sink 249
2.13 Circulation 176 3.12 Doublet Flow: Our Third Elementary
2.14 Stream Function 179 Flow 253
2.15 Velocity Potential 183 3.13 Nonlifting Flow over a Circular
Cylinder 255
2.16 Relationship Between the Stream Function
and Velocity Potential 186 3.14 Vortex Flow: Our Fourth Elementary
Flow 264
2.17 How Do We Solve the Equations? 187
3.15 Lifting Flow over a Cylinder 268
2.17.1 Theoretical (Analytical) Solutions 187
3.16 The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem and the
2.17.2 Numerical Solutions—Computational
Generation of Lift 282
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 189
3.17 Nonlifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies:
2.17.3 The Bigger Picture 196
The Numerical Source Panel Method 284
2.18 Summary 196
3.18 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a
2.19 Problems 200 Circular Cylinder—The Real Case 294
3.19 Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler—The

PART 2 Origins of Theoretical Fluid

Dynamics 302
Inviscid, Incompressible Flow 203 3.20 Historical Note: d’Alembert and His
Paradox 307
Chapter 3 3.21 Summary 308
Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible 3.22 Integrated Work Challenge: Relation
Flow 205 Between Aerodynamic Drag and the Loss of
3.1 Introduction and Road Map 206 Total Pressure in the Flow Field 311
3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 209 3.23 Integrated Work Challenge: Conceptual
3.3 Incompressible Flow in a Duct: The Venturi Design of a Subsonic Wind Tunnel 314
and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel 213 3.24 Problems 318
 Contents ix

Chapter 4 Chapter 5
Incompressible Flow over Airfoils 321 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings 423
4.1 Introduction 323 5.1 Introduction: Downwash and Induced
4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature 326 Drag 427
4.3 Airfoil Characteristics 328 5.2 The Vortex Filament, the Biot-Savart Law,
4.4 Philosophy of Theoretical Solutions for and Helmholtz’s Theorems 432
Low-Speed Flow over Airfoils: The 5.3 Prandtl’s Classical Lifting-Line
Vortex Sheet 333 Theory 436
4.5 The Kutta Condition 338 5.3.1 Elliptical Lift Distribution 442
4.5.1 Without Friction Could We 5.3.2 General Lift Distribution 447
Have Lift? 342 5.3.3 Effect of Aspect Ratio 450
4.6 Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem and the 5.3.4 Physical Significance 456
Starting Vortex 342 5.4 A Numerical Nonlinear Lifting-Line
4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory: The Method 465
Symmetric Airfoil 346 5.5 The Lifting-Surface Theory and the Vortex
4.8 The Cambered Airfoil 356 Lattice Numerical Method 469
4.9 The Aerodynamic Center: Additional 5.6 Applied Aerodynamics: The Delta
Considerations 365 Wing 476
4.10 Lifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies: The 5.7 Historical Note: Lanchester and
Vortex Panel Numerical Method 369 Prandtl—The Early Development of
4.11 Modern Low-Speed Airfoils 375 Finite-Wing Theory 488
4.12 Viscous Flow: Airfoil Drag 379 5.8 Historical Note: Prandtl—The Man 492
4.12.1 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag: 5.9 Summary 495
Laminar Flow 380 5.10 Problems 496
4.12.2 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag:
Turbulent Flow 382
4.12.3 Transition 384 Chapter 6
4.12.4 Flow Separation 389 Three-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 499
4.12.5 Comment 394 6.1 Introduction 499
4.13 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over an 6.2 Three-Dimensional Source 500
Airfoil—The Real Case 395 6.3 Three-Dimensional Doublet 502
4.14 Historical Note: Early Airplane Design and 6.4 Flow over a Sphere 504
the Role of Airfoil Thickness 406
6.4.1 Comment on the Three-Dimensional
4.15 Historical Note: Kutta, Joukowski, and the Relieving Effect 506
Circulation Theory of Lift 411 6.5 General Three-Dimensional Flows: Panel
4.16 Summary 413 Techniques 507
4.17 Integrated Work Challenge: Wall Effects on 6.6 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a
Measurements Made in Subsonic Wind Sphere—The Real Case 509
Tunnels 415
4.18 Problems 419
x Contents

