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HANDBOOK OF
HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING

JAMES G. SPEIGHT
CD&W Inc.,
Laramie, WY, USA
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:

Names: Speight, James G.
Title: Handbook of hydraulic fracturing / James G. Speight.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2016] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015045701 | ISBN 9781118672990 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Hydraulic fracturing. | Gas wells–Hydraulic fracturing. |
Oil wells–Hydraulic fracturing. | Hydraulic fracturing–Environmental aspects.
Classification: LCC TD195.G3 S745 2016 | DDC 622/.3381–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015045701

Cover image courtesy of Getty Images/Robert Ingelhart.

Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Prefacevii

1 Definitions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definitions 3
1.2.1 Petroleum 5
1.2.2 Oil and Gas from Tight Formations 8
1.2.3 Opportunity Crudes 13
1.2.4 High‐Acid Crude Oil 14
1.2.5 Foamy Oil 15
1.2.6 Heavy Oil 15
1.2.7 Extra Heavy Oil 16
1.2.8 Tar Sand Bitumen 16
1.2.9 Natural Gas 17
1.2.10 Shale Gas 19
1.2.11 Coalbed Methane (CBM) 21
1.2.12 Other Sources of Gas 22
1.3 Unconventional Oil 23
References 23

2 Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids 27

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Sedimentary Rocks 30
2.2.1 Types 30
2.2.2 Characteristics 31
ivContents

2.3 Reservoir Evaluation 32

2.3.1 Structural Types 35
2.3.2 Heterogeneity 36
2.3.3 Porosity and Permeability 37
2.4 Tight Formations 40
2.5 Evaluation of Reservoir Fluids 42
2.5.1 Sampling Methods 46
2.5.2 Data Acquisition and QA/QC 49
References 51

3 Oil and Gas Production 55

3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Well Completion and Production 57
3.2.1 Well Completion 57
3.2.2 Production Methods 63
3.2.3 Fracturing Methods 73
3.3 Bitumen Recovery From Tar Sand Deposits 77
3.3.1 Mining Methods 78
3.3.2 Nonmining Methods 79
3.4 Sand Control 82
3.4.1 Methods 82
3.4.2 Guidelines for Process Selection 85
References 85

4 Analysis and Properties of Fluids 91

4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Crude Oil 93
4.2.1 Sampling 94
4.2.2 Physical Properties 96
4.2.3 Thermal Properties 102
4.2.4 Fractionation 108
4.2.5 Molecular Weight 110
4.3 Natural Gas 112
4.3.1 Sampling 114
4.3.2 Test Methods 115
References 118

5 Hydraulic Fracturing 125

5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Formation Evaluation 133
5.2.1 Geologic Evaluation 137
5.2.2 Geotechnical Evaluation 137
5.2.3 Formation Integrity 140
5.2.4 Permeability 140
Contents v

5.2.5 Porosity 141

5.2.6 Saturation 141
5.2.7 Capillary Pressure 141
5.2.8 Logging Analysis 142
5.2.9 Mechanical Properties 143
5.3 The Fracturing Process 143
5.3.1 Equipment 144
5.3.2 Fracture Patterns 148
5.3.3 Well Development 150
5.3.4 Pneumatic Fracturing 151
5.4 Fractures 152
5.4.1 Fracture Geometry 155
5.4.2 Fracture Optimization 157
5.5 Fracture Monitoring 157
5.5.1 Monitoring 158
5.5.2 Aids in Production 160
References 160

6 Fracturing Fluids 165

6.1 Introduction 165
6.2 Properties 169
6.3 Types of Fluids 174
6.3.1 Water‐Based Fluids 175
6.3.2 Foam‐Based Fluids 178
6.3.3 Oil‐Based Fluids 178
6.3.4 Acid‐Based Fluids 179
6.3.5 Alcohol‐Based Fluids 179
6.3.6 Emulsion‐Based Fluids 180
6.3.7 Cryogenic Fluids 180
6.4 Additives 181
6.4.1 Fluid‐Loss Additives 183
6.4.2 Clay Stabilizers 183
6.4.3 Gel Breakers 184
6.4.4 Bactericides/Biocides 185
6.4.5 pH Control 186
6.4.6 Friction Reducers 186
6.4.7 Acid Corrosion Inhibitors 186
6.4.8 Viscosity Stabilizers 187
6.5 Acidizing 187
6.5.1 Formation Type 188
6.5.2 Formation Permeability 189
6.5.3 Operational Considerations 189
6.5.4 Environmental Management 191
References 191
viContents

7 Proppants 195
7.1 Introduction 195
7.2 Types 197
7.2.1 Silica Sand 197
7.2.2 Resin‐Coated Proppant 198
7.2.3 Manufactured Ceramic Materials 199
7.2.4 Other Types 200
7.3 Properties 200
7.3.1 Downhole Scaling 201
7.3.2 Embedment 202
7.3.3 Flowback 203
7.3.4 Fracture Conductivity 204
7.3.5 Pack Rearrangement 205
7.3.6 Permeability 205
7.3.7 Production and Migration of Fines 206
7.3.8 Shape, Size, and Concentration 207
7.3.9 Stress 208
7.4 Proppant Selection and Transport 209
7.4.1 Selection 210
7.4.2 Transport 212
References 213

8 Environmental Impact 217

8.1 Introduction 217
8.2 Geological Disturbance 221
8.3 Chemicals Used in Fracturing 224
8.4 Environmental Effects 227
8.4.1 Air 230
8.4.2 Water 230
8.4.3 Surface Effects 234
8.4.4 Health Effects 239
8.4.5 Seismic Effects 239
8.5 The Future 240
8.5.1 The Process 240
8.5.2 The Environment 241
References 244

Glossary249
Conversion Factors 283
Index285
PREFACE

Hydraulic fracturing is an extractive method used by crude oil and natural gas
­companies to open pathways in tight (low‐permeability) geologic formations so that
the oil or gas trapped within can be recovered at a higher flow rate. When used in
combination with horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing has allowed industry to
access natural gas reserves previously considered uneconomical, particularly in shale
formations.
Although hydraulic fracturing creates access to more natural gas supplies, the
­process requires the use of large quantities of water and fracturing fluids, which are
injected underground at high volumes and pressure. Oil and gas service companies
design fracturing fluids to create fractures and transport sand or other granular
­substances to prop open the fractures. The composition of these fluids varies by
formation, ranging from a simple mixture of water and sand to more complex
­mixtures with a multitude of chemical additives.
Hydraulic fracturing has opened access to vast domestic reserves of natural gas
that could provide an important stepping stone to a clean energy future. Yet questions
about the safety of hydraulic fracturing persist, and the technology has been the
­subject of both enthusiasm and increasing environmental and health concerns in
recent years, especially in relation to the possibility (some would say reality) of
­contaminated drinking water because of the chemicals used in the process and the
disturbance of the geological formations.
It is not the purpose of this book to advocate the use or the termination of hydraulic
fracturing practices. It is the purpose of this book to alleviate much of the confusion
that exists in regard to hydraulic fracturing. It is also the purpose of the book to
­present the facts as they are currently available and understood. The book will pre-
sent an up‐to‐date description of current and new hydraulic fracturing. The process
viiiPREFACE

descriptions describe how hydraulic fracturing is performed and consequences of

those actions. As always, but not always mentioned in this text, in favor of presenting
the technical aspects of hydraulic fracturing, economics is also a major consideration.
The book is written in an easy‐to‐read style, using a language that is understand-
able by scientists, engineers, and nontechnical persons. It will give the reader a full
understanding of the concept and practice of hydraulic fracturing as well as the
­various environmental aspects of the process.

