ELECTRONICS

ee alach cee
Here is one of the most comprehensive books on the
topic of electronics in today’s market. With informa-
tion on topics ranging from basic concepts to radio,
television, communications, and digital circuitry, the
Electronics Handbook is a must for all students,
technicians and engineers.
Intended as a reference text, this important new
book will serve students and professionals alike by
allowing them to update their knowledge in fields
important to their specializations.
Author Matthew Mandl exhibits a skillful use of
cross-referencing to aid the reader in consulting
associated topics when referencing a particular sub-
ject. This cross-referencing combined with numer-
ous illustrations and circuit drawings expedite the
reader’s comprehension of operational details.
An example of Mandl’s clear-cut, easy-to-understand
writing style is his handling of the basic equations
most commonly used in electronics. Mandl not only
explains the basics of each equation, but shows
sample applications for each one. Similarly, numer-
ous commonly used circuits are both described and
illustrated.
The Electronics Handbook is expandea to include
the fundamental principles of communications and
‘instrumentation and includes discussions on such
topics as amplitude modulation, the combination of
AM and FM used in television and analog and digital
meters.

(continued on the back flap)

 COULTER LIBRARY ONONDAGA COMM. COLL.
TK7825.M264 1983
Mandl, Matthew. El k

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TK
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1983 Electronics hand-
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Electronics Handbook
Electronics Handbook

Matthew Mandl
TR ee

ty)
RESTON PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
A Prentice-Hall Company
Reston, Virginia E LIBRARY LEGE
MUNITY COL
ONONDAGA COM (gues ae
RT. 173 ONONDAGAYORK 13
SYRACUSE, NEW
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Mandl, Matthew.
Electronics handbook.

Includes index.
1. Electronics
— Handbooks, manuals, etc.
2. Electronic circuits —Handbooks, manuals, etc.
|. Title. .
TK7825.M264 1983 621.381 83-3414.
ISBN 0-8359-1603-0

©1983 by Reston Publishing Company, Inc.

A Prentice-Hall Company
Reston, Virginia 22090

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any way, or by any
means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Ih 2 TRS IS Soy Koy 7A Ashe wo) 1100)

Printed in the United States of America

Contents

Preface xiii

Basic Equations in Electronics 1

1-1] Ohm's Law 1
1-2 Series and Parallel Resistance 4
1-3 Series and Parallel Inductors 5
1-4 Series and Parallel Capacitors 6
1-5 Reactance and Impedance /7
1-6 Resonance, Bandwidth, and Q 12
1-7 Decibels 14
1-8 Nepers 16
1-9 Time Constants 17
1-10 Transformer Turns Ratio 20
1-11 Polar and / Notations 21
1-12 Admittance and Susceptance 23
1-13 Effective, Average, and Peak AC Values 24
1-14 Transmission-Line Equations 25
1-15 Trigonometric Relationships 29
1-16 Radians and Angular Velocity 32
1-17 Vectors, Phasors, and Scalars 33
1-18 Transistor Parameter Equations 35

Circuit Descriptions 40
2-| Introduction 40
2-2 Common-Emitter Circuits 40
Common-Source Cireuits 42
Common-Base Circuits 44
Common-Gate Circuits 44
Emitter-Follower Circuits <5
Source-Foliower Circuits 47
Coupled Low-Sigaal Amplifiers 47
Video Amplifiers 49
Chroma Amplifiers 51
Single-Ended Audio Amplifiers 52
Phase Inversion $4
Complementary-Symmetry Amplifiers $6
RF and IF Amplifiers 57
Coupled IF Stages 60
Class B or C (RA Amplifiers 61
Push-Pull RF Amplifiers 62
RF Signal Frequency Multipliers 64
Amplifier Feedback and Degeneration $4
Darlington Amplifier 66
Operational Amplifiers 66
Differential Amplifiers 67
Bandpass Amplifiers 69
Burst-Gate Amplifiers 70
Sweep Output Amplifiers 72
Armstrong Oscillater 73
Hartley Oscillater 74
Colpitts Oseillater 75
Crystal Oscillators 77
Subcarrier Oscitlaters 77
Phase Discriminators 78
Reactance-Contral Cireuits 80
Multivibraters 82
Blocking Oseillaters 83 =
Halt-Wave Power Supply 84
Full-Wave Power Supply 86
Voltage-Doubler Circuit 87
Voltage-Tripler Cireuit 88
Bridge-Rectifier Circuit 90
Zener Regulator 90
PowerSwitching Diedes 92
AM Detectors 4
FM Detectors 25
 CONTENTS vii