6.7 Applied Aerodynamics: Airplane Lift 8.3 Speed of Sound 567

and Drag 512 8.3.1 Comments 575
6.7.1 Airplane Lift 512 8.4 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 576
6.7.2 Airplane Drag 514 8.5 When Is a Flow Compressible? 584
6.7.3 Application of Computational Fluid 8.6 Calculation of Normal Shock-Wave
Dynamics for the Calculation of Lift and Properties 587
Drag 519
8.6.1 Comment on the Use of Tables to Solve
6.8 Summary 523 Compressible Flow Problems 602
6.9 Problems 524 8.7 Measurement of Velocity in a Compressible
Flow 603
8.7.1 Subsonic Compressible Flow 603
PART 3
Inviscid, Compressible Flow 525 8.8
8.7.2 Supersonic Flow 604
Summary 608
8.9 Problems 611
Chapter 7
Compressible Flow: Some Preliminary Chapter 9
Aspects 527
Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves 613
7.1 Introduction 528
9.1 Introduction 614
7.2 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics 530
9.2 Oblique Shock Relations 620
7.2.1 Perfect Gas 530
9.3 Supersonic Flow over Wedges and
7.2.2 Internal Energy and Enthalpy 530
Cones 634
7.2.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 535
9.3.1 A Comment on Supersonic Lift and Drag
7.2.4 Entropy and the Second Law of Coefficients 637
Thermodynamics 536
9.4 Shock Interactions and Reflections 638
7.2.5 Isentropic Relations 538
9.5 Detached Shock Wave in Front of a Blunt
7.3 Definition of Compressibility 542 Body 644
7.4 Governing Equations for Inviscid, 9.5.1 Comment on the Flow Field Behind a
Compressible Flow 543 Curved Shock Wave: Entropy Gradients
7.5 Definition of Total (Stagnation) and Vorticity 648
Conditions 545 9.6 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves 648
7.6 Some Aspects of Supersonic Flow: Shock 9.7 Shock-Expansion Theory: Applications to
Waves 552 Supersonic Airfoils 660
7.7 Summary 556 9.8 A Comment on Lift and Drag
7.8 Problems 558 Coefficients 664
9.9 The X-15 and Its Wedge Tail 664
Chapter 8 9.10 Viscous Flow: Shock-Wave/
Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics 561 Boundary-Layer Interaction 669
9.11 Historical Note: Ernst Mach—A
8.1 Introduction 562 Biographical Sketch 671
8.2 The Basic Normal Shock Equations 563
 Contents xi

9.12 Summary 674 11.6 Critical Mach Number 756

9.13 Integrated Work Challenge: Relation 11.6.1 A Comment on the Location of Minimum
Between Supersonic Wave Drag and Pressure (Maximum Velocity) 765
Entropy Increase—Is There a 11.7 Drag-Divergence Mach Number: The
Relation? 675 Sound Barrier 765
9.14 Integrated Work Challenge: The Sonic 11.8 The Area Rule 773
Boom 678 11.9 The Supercritical Airfoil 775
9.15 Problems 681 11.10 CFD Applications: Transonic Airfoils and
Wings 777
Chapter 10 11.11 Applied Aerodynamics: The Blended
Wing Body 782
Compressible Flow Through Nozzles,
Diffusers, and Wind Tunnels 689 11.12 Historical Note: High-Speed
Airfoils—Early Research and
10.1 Introduction 690 Development 788
10.2 Governing Equations for 11.13 Historical Note: The Origin of the
Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 692 Swept-Wing Concept 792
10.3 Nozzle Flows 701 11.14 Historical Note: Richard T.
10.3.1 More on Mass Flow 715 Whitcomb—Architect of the Area Rule
10.4 Diffusers 716 and the Supercritical Wing 801
10.5 Supersonic Wind Tunnels 718 11.15 Summary 802
10.6 Viscous Flow: Shock-Wave/ 11.16 Integrated Work Challenge: Transonic
Boundary-Layer Interaction Inside Testing by the Wing-Flow Method 804
Nozzles 724 11.17 Problems 808
10.7 Summary 726
10.8 Integrated Work Challenge: Chapter 12
Conceptual Design of a Supersonic Linearized Supersonic Flow 811
Wind Tunnel 727
10.9 Problems 736 12.1 Introduction 812
12.2 Derivation of the Linearized Supersonic
Pressure Coefficient Formula 812
Chapter 11 12.3 Application to Supersonic Airfoils 816
Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils: 12.4 Viscous Flow: Supersonic Airfoil
Linear Theory 739 Drag 822
11.1 Introduction 740 12.5 Summary 825
11.2 The Velocity Potential Equation 742 12.6 Problems 826
11.3 The Linearized Velocity Potential
Equation 745 Chapter 13
11.4 Prandtl-Glauert Compressibility Introduction to Numerical Techniques for
Correction 750 Nonlinear Supersonic Flow 829
11.5 Improved Compressibility
13.1 Introduction: Philosophy of Computational
Corrections 755
Fluid Dynamics 830
xii Contents