Dr. James G. Speight

Laramie, WY, USA
July 2015
1
DEFINITIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic fracturing (also known as hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, fracking,

­fraccing, or fracture stimulation technology, or various other derivatives of the term)
is a method by which access to crude oil and natural gas trapped in impermeable and
hard‐to‐reach geologic formations is achieved.
The hydraulic fracturing process involves the pressurized injection of a fluid
(fracturing fluid) into geologic formations (shale formations or unusually tight rock
formations consisting of a clastic sedimentary rock composed of silt‐ to clay‐sized
grains) until the reservoir rock cracks (causing fractures in the formations) and then
extending that fracture by continued injection of fluid. A solid proppant, typically
sand, is also injected into the formation with the fracturing fluid so that the fracture
cannot close and remains propped open by the proppant left behind. This creates a flow
path for reservoir fluids to be rapidly produced from the reservoir. In terms of project
timing, the process may take less than 1 month with reward being decadelong produ­
ction of crude oil and natural gas. Thus, a general timeline might by on the order of:
Timeline (approximate, site specific):

Drilling (2–4 weeks) Fracturing (3–5 days) Producing oil/gas (decades)

Once the formation is fractured, the fluid pressure is reduced, which reverses the
direction of fluid flow in the well toward the ground surface. Both the hydraulic frac­
turing fluid and any naturally occurring substances released from the underground
formation are allowed to flow back to the ground surface. Thus, the term flowback is
the portion of the injected fracturing fluid that flows back to the surface, along with
oil, gas, and brine, when the well is produced.

Handbook of Hydraulic Fracturing, First Edition. James G. Speight.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2DEFINITIONS

In addition, hydraulic fracturing for enhancing crude oil and natural gas production
can be categorized into three general subcategories according to process applied to
the target formation to induce fracturing:

1. Hydraulic fracturing involves a relatively low rate of pressure loading that

results in a bidirectional fracture extending outward from the well and oriented
perpendicular to the least principal rock stress. Because of the creation of a
single fracture and the ability to pump large volumes of fluids at (relatively)
low rates, the potential penetration for the fracture into the formation can be
extensive—on the order of hundreds of feet. This method is currently the most
widely used in the coal‐mine methane/coalbed methane (CMM/CBM) industry.
2. On the other hand, explosive fracturing involves rapid pressurization of the
target formation, which results in a highly fractured zone around the wellbore,
but usually not exceeding of approximately 10 ft. Because the peak pressures
exceed both the minimum and maximum horizontal in situ stresses, a radial
fracture pattern is created, which can exhibit advantageous fracture geometry
where near‐wellbore stimulation is the primary objective.
3. The third case involves pulse fracturing (Walter and Thompson, 1982), which
is characterized by pressures exceeding both the maximum and minimum
in situ stresses and which also creates a radial fracture pattern. This technique
results in multiple vertical fractures extending radially from the wellbore, with
penetrations on the order of 10–20 ft.

When used in combination with horizontal drilling (Chapter 5), hydraulic frac­
turing has allowed access to crude oil and natural gas reserves previously considered
uneconomical because of the difficulty of access. The energy crises of the 1970s
highlighted the importance of energy security, and governments took a more active
role in encouraging domestic sources of supply, including unconventional sources of
crude oil and natural gas (Speight, 2011). In addition, these reserves of crude oil and
natural gas have the potential to assert a measure of energy independence that is
necessary for countries that are experiencing a depletion of conventional crude oil
and natural gas reserves and must rely upon imports of crude oil and natural gas from
countries that, in many cases, do not have stable governments or stable energy pol­
icies (Speight, 2011, 2014a; Trembath et al., 2013).
On the US domestic scenario, hydraulic fracturing has been employed in the
United States since 1947 but has only recently been used to produce large quantities
of crude oil and natural gas from shale formations, as new technology for drilling
horizontal wells has been deployed (Chapter 5) and, in spite of a variety of negative
(often emotional rather than scientific) comments in various media, is projected to
continue to play a central role in future domestic energy policy. Nevertheless, caution
is advised because although hydraulic fracturing creates access to more crude oil
and natural gas supplies, the process requires the use of large quantities of water and
fracturing fluids, which are injected underground at high volumes and pressure. The
DEFINITIONS 3

composition of the fracturing fluids varies by formation (therefore is site specific)

and can range from a simple benign mixture of water and sand to more complex
­mixtures with a variety of chemical additives.
Despite the length of time that hydraulic fracturing has been used and despite the
fact that the process has helped to create a benefit to energy production and economic
growth (Chapter 5), there has been much negative attention that has given rise to
serious concerns about the application of the technology. This is especially true in
relation to the possibility (some would say reality) of contaminated drinking water
because of the chemicals used in the process and the disturbance of the geological
formations.
Because of the need for a thorough understanding of petroleum and natural gas
and the associated technologies for recovery of these energy resources, it is essential
that the definitions and the terminology of petroleum science and technology and
associated resources (Table 1.1) be given prime consideration. This will aid in a
better understanding of the variation in types of petroleum (with the exception of tar
sand bitumen, which is not classed as petroleum), its constituents, the various frac­
tions, and petroleum products. Of the many forms of terminology that have been
used, not all have survived, but the more commonly used are illustrated here.
Particularly troublesome, and more confusing, are those terms that are applied to the
more viscous materials, for example, the use of the terms tar sand bitumen and
asphalt (Speight, 2014a, 2015a, 2015c).
It is the purpose of this chapter to alleviate much of the confusion that exists, but
it must be remembered that the terminology of petroleum and natural gas is still open
to personal choice and historical usage. As always, but not always mentioned in this
text, in favor of presenting the technical aspects of hydraulic fracturing, economics is
also a major consideration.