13.2 Elements of the Method of 14.8 Hypersonic Viscous Flow: Aerodynamic

Characteristics 832 Heating 901
13.2.1 Internal Points 838 14.8.1 Aerodynamic Heating and Hypersonic
13.2.2 Wall Points 839 Flow—The Connection 901
13.3 Supersonic Nozzle Design 840 14.8.2 Blunt Versus Slender Bodies in
Hypersonic Flow 903
13.4 Elements of Finite-Difference
Methods 843 14.8.3 Aerodynamic Heating to a Blunt
Body 906
13.4.1 Predictor Step 849
14.9 Applied Hypersonic Aerodynamics:
13.4.2 Corrector Step 849
Hypersonic Waveriders 908
13.5 The Time-Dependent Technique: 14.9.1 Viscous-Optimized Waveriders 914
Application to Supersonic Blunt
Bodies 850 14.10 Summary 921
13.5.1 Predictor Step 854
14.11 Problems 922
13.5.2 Corrector Step 854
13.6 Flow over Cones 858
13.6.1 Physical Aspects of Conical Flow 859
PART 4
Viscous Flow 923
13.6.2 Quantitative Formulation 860
13.6.3 Numerical Procedure 865 Chapter 15
13.6.4 Physical Aspects of Supersonic Flow Introduction to the Fundamental Principles and
over Cones 866 Equations of Viscous Flow 925
13.7 Summary 869
15.1 Introduction 926
13.8 Problem 870
15.2 Qualitative Aspects of Viscous Flow 927
15.3 Viscosity and Thermal Conduction 935
Chapter 14 15.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 940
Elements of Hypersonic Flow 871 15.5 The Viscous Flow Energy Equation 944
15.6 Similarity Parameters 948
14.1 Introduction 872
15.7 Solutions of Viscous Flows: A Preliminary
14.2 Qualitative Aspects of Hypersonic Discussion 952
Flow 873
15.8 Summary 955
14.3 Newtonian Theory 877
15.9 Problems 957
14.4 The Lift and Drag of Wings at Hypersonic
Speeds: Newtonian Results for a Flat Plate
at Angle of Attack 881 Chapter 16
14.4.1 Accuracy Considerations 888 A Special Case: Couette Flow 959
14.5 Hypersonic Shock-Wave Relations and 16.1 Introduction 959
Another Look at Newtonian Theory 892
16.2 Couette Flow: General Discussion 960
14.6 Mach Number Independence 896
16.3 Incompressible (Constant Property) Couette
14.7 Hypersonics and Computational Fluid Flow 964
Dynamics 898
16.3.1 Negligible Viscous Dissipation 970
 Contents xiii

16.3.2 Equal Wall Temperatures 971 18.6 Boundary Layers over Arbitrary Bodies:
16.3.3 Adiabatic Wall Conditions (Adiabatic Finite-Difference Solution 1043
Wall Temperature) 973 18.6.1 Finite-Difference Method 1044
16.3.4 Recovery Factor 976 18.7 Summary 1049
16.3.5 Reynolds Analogy 977 18.8 Problems 1050
16.3.6 Interim Summary 978
16.4 Compressible Couette Flow 980 Chapter 19
16.4.1 Shooting Method 982
Turbulent Boundary Layers 1051
16.4.2 Time-Dependent Finite-Difference
Method 984 19.1 Introduction 1052
16.4.3 Results for Compressible Couette 19.2 Results for Turbulent Boundary Layers on
Flow 988 a Flat Plate 1052
16.4.4 Some Analytical Considerations 990 19.2.1 Reference Temperature Method for
16.5 Summary 995 Turbulent Flow 1054
19.2.2 The Meador-Smart Reference
Temperature Method for Turbulent
Chapter 17 Flow 1056
19.2.3 Prediction of Airfoil Drag 1057
Introduction to Boundary Layers 997
19.3 Turbulence Modeling 1057
17.1 Introduction 998 19.3.1 The Baldwin-Lomax Model 1058
17.2 Boundary-Layer Properties 1000 19.4 Final Comments 1060
17.3 The Boundary-Layer Equations 1006 19.5 Summary 1061
17.4 How Do We Solve the Boundary-Layer 19.6 Problems 1062
Equations? 1009
17.5 Summary 1011
Chapter 20
Navier-Stokes Solutions:
Chapter 18 Some Examples 1063
Laminar Boundary Layers 1013 20.1 Introduction 1064
18.1 Introduction 1013 20.2 The Approach 1064
18.2 Incompressible Flow over a Flat Plate: 20.3 Examples of Some Solutions 1065
The Blasius Solution 1014 20.3.1 Flow over a Rearward-Facing Step 1065
18.3 Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate 1021 20.3.2 Flow over an Airfoil 1065
18.3.1 A Comment on Drag Variation with 20.3.3 Flow over a Complete Airplane 1068
Velocity 1032
20.3.4 Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer
18.4 The Reference Temperature Method 1033 Interaction 1069
18.4.1 Recent Advances: The Meador-Smart 20.3.5 Flow over an Airfoil with a
Reference Temperature Protuberance 1070
Method 1036
20.4 The Issue of Accuracy for the Prediction of
18.5 Stagnation Point Aerodynamic Skin Friction Drag 1072
Heating 1037 20.5 Summary 1077
xiv Contents

Appendix A Appendix E
Isentropic Flow Properties 1079 Standard Atmosphere, English Engineering
Units 1103
Appendix B
Normal Shock Properties 1085 References 1111
Appendix C Index 1117
Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach
Angle 1089
Appendix D
Standard Atmosphere,
SI Units 1093
 PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION

T
his book follows in the same tradition as the previous editions: it is for
students—to be read, understood, and enjoyed. It is consciously written in
a clear, informal, and direct style to talk to the reader and gain his or her
immediate interest in the challenging and yet beautiful discipline of aerodynamics.
The explanation of each topic is carefully constructed to make sense to the reader.
Moreover, the structure of each chapter is highly organized in order to keep
the reader aware of where we are, where we were, and where we are going.
Too frequently the student of aerodynamics loses sight of what is trying to be
accomplished; to avoid this, I attempt to keep the reader informed of my intent
at all times. For example, preview boxes are introduced at the beginning of each
chapter. These short sections, literally set in boxes, inform the reader in plain
language what to expect from each chapter and why the material is important and
exciting. They are primarily motivational; they help to encourage the reader to
actually enjoy reading the chapter, therefore enhancing the educational process.
In addition, each chapter contains a road map—a block diagram designed to
keep the reader well aware of the proper flow of ideas and concepts. The use of
preview boxes and chapter road maps are unique features of this book. Also, to
help organize the reader’s thoughts, there are special summary sections at the end
of most chapters.
The material in this book is at the level of college juniors and seniors in
aerospace or mechanical engineering. It assumes no prior knowledge of fluid
dynamics in general, or aerodynamics in particular. It does assume a familiarity
with differential and integral calculus, as well as the usual physics background
common to most students of science and engineering. Also, the language of
vector analysis is used liberally; a compact review of the necessary elements
of vector algebra and vector calculus is given in Chapter 2 in such a fashion
that it can either educate or refresh the reader, whatever may be the case for
each individual.
This book is designed for a one-year course in aerodynamics. Chapters 1 to 6
constitute a solid semester emphasizing inviscid, incompressible flow. Chapters 7
to 14 occupy a second semester dealing with inviscid, compressible flow. Finally,
Chapters 15 to 20 introduce some basic elements of viscous flow, mainly to serve
as a contrast to and comparison with the inviscid flows treated throughout the bulk
of the text. Specific sections on viscous flow, however, have been added much
earlier in the book in order to give the reader some idea of how the inviscid results
are tempered by the influence of friction. This is done by adding self-contained
viscous flow sections at the end of various chapters, written and placed in such a
way that they do not interfere with the flow of the inviscid flow discussion, but
are there to complement the discussion. For example, at the end of Chapter 4 on