1.2 DEFINITIONS

The types of liquids produced by fracturing and nonfracturing recovery processes

from reservoirs and deposits vary substantially in character to the point where there
can be considerable confusion when attempting to categorize the different liquids. It
is valuable to place these liquids into various categories as defined by properties and/
or by recovery methods. Thus, the definitions by which the various liquids are known
are a valuable asset in the petroleum and natural gas industries.
Definitions are the means by which scientists and engineers communicate the
nature of a material to each other and to the world, through either the spoken or the
written word. Furthermore, the definition of a material can be extremely important
and have a profound influence on how the technical community and the public per­
ceive that material.
The definition of petroleum and natural gas has been varied, unsystematic,
diverse, and often archaic and is a product of many years of growth. Thus the long
established use of an expression, however inadequate it may be, is altered with
4DEFINITIONS

TABLE 1.1 Simplified Differentiation between Conventional Crude Oil, Heavy Oil,
Extra Heavy Oil, Tar Sand Bitumen, Oil Shale Kerogen, Tight Oil, and Coal
Conventional Crude Oil
Mobile in the reservoir
High‐permeability reservoir
Primary recovery
Secondary recovery
Heavy Crude Oil
Mobile in the reservoir
High‐permeability reservoir
Secondary recovery
Tertiary recovery (enhanced oil recovery (EOR), e.g., steam stimulation)
Extra Heavy Oil
Mobile in the reservoir
High‐permeability reservoir
Secondary recovery
Tertiary recovery (enhanced oil recovery (EOR), e.g., steam stimulation)
Tar Sand Bitumen
Immobile in the deposit
High‐permeability reservoir
Mining (often preceded by explosive fracturing)
Steam‐assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
Oil Shale Kerogen
Immobile in the deposit
Low‐permeability reservoir
May involve explosive fracturing
In situ thermal decomposition to produce shale oil
Mining followed by thermal decomposition to produce shale oil
Tight Oil
Immobile in the reservoir
Low‐permeability reservoir
Horizontal drilling into reservoir
Fracturing (typically multifracturing) to release fluids/gases
Coalbed Methane
Low‐ to medium‐permeability reservoir (coal seam)
Gas exists in pore spaces
In situ thermal decomposition to produce liquid products
Mining (often preceded by explosive fracturing), followed by thermal decomposition
to produce liquid products

difficulty, and a new term, however precise, is at best adopted only slowly. Thus,
because of the need for a thorough understanding of petroleum and the associated
technologies, it is essential that the definitions and the terminology of petroleum and
natural gas science and technology be given prime consideration here. Of the many
forms of terminology that have been used, not all have survived, but the more
common are illustrated here.
DEFINITIONS 5

1.2.1 Petroleum
Petroleum (and the equivalent term crude oil) covers a wide assortment of naturally
occurring liquids consisting of mixtures of hydrocarbons and other compounds con­
taining variable amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, which may vary widely in
volatility, specific gravity, and viscosity along with varying physical properties as
illustrated in the variation in color from colorless to black (Fig. 1.1) (Speight, 2012a,
2014a; US EIA, 2014). Metal‐containing constituents, notably those compounds
consisting of derivatives of vanadium and nickel, usually occur in the more viscous
crude oils in amounts up to several thousand parts per million and can have serious
consequences for the equipment and catalysts used in processing of these feedstocks
(Speight and Ozum, 2002; Parkash, 2003; Hsu and Robinson, 2006; Gary et al.,
2007; Speight, 2014a).
Petroleum exists in reservoirs that consist of more porous and permeable sedi­
ments, such as sandstone and siltstone. A series of reservoirs within a common rock
structure or a series of reservoirs in separate but neighboring formations is com­
monly referred to as an oil field. A group of fields is often found in a single geologic
environment known as a sedimentary basin or province. In the underground locale,
petroleum is much more fluid than it is on the surface and is generally mobile under
reservoir conditions because the elevated temperatures (the geothermal gradient) in
subterranean formations decrease the viscosity. Although the geothermal gradient
varies from place to place, it is generally on the order of 25–30 °C/km (15 °F/1000 ft
or 120 °C/1000 ft, i.e., 0.015 °C per foot of depth or 0.012 °C per foot of depth).

Sulfur content (percentage)

Sour 3.5
Mexico - Maya
3.0 Saudi Arabia - Arab Heavy

2.5 Kuwait - Kuwait

United States - Mars UAE - Dubai

2.0
Iran - Iran Heavy Saudi Arabia - Arab Light
1.5 Iran - Iran Light
FSU - Urals
Oman - Oman
1.0
Ecuador - Oriente
North Sea - Brent
0.5 Libya - Es Sider United States - WTI
Nigeria - Bonny Light United States - LLS Algeria - Sahara Blend
Sweet 0.0 Malaysia - Tapis
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
API gravity (a measure of crude oil density)
Heavy Light
Figure 1.1 Properties of different crude oils. Source: US Energy Information Administra­
tion, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC (US EIA, 2014).
6DEFINITIONS

The major components of conventional petroleum are hydrocarbons and

n­ onhydrocarbons, which display great variation in their molecular structure. The
simplest hydrocarbons are a large group of chain‐shaped molecules known as the
paraffins. This broad series extends from methane, which forms natural gas,
through liquids that are refined into gasoline to the highly crystalline wax. The
nonhydrocarbon constituents of petroleum include organic derivatives of nitrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, and the metals nickel and vanadium and are often referred to as
polar aromatics, which include asphalt and resin constituents (Fig. 1.2). In the
case of heavy oils and tar sand bitumen, there is a lesser amount of hydrocarbon
constituents (volatile constituents) in favor of increasing amounts of nonhydro­
carbon constituents (low‐volatile and nonvolatile constituents) (Fig. 1.3). While
most of these impurities are removed during refining by conversion of hydro­
carbon products (Fig. 1.4), the low‐volatile and nonvolatile constituents greatly
influence the choice and effectiveness of recovery processes and whether or not
fracturing is to be entertained as a recovery process enhancement (Chapter 3)
(Speight, 2009, 2014a).
Geologic techniques can determine only the existence of rock formations that are
favorable for petroleum occurrence, but drilling is the only sure way to ascertain the
presence of petroleum in the formation. With modern rotary equipment, wells can be
drilled to depths of more than 30,000 ft (9000 m). Once oil is found, it may be recov­
ered (brought to the surface) by the pressure created by natural gas or water within
the reservoir. Crude oil can also be brought to the surface by injecting water or steam
into the reservoir to raise the pressure artificially or by injecting such substances as
carbon dioxide, polymers, and solvents to reduce crude oil viscosity. Thermal
recovery methods are frequently used to enhance the production of heavy crude oils,
especially when extraction of the heavy oil is impeded by viscous resistance to flow
at reservoir temperatures.

100

80 Saturates
Weight percent

60
Aromatics
40
Polar-aromatics
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of feedstock
Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of petroleum composition.
DEFINITIONS 7

(a) (b)
100
Gases and naphtha
90
80 Middle distillates
70
60
Percentage

50
40
Low-volatile/non volatile
30 constituents

20
10
0
Figure 1.3 Schematic comparison of the (a) composition of light crude oil with the
(b) composition of heavy crude oil.