xv
xvi Preface to the Sixth Edition

incompressible inviscid flow over airfoils, there is a viscous flow section that deals
with the prediction of skin friction drag on such airfoils. A similar viscous flow
section at the end of Chapter 12 deals with friction drag on high-speed airfoils.
At the end of the chapters on shock waves and nozzle flows, there are viscous
flow sections on shock wave/boundary-layer interactions. And so forth.
Other features of this book are:
1. An introduction to computational fluid dynamics as an integral part of the
study of aerodynamics. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has recently
become a third dimension in aerodynamics, complementing the previously
existing dimension of pure experiment and pure theory. It is absolutely
necessary that the modern student of aerodynamics be introduced to some
of the basic ideas of CFD—he or she will most certainly come face to face
with either its “machinery” or its results after entering the professional
ranks of practicing aerodynamicists. Hence, such subjects as the source and
vortex panel techniques, the method of characteristics, and explicit
finite-difference solutions are introduced and discussed as they naturally
arise during the course of our discussion. In particular, Chapter 13 is
devoted exclusively to numerical techniques, couched at a level suitable to
an introductory aerodynamics text.
2. A chapter is devoted entirely to hypersonic flow. Although hypersonics is at
one extreme end of the flight spectrum, it has current important applications
to the design of hypervelocity missiles, planetary entry vehicles, and
modern hypersonic atmospheric cruise vehicles. Therefore, hypersonic flow
deserves some attention in any modern presentation of aerodynamics. This
is the purpose of Chapter 14.
3. Historical notes are placed at the end of many of the chapters. This follows
in the tradition of some of my previous textbooks, Introduction to Flight: Its
Engineering and History, 8th Edition (McGraw-Hill, 2016) and Modern
Compressible Flow: With Historical Perspecive, 3rd Edition (McGraw-Hill,
2003). Although aerodynamics is a rapidly evolving subject, its foundations
are deeply rooted in the history of science and technology. It is important
for the modern student of aerodynamics to have an appreciation for the
historical origin of the tools of the trade. Therefore, this book addresses
such questions as who Bernoulli, Euler, d’Alembert, Kutta, Joukowski, and
Prandtl were; how the circulation theory of lift developed; and what
excitement surrounded the early development of high-speed aerodynamics.
I wish to thank various members of the staff of the National Air and Space
Museum of the Smithsonian Institution for opening their extensive files for
some of the historical research behind these history sections. Also, a
constant biographical reference was the Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edited by C. C. Gillespie, Charles Schribner’s Sons, New York, 1980. This
is a 16-volume set of books that is a valuable source of biographic
information on the leading scientists in history.
 Preface to the Sixth Edition xvii

4. Design boxes are scattered throughout the book. These design boxes are
special sections for the purpose of discussing design aspects associated with
the fundamental material covered throughout the book. These sections are
literally placed in boxes to set them apart from the mainline text. Modern
engineering education is placing more emphasis on design, and the design
boxes in this book are in this spirit. They are a means of making the
fundamental material more relevant and making the whole process of
learning aerodynamics more fun.
Due to the extremely favorable comments from readers and users of the first
five editions, virtually all the content of the earlier editions has been carried over
intact to the present sixth edition. In this edition, however, a completely new edu-
cational tool has been introduced in some of the chapters in order to enhance and
expand the reader’s learning process. Throughout the previous editions, numer-
ous worked examples have been included at the end of many of the sections to
illustrate and reinforce the ideas and methods discussed in that particular section.
These are still included in the present sixth edition. However, added at the end of
a number of the chapters in this sixth edition, a major challenge is given to the
reader that integrates and uses thoughts and equations drawn from the chapter
as a whole. These new sections are called END OF CHAPTER INTEGRATED
WORK CHALLENGES. They are listed next:
1. Chapter 1: A forward-facing axial aerodynamic force on an airfoil sounds
not possible, but it can actually happen. What are the conditions under
which it can happen?
Also, the history of when such a forward-facing force was first observed is
discussed.
2. Chapter 2: Using the momentum equation, develop the relation between
drag on an aerodynamic body and the loss of total pressure in the flow field.
3. Chapter 3: Perform a conceptual design of a low-speed subsonic wind
tunnel.
4. Chapter 4: Find a way to account for the effects of wind tunnel walls on the
measurements made on an aerodynamic body in a low-speed wind tunnel.
5. Chapter 7: Obtain and discuss a relation between supersonic wave drag on
a body and the entropy increase in the flow.
6. Chapter 9: Consider the sonic boom generated from a body in supersonic
flight. What is it? How is it created? How can its strength be reduced?
7. Chapter 10: Perform a conceptual design of a supersonic wind tunnel.
8. Chapter 11: At the end of World War II, in the face of the lack of reliable
transonic wind tunnels and the extreme theoretical difficulty solving the
nonlinear mathematical equations that govern transonic flow, the NACA
developed an innovative experimental method for obtaining transonic
aerodynamic data. Called the “wing-flow technique,” it involved mounting
a small airfoil wing model vertically on the surface of the wing of a P-51
xviii Preface to the Sixth Edition