C1 To C4

Crude unit Naphtha Hydro- Reformate

Reforming
Treating
Alkylate
Alkylation
Hydro- Diesel and jet fuel
Atmospheric
distillation

treating

FCC feed Fluidized Gasoline

Hvy atm gas oil
hydro- catalytic
Fuel oil
refining cracking

Lt vac gas oil

distillation
Vacuum

Hydrocracking
Hvy VGO Fuel gas and
Resid coker gasoline
Thermal
processing Coke

Hydrogen Sulfur Sulfur

sulfide-containing complex
gas
Figure 1.4 Schematic of a petroleum refinery.
8DEFINITIONS

1.2.2 Oil and Gas from Tight Formations

Tight formations scattered through North America have the potential to produce not
only gas (tight gas) and crude oil (tight oil) (Fig. 1.5) (Law and Spencer, 1993; US
EIA, 2011, 2013; Speight, 2013a). Such formations might be composted of shale
sediments or sandstone sediments. In a conventional sandstone reservoir the pores
are interconnected so gas and oil can flow easily from the rock to a wellbore. In tight
sandstones, the pores are smaller and are poorly connected by very narrow capil­
laries, which results in low permeability. Tight gas and tight oil occur in sandstone
sediments that have an effective permeability of less than 1 millidarcy (<1 mD).

Western Canadian Anticosti Basin

Sedimentary Basin

Central Maritimes
Basin
Williston Basin

Niobrara Basin

Monterey Basin
Cleveland Basin
Bone Springs
Basin Ft Worth Basin

Eagle Ford Basin

Figure 1.5 Basins with the potential for tight oil production. Source: Energy Information
Administration, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
DEFINITIONS 9

One of the newest terms in the petroleum lexicon is the arbitrarily named (even
erroneously named) shale oil, which is crude oil that is produced from tight shale for­
mations and should not be confused with the older term shale oil, which is crude oil
that is produced by the thermal treatment of oil shale and the ensuing decomposition
of the kerogen contained within the shale (Scouten, 1990; Speight, 2012b). Oil shale
represents one of the largest unconventional hydrocarbon deposits in the world with an
estimated 8 trillion barrels (8 × 1012 bbl) of oil in place. Approximately 6 trillion barrels
of oil in place is located in the United States including the richest and most concen­
trated deposits found in the Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.
Documented efforts to develop oil shale to produce shale oil in the United States go
back to approximate 1900, even earlier in Scotland (Scouten, 1990; Lee, 1991; Lee
et al., 2007; Speight, 2008, 2012b). These prior efforts have produced a wealth of
knowledge regarding the geological description as well as technical options and chal­
lenges for development. Thus far, however, none of these efforts have produced a
commercially viable business in the United States. There need to be economically
viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally responsible development solutions.
Recently, the introduction of the term shale oil to define crude oil from tight shale
formations is the latest term to add confusion to the system of nomenclature of petro­
leum–heavy oil–bitumen materials. The term has been used without any consideration
of the original term shale oil produced by the thermal decomposition of kerogen in
oil shale (Scouten, 1990; Lee, 1991; Lee et al., 2007; Speight, 2008, 2012b). It is not
quite analogous, but is certainly similarly confusing, to the term black oil that has
been used to define petroleum by color rather than by any meaningful properties or
recovery behavior (Speight, 2014a, 2015a).
Generally, unconventional tight oil and natural gas are found at considerable
depths in sedimentary rock formations that are characterized by very low perme­
ability. While some of the tight oil plays produce oil directly from shales, tight oil
resources are also produced from low‐permeability siltstone formations, sandstone
formations, and carbonate formations that occur in close association with a shale
source rock. It is important to note that in the context of this report, the term tight oil
does not include resources that are commonly known as “oil shales,” which refers to
oil or kerogen‐rich shale formations that are either heated in situ and produced or if
surface accessible mined and heated (Scouten, 1990; Lee, 1991; Lee et al., 2007;
Speight, 2008, 2012b).
The most notable tight oil plays in North America include the Bakken shale, the
Niobrara Formation, the Barnett shale, the Eagle Ford shale, the Miocene Monterey
play of California’s San Joaquin Basin in the United States, and the Cardium play in
Alberta. In many of these tight formations, the existence of large quantities of oil has
been known for decades, and efforts to commercially produce those resources have
occurred sporadically with typically disappointing results. However, starting in the
mid‐2000s, advancements in well drilling and stimulation technologies combined
with high oil prices have turned tight oil resources into one of the most actively
explored and produced targets in North America.
Of the tight oil plays, perhaps the best understood is the Bakken, which straddles
the border between Canada and the United States in North Dakota, Montana, and
10DEFINITIONS