fighter airplane at a location inside the bubble of locally supersonic flow

formed on the P-51 wing when the airplane exceeded its critical Mach
number. Design this apparatus, taking into account the size of the test
model, the flow conditions over the test model, the optimum locations on the
P-51 wing, etc. Also, the history of the wing-flow techniques will be given.
The answers to these Integrated Work Challenges are given right there in the
text so that the reader can gain instant gratification after working them out, just
like the other worked examples; the answers are just more complex with a more
widespread educational value.
New homework problems have been added to McGraw-Hill’s online learning
environment, Connect® . These question banks will include all end-of-chapter
problems from the textbook and additional problems unique to Connect.
All the new additional material not withstanding, the main thrust of this book
remains the presentation of the fundamentals of aerodynamics; the new material
is simply intended to enhance and support this thrust. I repeat that the book is
organized along classical lines, dealing with inviscid incompressible flow, inviscid
compressible flow, and viscous flow in sequence. My experience in teaching this
material to undergraduates finds that it nicely divides into a two-semester course
with Parts 1 and 2 in the first semester and Parts 3 and 4 in the second semester.
Also, I have taught the entire book in a fast-paced, first-semester graduate course
intended to introduce the fundamentals of aerodynamics to new graduate students
who have not had this material as part of their undergraduate education. The book
works well in such a mode.
I would like to thank the McGraw-Hill editorial and production staff for their
excellent help in producing this book, especially Jolynn Kilburg and Thomas
Scaife, PhD, in Dubuque. Our photo researcher, David Tietz, was invaluable
in searching out new and replacement photographs for the new edition to sat-
isfy new McGraw-Hill guidelines; I don’t know what I would have done with-
out him. Also, special thanks go to my long-time friend and associate, Sue
Cunningham, whose expertise as a scientific typist is beyond comparison and
who has typed all my book manuscripts for me, including this one, with great care
and precision.
I want to thank my students over the years for many stimulating discussions on
the subject of aerodynamics, discussions that have influenced the development of
this book. Special thanks go to three institutions: (1) The University of Maryland
for providing a challenging intellectual atmosphere in which I have basked for
the past 42 years; (2) The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian
Institution for opening the world of the history of the technology of flight for me;
and (3) the Anderson household—Sarah-Allen, Katherine, and Elizabeth—who
have been patient and understanding over the years while their husband and father
was in his ivory tower. Also, I pay respect to the new generation, which includes
my two beautiful granddaughters, Keegan and Tierney Glabus, who represent the
future. To them, I dedicate this book.
 Preface to the Sixth Edition xix

As a final comment, aerodynamics is a subject of intellectual beauty, com-

posed and drawn by many great minds over the centuries. Fundamentals of Aero-
dynamics is intended to portray and convey this beauty. Do you feel challenged
and interested by these thoughts? If so, then read on, and enjoy!

John D. Anderson, Jr.

 P A R T 1
Fundamental Principles

I n Part 1, we cover some of the basic principles that apply to aerodynamics in

general. These are the pillars on which all of aerodynamics is based.

1
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.