Saskatchewan. Much of what is known about the exploitation of tight oil resources
comes from industry experiences in the Bakken, and the predictions of future tight oil
resource development described in this study are largely based on that knowledge.
The Bakken tight oil play historically includes three zones, or members, within the
Bakken Formation. The upper and lower members of the Bakken are organic‐rich
shales that serve as oil source rocks, while the rocks of the middle member may be
siltstone formations, sandstone formations, or carbonate formations that are also typ­
ically characterized by low permeability and high oil content. Since 2008 the Three
Forks Formation, another tight oil‐rich formation that directly underlies the lower
Bakken shale, has also yielded highly productive oil wells. Drilling, completion, and
stimulation strategies for wells in the Three Forks Formation are similar to those in
the Bakken, and the light sweet crude oil that is produced from both plays has been
geochemically determined to be essentially identical. Generally, the Three Forks
Formation is considered to be part of the Bakken play, though the authors of ­published
works will sometimes refer to it as the Bakken/Three Forks play.
Other known tight formations (on a worldwide basis) include the R’Mah Formation
in Syria; the Sargelu Formation in the northern Persian Gulf region; the Athel
Formation in Oman; the Bazhenov Formation and Achimov Formation in West
Siberia, Russia; the Coober Pedy in Australia; the Chicontepec Formation in Mexico;
and the Vaca Muerta field in Argentina (US EIA, 2011, 2013). However, tight oil
­formations are heterogeneous and vary widely over relatively short distances. Thus,
even in a single horizontal drill hole, the amount of oil recovered may vary as may
recovery within a field or even between adjacent wells. This makes evaluation of
shale plays and decisions regarding the profitability of wells on a particular lease
difficult, and tight reservoirs that contain only crude oil (without natural gas as the
pressurizing agent) cannot be economically produced (US EIA, 2011, 2013).
By way of definition, a shale play is a defined geographic area containing an
organic‐rich fine‐grained sedimentary rock that underwent physical and chemical
compaction during diagenesis to produce the following characteristics: (i) clay‐ to
silt‐sized particles; (ii) high % of silica, and sometimes carbonate minerals; (iii) ther­
mally mature; (iv) hydrocarbon‐filled porosity, on the order of 6–14%; (5) low
­permeability, on the order of <0.1 mD; (6) large areal distribution; and (7) fracture
stimulation required for economic production.
Success in extracting crude oil and natural gas from shale reservoirs depends
largely on the hydraulic fracturing process (Chapter 5) that requires an understanding
of the mechanical properties of the subject and confining formations. In hydraulic
fracturing design, Young’s modulus is a criterion used to determine the most appro­
priate fracturing fluid and other design considerations. Young’s modulus provides an
indication of the fracture conductivity that can be expected under the width and
embedment considerations. Without adequate fracture conductivity, production from
the hydraulic fracture will be minimal, or nonexistent (Akrad et al., 2011).
Typical of the crude oil from tight formations (tight oil, tight light oil, and
tight shale oil have been suggested as alternate terms) is the Bakken crude oil,
which is a light highly volatile crude oil. Briefly, Bakken crude oil is a light sweet
(low‐sulfur) crude oil that has a relatively high proportion of volatile constituents.
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tewipekw't (kesena:-p'kw't). Yut
Loks eli-ap'nkutasit (kesena:
ikalsit).
Kenok-lo asekso; nut eli-penlit
penapskwul w'k'sikwelpeton
tewipkw't mekseweyidcik,
amodcalkwesis'k (kesena:
petkwapskwusisidcik) peke-
lowidcik
naka k't'kik mutcitcidcik evil creatures which irritate men
wiskilwahadcik w'skitapi naka and beasts. Thus his hatred
weyusis. Nit eli-muskwithamsit always remains until the end (of
metcimi sapitaso teki met'nokak. time). When they have vented
W't-iyinya eli-muskwithama'tit their ill will on the rock, when
(kesena: muskwithatma'tit) they see the blackflies, these two
penapskw; nimiyat pass through the forest, until
mekseweyilidcihi amodcalwes, they come to a village of good
yokt niswuk saposanya elma- people; he knows what manner
kwi'kok tekiu petcusi'tit otenesis'k of men they are. So Lox thinks
wuli p'mausowin'wuk; what evil trick he will play. For in
w'k'tcitcyaka elmatolit w'skitapi. all his life nothing pleases him
Loks w'kisithatm'n ke'kw w't'li- like mischief; the more he does,
mili-wap'li-mali-keyowan. Tan-te the more he will be pleased. So
m'si eli-pemau'sit katama ke'kw this comes into his head.
w'todci-wikwa-dcolkowun
malikloket; akwam'k eloket
He turns himself into a beautiful
akwamitc w'lithaso. Yut teketc
girl and they are pleased with
wunyak'n'k petciye.
him; as soon as the older sons
Wut-li kwulpelisit welikit arrive, they welcome so fair a
pilskwesis naka virgin. The young chief in the
olasewanwetciwanya; nekseyi village wants her very much. It
k'tci-kwuswuk eli-petkauti'tit naka does not indeed take long before
w'skauwimanya etudci wulikit she comes to him (before he gets
nakskw. Sak'masis otenek wuli-te her). He does not delay at all.
pawatm'n'l. Katama-te-na sipki Lox knows this skein before it is
w'temeyasiu wep'than (kesena: spun; he thinks that it is high
m'senan). Wu-snal kata time for him to show his hand
w'natmeyasiu. Loks w'ktci'ton et- (lit. put his hand to it). Wonder is
uknut-kwasontok meskw-te in the village, when it is reported
matcya-t'kenamuk; lithaso one evening that the chief's wife
kamatc kistapauye nek'm na will soon be a mother.
w'pitin pon'm'n. Asekithaswâk'n
When it is time, Lox says to "her"
otenesis'k; nekw't welakwik
husband that, according to the
eltakwak sakmaskw nekseyiu custom of his people, he must be
wikwuswiu. alone until the child is born.
When it is time they hear in the
wigwam a small child crying; the
Tepnaskoyak Loks w'tiyan
women who wait run in; they
w'niswitidcil eleyik nek'm
receive it; they are given the
pemausowinum tcewitc
child by the mother, well wrapped
nekw'tokana k'ti-n'makw'sit
up; they fetch it to the young
wa'sis. Tepnaskoyak not'wan lami
chief. He is much astonished
wikwam'k metetemit wasisis;
when he loosens the package
epidcik askowasoltidcik w'kisi-
one roll; again another tied up
kwaskoltinya; w't-asitekakonya;
hard; still again another; again
wikwuswilidcil mil'konya wasisul
another sewed up strong; when
wul-kwaknaso; w't'liptowanya
he opens it, he finds inside two
sakmasisul. Wedci-asekithasit eli-
dried up young moose.
apkwetakw lapikaknesis peskwun
matik'n; aptc k'tuk saklepit-te; The young chief is so angry that
metc aptc k'tuk; aptc ket he dashes it in the fire. Then he
saklikwaso; eli-apkwetakw seizes his tomahawk; he rushes
muskowal lam-te niswul to the wigwam to his wife, but
kispaswul musisul. Lox is a man once more; he
thinks that he does not wish
Etudcilwahat sak'masis
anyone to disturb him, so, with
pakakwisinan skwutik. Nit-te na
his brother, he goes into the
wikwipton w't'm'hîk'n; w'nadci-
woods, they rushing down to a
siktahan wikwam'k w'niswitidcil,
river.
kenok-lo Loks teke aptc
w'skitape-wiu; w'petcithatm'n nit Lox thinks it would be well, if he
katama w'powatmowun wenil can elude the pursuers, so he
w't'meyowan nisi-w'siwesul makes a dam of trees and earth;
w'matcephowanya k'tci'kok, elmi- the water scarcely trickles(?)
wiwisanakw'si'tit m'tapekautinya down. Then he hides in a cave;
sipok. Lox imitates the noise (of the
water) "boo-oo-oo;" but where
Loks elithasit wulsup kisip-li-
he lies no man knows. Lox
elkunok nosokwidcik, etudci-litutit
himself is snared. The water
k'pihîk'n epusi naka k'tak'mikw;
above (him) is gathered like a
waka-te esitcwun nsamakwan lake. Then the dam bursts; the
papkiu. Nit et'li-kalsit water overwhelms him and he
lam'kumikwikan'k; Loks w'teklot drowns. No one mourns him.
metekwuk "bu-u-u;" nit elusino'tit Then Lox is finished; not again is
katama w'skitap w'tcitci'towun. anything related about him, but
Loks nek'm-te puthoso.
Samakwan nul'muk
makwespahak (kesena:
makwespewusewik) mal'm-te
tahalo kuspem. Nit k'pihîk'n
paskesik; nsamakwan
w'tumkiteka'kon naka
w'pisdcepan. Katama wen
w'sikeltumo. Ni-te-na Loks
w'metapeksin;
katama aptc athokalau, kenok-lo whether he is ended or not is not
metapekso kesena skat katama certain; perhaps again he will be
pekithamkweto; tcip'tu-te aptc found alive. Many stories, fine
muskowa pemau'sin. K'tciyawiwul ones, tell that Lox never dies.
athokâk'n'l wulikil nit pedcili
k'tcitci'kwut Loks kat-etc
metcineu.
 XIII. Espuns. XIII. The Raccoon.

Nekw't wulkiskak wespaswiu Loks One fine day in the morning, Lox
w'matcyusan espunso-weluso, went in the form of a raccoon,
eli-aliyew'skit-k'mi'kw kesi-kakesi- (for) he, going through the
mile-luso; nit elusidcil; na world, could go in many forms;
p'mekm'n(?) elmiyat. S'lakiu here he walks; then as usual(?)
nikani wedckoyat k'tci muwin; he goes along. Then right ahead
kamatc w'lithaso nimiat espunsul. of him comes a big bear; he is
Ni-te w'kisi'ton w't'lithaswâk'n very glad to see the raccoon. So
w'nepahan te'po-li kisi'takw. he (the bear) makes up his mind
Amskowasewei to kill him, if only he can. First, to
(humskowahsehway) w'sikyal eli- punish him for the way he
mil-matolit; nisewei w'k'topul behaves, secondly (because) he
w'spasipin. (the bear) is hungry and (wants
to) eat him for breakfast.
Espuns madcephowan; The raccoon goes off; he crawls
w'pistesinen pikwekit epus. into a hollow tree. The bear
Muwin w'madce-ketcupskahan; begins to root it up; the raccoon
espuns w'ktci'ton elitc-epus- knows that when the tree will
kipyat, nit-etc na nek'm tumble, then he will go too.
w'matcahan. Espuns puskwinton Raccoon starts to sing, as if he
tahalo-tep skat wetmikhamakw cared nothing for the bear: "All
muwinyul: "m'si-te kisalkiyin naka the digging and pushing of this
kesi-k'sumseyin wut epus katetc tree will not catch me; push in
n'musnako; seta-pisesiyin backwards, so that you may
wedcyak k'musnin naka-tc catch me and I shall die. This you
n'metcinan. Nit kata k't'li-kisi'ton cannot do since the hole is too
tan-kwuni aps-alkak." Muin small." When Bear hears this; he
not'wat, w'lamset'wal, kenok-lo is glad, for he sees that he can
w'nimi'ton nit w'nemasi-kisi- easily dig it out. When he comes
nek'm-alkiton. Wetckowi-pisesilit, in backwards, the raccoon seizes
espuns w'pakikalan; w'tet'li- his back; he holds him (there)
saklanan teki metcinelit. until he dies.
Then Raccoon comes out; he
Nit espuns w'nutyapekin; makes mittens of the bear-skin.
w't'li'ton m'ltceses muinyiuyeya. Once more he starts off; a little
Aptc-te metc w'madceyusan; way he went; where a wigwam is
keskw-te elusetp'n; s'lakiu etek with rising smoke he enters; a
wikwam wakhi-pektetek, family of little black-cats is there;
w'k'sahan; nekw't'kamtowuk he greets them; he says: "O my
pokumkesisuk; holima; w'tiyan: children, comb me out; I will sell
"wasistuk naskwihikw; k't-you these my bear-skin mittens."
apenkolniyaktc yokt So the black-cats comb him out;
muwinewiyeyak n'multcesuk." Nit they part his hair and they brush
pokumkesisuk w'naskwahanya; his tail. Then in a little while, he
w'pusetkamowanya naka falls asleep, while they are
w'potemowanya w'sikwun. Nit brushing him. They are so hungry
keskw aptci kowusp'nak that they eat the raccoon's
powitaha'tit. mittens; having scraped off the
Etudci-k'topulti'tit
w'mahanya espuns w'multces; flesh, they cook them and eat
kisi-pukwulaski-poto'tit wiyus, them.
w'netaktasinya naka w'mahanya. When Raccoon wakes up, he
looks at them and screams out;
Espuns tokiyat w'kinapma naka he says: "Where are my bear-skin
w'neskatakw'sowaman: w'tiyan: mittens?" They are frightened;
"tan nil muwinewiyeyak they answer him: "We have
n'multcesuk?" Siktepayoltiwuk; cooked and eaten them." Then
w't'li-hasite-mal: "nkis-akw'sanuk Raccoon attacks them; he leaves
naka n'mahanen." Ni-te espuns one, he chokes one; only the
w'tekwalitwat; nekesa nekw't infant he misses; he (the baby)
w'neka-kisketunenan peskowul; does not talk yet; Raccoon thinks
te'po m'tesansul pot-madcil; he will not be able to tell.
meskw na ntawiu; espuns lithaso
kat-etc kis-adcmiu.
Nit espuns wikwelan Then Raccoon takes the dead
metcinelidcihi pokumkesis naka black-cats and sets them up in
w'sakiulan el-keplasik wiutci- the road-way from where the big
sakhiyat k'tci pokumk naka black-cat will pass and they are
w'mektunyakw'han. Wedci-lithasit seen by her. She thinks: "at my
"wetckowi w'lit-hasoltidcik coming the children are joyful;"
nidcanisuk;" nit wiwisatekwan; then she hurries; "they are so
"etudci w'lithasusolti'tit nimiyi'tit." glad to see me." She comes; no
Petcia; katama-te-lo wen madce- one moves. This she thinks is
siu. Nit w'pilwithasin; ke'kw's strange; something is wrong.
waplesso. Kamatc neksa- Very quickly she turns her
kwulpithasa m'sakiyo. S'laki-te thought to sorrow. Then (the
w'not'wal wik'wus'l; w'sakitkwihin baby) hears its mother; he crawls
el-malkasuk. Metc w'sami out of a hole. He is still too young
wasiswiu w'kisadcmin, kenok-lo to tell, but he is very clever. He
kamatc nsutweyo. W'pakikatm'n picks up charcoal; he draws
mekses; w't'li-wikhosin (lines) on his cheek and around
eskwatonat naka wiuniu w'tonik: his mouth: "ha-ha," said the
"haha," w'mitâkw's'l (sic!) it'mul: father, "this one I know, as if he
"ni-ta nk'tcitcya, tahalo-te eli- were alive; this is Raccoon." Then
p'mau-sit; espuns nit." Ni-te-na he starts in pursuit. By and bye,
w'madcephekwalan. Nanakiu he (the raccoon) sees Black-Cat
(w')tel-mikwut Pokumk furiously angry, brandishing a
wiskilwehenakw'so sluyat pusket- club, as if he were an Indian.
kw'n (kesena: epusiyakwem) Raccoon looks at him: "Ah, no
tahalop w'skidcin. club can kill me. A bulrush indeed
Espuns w't-elapman: "ah, katama will kill me." Black-Cat knows
kak epusiyakwem nkisi- where to go; he goes where
nepakowun. Pakw'yaskwe yaka there is a swamp; he fetches
nepihit." Pokumk na w'k'tcitci'ton one; then he strikes Raccoon
eliat; w't-elian elmi-walskekekw; where he can do it. But it bursts;
p'tcipton peskw'n'l ni tukmat it spreads over Raccoon's head
espunsul tan-te etu-takek. Nit and it sticks to him being wet;
pusketesen; sipelipetwesen Black-Cat thinks this is Raccoon's
espuns wunyak'n'k naka kul-meso brain all coming out. So then he
eli-puspek; tepet-lo w't'lithasin goes on. Then Raccoon lies quiet
pokumk espuns nit wilitpan m'si- until Black-Cat goes on. He then
te w'natetemowanul. En yaka goes on (himself).
w'matcahan. Nit espuns w't'li- Great magic things he does, but
sanke-wusit teki Pokumk little does he benefit others. Then
matcahat. Nek'm na w'matcahan. he goes on; he comes to where
K'tci m'teaulin kak nakikau; many women are suckling their
wakeses w'k't'kik-w'lalat. Nit
children. He says to them: "this is
elmiyat; petcosan eyolti'tit
very slow, how you bring up
k'tciyawiwuk epidcik et'liknatidcihichildren; in our country (it is
wa'sis. W'tiyan: "k'matc
otherwise)." These good women
menakadceyo eli-madceknekw say to him: "How then should we
wasisuk; nilun n'm'kinansnuk." rear them?" "Now you shall
Nikt wuli epidcik w'tiyanya: understand how we do it; when
"tanuplo aptc tan nt'li-
we want them to grow fast, we
kisiknanen;" "nit-ta k'nestomolnia dip them in water when it is cold;
nilun elelo'ket; pawatnukhowever, do you lend me one;
w'nuksakinya, nkitcita-phan'wuk you shall understand how we do
nsamakwan enkwetci t'pok; ipa it, when we wish to rear quickly."
peskw makoyikw; k'nestomolnia One (woman) gives him one. He
elelo'ket k'ti-nuksaknut." W'milan takes it to the river; he lifts the
peskwul. W'madcephan sipok; ice and drowns the child; in the
w'totem'n pekw'm naka w'piselan morning he fetches it taking it
wasisul; wespasa'kiwik
out a grown man. The women
w'nadciphan wedci-muskeladcil. marvel. As he does it so
Asekithasoltowuk to epidcik. Eli- wonderfully, then all the women,
aseki-kisetolit, nit m'siu-te kesi'tit
as many as there are, put their
epidcik ponanya w'nidcaniswa children into the river in the
sipok aptc welakwiyik. Ni-te na evening. Then Raccoon hurries
espuns wutci-wiwisa-matcahan away from those other children.
w'k't'kik-lo-wasiskok. M'sī-te
All those treated badly die.
wapalkikw'dcoltukmetcinetuk. Again to another wigwam he
comes; a number of women are
Aptc k'tuk wikwam w'petciyan; making bags of properly cured
etelelhetidcik epidcik w'lik'n skins. He says to them: "Very
ewe'ke-tit metekninakwak t'litutit slow it seems for you, how you
m'tekw'yil. W'tiyan: "kamatc make these; in our country we
menakdci-nakw't eli-litwekw yut'l; cook them in the ashes; give me
nilun n'm'tkinansnuk what you are using; you shall
ntcikwamenenwul learn;" they
skwutewamkok; tceke milikw
ewekemek; k'ti-kim'lnya;" w'milan
peskw'n;
w'pon'm'n et'li-k'samketek give him one; he puts it where it
skwutewamkok; wakes eli- is hot in the ashes; in several
nesemuk w'mus-kamkwetiton; minutes he takes it out; it is a
wuli-wikhasik naka wulik'n well made and excellent bag. So
m'tekwap. Aptc hasehita- they think it over; then all cook
soltowulk; ni-te m'siu theirs; when they take them out,
w'tcitkwaninya na nek'mau; all are scorched and burnt; all are
musketutit m'si-te wikwitatekul spoiled. So again he goes away.
naka nkikwakw-te; m'si-te
wekitonyakul. Naptc w'matcahan.
Then he comes to a big river; he
Malem-te petciye k'tci sipok; kata does not know how to cross it.
w'k'tcitci'towun tan-etc w't'li-kisi- Here while looking around on the
kwuskasin. Yut el-apit sipwakok, shore of the river, he sees an old
w'nimian pemakwesit k'tci
wiwilmekw like a horned big
wiwilmekw tahalo-li-ko wesumwit alligator; blind. Raccoon says to
k'tci aktalakw; nekapo. Espuns him: "grandfather, ferry me over
w'tiyan: "musumi, kwusukholin the lake;"--"Certainly, grandson,
ekamak'm;" "k't'lal, n'konis;
only (get) on my back." Then he
te'pes n'pakamuk." Ni-te na starts off. The crows and the big
w'madcem'n. Ka'kakosuk naka ravens begin to mock them;
yokt k'tci kakakwut w'madci- "What do these birds say?" asks
w'malikinanya: "ke'kw nikt it'muk (the worm). They say: "Quickly
sipsuk-li," kwetcikeso; it'muk: hurry that raccoon over for your
"wiwisayi wiwisaphan nit espuns life." But the worm does not see
k'p'mausowâk'n kiket." Nit
the shore; he is nearing it very
wiwilmekw katama w'nimi'towun closely. So he dashes forward; he
k'tak'mikw; keskw-te eli-wiskiyat. runs himself half into the river
Malem-te pukweskwatesin; bank. The raccoon jumps off.
epasiu-te pedci-niw'metesin What befalls him (wiwilmekw)
sipwakok. Espunsfurther, the raccoon cares nothing
w'kapetat'kwihin. Nitaul tan
about (knows nothing about).
w't'litpiyan asityiu, kata espuns
So he goes on; he comes to
w'kisi-k'tcitci'towun.
some blackberries. He says to
them: "Would you agree with me,
Nit elmiyat; petcosan if I ate you?"--"We should agree
m'kisiwiminul (kesena: badly with you Raccoon, because
sakw'tewiminul). W'tiyan: "tanpal we are all choke-berries."--"Then
k't-elkowinya nil moholekw?" I do not want you." He still goes
"K'mutc'kolp'n espuns p'dc'l nilun on further; he finds bushes of
m'sī p'suliminuk." "Ni-ta katama itch-berries: "now how would you
k'pawalo'pa." Metc-te elmiyat; agree with me, if I ate you?"--
musk'm'n epusisul kiktcekalkwi- "We should make you itch, for we
minsuk; "neke tan-etc k'telko- are all itch-berries;"--"Ah, then
winya moholekw?" "Kiktcekolp'n this is just what I want," he
etatc nilun m'siu kiktcekalkwi- answers; he eats them. So he
minsul;" "ah, ni-te miyau nil eli- eats his fill (and) goes on. But
pawat'm-li," asitewut'm; w'mitsin. soon he begins to feel badly, as if
Malem-te memi'po; w'matcahan. he were tormented by things
S'laki-te petci sikmiyaumulsiu, which irritate him. Then he
stepal wes-sikyot (or w'sikyot) scratches and scratches; it does
kekw'siyul almi-potasik. En not help him (save him). So he
w'kiktceka-pelusin naka finds a ragged rock where he
w'kiktceka-pelusin; katama-te rubs up and down until (the hair)
witcokemkowun (kesena: comes off his arse. Even until
w'kikho-kowun). Malem-te now until this day, it is seen that
w'muskum'n kowapskek the raccoon is without hair (on
penapskw nit eswatckwesit teki his arse).
metwepusit w'ketcik. Metc-te Here then is the end.
teke wewinakw't eli-katama
piyeswi'kw espuns-te pemkiskak.

Nit-te-te-na w'metapeksin.
SERIES 4. SERIES 4.
 XIV. Lintowâk'nl. XIV. Songs.

A. A.

Peski k't-el-apin elmi-nelemwik Lonely thou lookest up-stream

Elmi-sikwâk-lo takwâk'nwi-lok-lo In spring and in autumn;
Tcīp'tuk k'nimihi-sa kwilakweyun Perhaps thou mayest see me seeking
Kuwēnotin U; kuwēnotin U. thee.
It is long, Oh, it is long, Oh.

B.
B.
Ani kuwēnotin U! Peski k't-el-apin
elmi-nelemwik elmi-papkiyik; Oh, it is long! Lonely thou lookest
peski k't-el-apin. A ni kuwenotin up stream (and) down stream;
U. lonely thou lookest. Oh, it is long.
Neket mipisul et'li nimiyotyikw; As we look upon the leaves, how
etutci-w'linakw'p'n sipayi sipok. beautiful it was by the stream!
Etutci-w'li-pakwask'tin. Kamatc- How fair the moon! We were very
te-na-nolithasīp'n! Metcinol-te-na joyful. Until I die, I shall think of
k'pithamol. A ni kuwēnotin U! thee. Oh, it is long!
Peski k't-el-apin elmi nelemwik Lonely thou lookest up-stream
elmi-papkiyik; peski k't-el-apin. A (and) down stream. Lonely thou
ni kuwēnotin U! lookest. Oh, it is long!
Neket-lo he-eli-alnisukmekw'p'n Once as I went in a canoe along
sipayi kuspēmik, etutci w'linakw'- the lake, how beautiful were the
sititp'n wutcowuk; he-eli-matcip'k mountains; how the green leaves
lamiskin mipisul. A ni kuwēnotin came out. Oh it is long!
U!
A ni kuwēnotin U! Nit-lotc aptc Oh it is long! Then once more we
eli-alnisuknukw tan etutc apa- shall go in a canoe when I come
tcyaye; tan etutc peski p'kesik again (to thee); when amid the
mipisul yut pemten nit k't'l- lonely winter leaves here on the
askoyin; A ni kuwēnotin U! mountain you await me; Oh, it is
Peski k't-el-apin elmi-nelemwik long.
elmi-papkiyik; peski k't-el-apin. A Lonely thou lookest up stream
ni kuwēnotin U! (and) down stream; lonely thou
lookest. Oh it is long!
C.
C.
Nilun pesēsmuk elintakwik
Nt'lintotēp'n k'p'sakh'nmâk'nuk. We are the stars which sing
Nilun sipsisuk skwu'tik; We sing with our light.
K'p'mitoyap'n pisokikw's; We are the birds of fire;
K'p'sakh'nmâk'n p'sēs'm. We fly over the heaven;
Our light is a star.
K't'lintowanen aut niweskwuk; We sing on the road of the spirits;
W't-aut K'tci Niweskw. The road of the great spirit.
Kwitcimkononowuk nohowuk Among us are three hunters
k'tonkewin'wuk Who follow the bear,
Nosokwat muwiniyul. There never was a time
Nit meskw tepnaskwiewis When they were not hunting.
Meskw k'tonketitikw. We look upon the mountains
K't'lapinen pemteni'kok. This is a song of the mountains.
Yut lintowâk'n pemteni'kok.

D.
D.
I sit and I beat the drum. I
Nil nolpin naka ntet'li-tum'n summon the animals and even
pekholâk'n. Nitut-li-wikw'tahan the storm winds obey my drum.
weyusis'k naka na petciu
wutcau's'n'l w'tciksitmakon I sit and I beat the drum. Even
npekholâk'n. the storms and thunders answer
me when I drum; and indeed
Nolpin naka ntet'li-tum'n great Aplasemwesit stops,
pekholâk'n. Petciu mutckiskak obeying my drum.
p'takik ntasitemakok pekhola;
I sit and drum. Then Chebelakw
naka na k'tci Aplas'mwesit
tceniso; w'tciksitm'n npekholâk'n. comes and obeys my drum. At its
sound, great Wuchowsen stops
Nolpin naka npekholin. Nit-te his wings and obeys the sound of
Tcipila'kw w'petciyan naka my drum (when it sounds).
w'tciksitmakon npekholâk'n.
Eltakwak k'tci Wutcau's'n I sit and I beat my drum. Even
the spirits under water come out
w'tcenekla w'neski naka
w'tciksitm'n eltakwak and they obey my drum and the
npekholâk'n. Chopper ceases chopping and
obeys my drum.
Nolpin naka ntuktem'n
npekholâk'n. Petciu-te I sit and beat my drum and great
Lampekwin'wuk muskapaswuk Apodumken comes out and he
naka w'tciksitm'nya npekholâk'n also obeys my drum.
naka na Atwusk'nikus
 PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE AMERICAN
ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Vols. I-III, 1845-51. (Out of print.)
BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
1860-63. (Out of print.)
Dr. C. H. Berendt, Analytical Alphabet for the Mexican and
Central American Languages (printed in facsimile). (Out of
print.)
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vol. III. Reprinted in 1909.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

I. William Jones, Fox Texts. 1907. 383 pp.

II. Edward Sapir, Wishram Texts. 1909. 314 pp.
III. John R. Swanton, Haida Songs; Franz Boas, Tsimshian
Texts. 1912. 284 pp.
IV. Roland B. Dixon, Maidu Texts. 1912. 241 pp.
V. Waldemar Bogoras, Koryak Texts. 1916. 153 pp.
VI. John W. Chapman, Ten'a Texts and Tales from Anvik,
Alaska; with Vocabulary by Pliny Earle Goddard. 1914.
VI + 230 pp.
VII.
 Part I. William Jones, Ojibwa Texts. Edited by Truman
Michelson. 1917. XXI + 501 pp.
Part II. William Jones, Ojibwa Texts. Edited by Truman
Michelson. 1919. X + 777 pp.; 2 plates.
VIII. John R. Swanton, Haida Texts. In press.
IX. William Jones and Trumann Michelson, Kickapoo Texts:
collected by William Jones, translated and annotated
by Truman Michelson. 1915. 143 pp.
X. John Dyneley Prince, Passamaquoddy Texts. 1921. 85 pp.
 TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
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the same language are shown here with large
gaps in the middle of the sentence.
2. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and
typographical errors.
3. Retained anachronistic and non-standard
spellings as printed.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PASSAMAQUODDY
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