2-44 Regenerative Detectors 96

2-45 Color-Signal Detectors 97
2-46 Matrix Circuit 99

Signal Modification, Routing, and Control 101

3-] Integrating Circuitry 101
3-2 Differentiating Circuitry 103
3-3. Dual /and C 105
3-4 Diode Signal Modifiers 105
3-5 — Transistorized Signal Clipper 106
3-6 Sawtooth Signal Formation 107
3-7. Sawtooth Signal Modification 109
3-8 Gain and Tone Controls 110
3-9 Pre- and Deemphasis Circuitry 111
3-10 Attenuators (Pads) 114
3-11 Automatic Volume Control 115
3-12 Automatic Gain Control 116
3-13 Signal-Delay Systems 117
3-14 Combining Circuit 119
3-15 Balanced Modulator 121

Integrated Circuits 123

4-] Integrated-Circuit Factors 123
4-2. Diode-Transistor IC Basic Structures 124
4-3 FET and Component Formation 126
4-4 Reference Scale of Integrated Circuits 127
4-5 Housing and Symbols 129
4-6 Tl Circuitry’ 130
4-7. N-MOS and P-MOS_ 131
4-8 C-MOS ICs 132
4-9 (PL Circuitry 133
4-10 Schottky-Clamped I?L 134
Ae DET nor Circuitry "135
4-12 MD-MOS ICs 136
4-13 V-MOS Factors 138
4-14 D-MOS Structures 138
4-15 Silicon on Sapphire 139
4-16 H-MOS Types 140
4-17 Linear-Circuit ICs 140
4-18 RTL and ECL Circuits 141
viii CONTENTS

5 Digital-System Codes 143

§-1 Basic Binary Code 143
5-2. Binary-Coded Decimal 146
5-3 Hexadecimal Code 146
5-4. Octal Notation 147
5-5 Gray Code 149
5-6 Excess-Three Code 150
5-7 Biquinary Code 151
S26) here 42 Goode ssl5z
5-9 . Error-Detection Codes 152
5-10 Gray-to-Binary Code Conversion 154
5-11 Binary Encoder Disk 155
5-12 Gray Encoder Disk 157

Switches, Gates, and Symbolic Logic 158

6-1 Digital-Logic or Circuit 158
6-2 Logic or Truth Tables 159
6-3 logic and Gates 160
6-4 Logic and Truth Tables 161
6-5 Phase-Inverting not Logic 162
6-6 nor Function 163
6-7 — Logic nor Truth Tables 163
6-8 nand Function 165
6-9 Logic nand Truth Tables 165
6-10 Various Gates and Combinations 166
6-11 De Morgan's Theorem 168
6-12 Exclusive or and nor Gates 169
6-13 Exclusive or Logic and Applications 170.
6-14 IC Gate Packages 171] ts
6-15 Basic Flip-Flop Sections 172
6-16 J-K Systems and Symbols 175 “
6-17. Clock Pulse Systems 177
6-18 Gating Tree 179
6-19 Single-Shot Multivibrator 180
6-20 Schmitt Trigger 181

Various Tables and Miscellaneous Data 183

7-] Decibel Ratios 183
7-2 Prefixes and Their Symbols 183
7-3 System Differences 185
 CONTENTS ix

7-4 Time Constants 186

7-5 Powers of 2. 187
7-6 Musical-Tone Frequencies 188
7-7 Bessel Functions 189
7-8 Frequencies for LC Products 190
7-9 — Meters—Kilohertz Conversion 192
7-10 Conversions Involving Length 194
7-11 Speed or Velocity Conversions 194
7-12 Weights and Measures 194
7-13 Dielectric Constants 198
7-14 Mathematical Symbols and Constants 198
7-15 Greek Alphabet 201
7-16 Sound Frequencies and Levels 201
7-17 Effects of Frequency on l, C, and R Circuits 202
7-18 Resistor Color Codes 202
7-19 Capacitor Color Codes 204
7-20 MKS and CGS Unit Systems 207
7-21 Sl Unit System 207
7-22 Public-Entertainment Broadcast Allocations 210
7-23 Miscellaneous Broadcast Allocations 213
7-24 Television Technical Standards 216

Transmission Principles 218

8-1 Amplitude Modulation 218
8-2 Sideband Factors 220
8-3 Frequency Modulation 222
8-4 FM Sideband Factors 223
8-5 Television Bandpass Requirements 224
8-6 Color Phase Factors 230
8-7 CW and ICW Principles 231
8-8 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation 233
8-9 Pulse-Position Modulation 235
8-10 Pulse-Duration Modulation 236
8-11 Pulse-Code Modulation 237
8-12 Telemetry and Multiplexing 237

Fundamental Principles of Instrumentation 239

9-1 Analog Current Meters 239
9-2 Analog Voltmeters 241
9-3. Analog Ohmmeters 243
x CONTENTS

9-4. VOM Types 245

9-5 Decibel and VU Scales 247
9-6 Digital Meters 249
9-7 Bridge Systems 250
9-8 Signal Generators 252
9-9 Sweep Generators 254
9-10 Oscilloscopes 255
9-11 Crosshatch and Bar Generators 260
9-12 Vectorscopes 262
9-13 Transistor Testers 264
9-14 Clamp-Around AC Meters 265
9-15 Watt-Hour and Power-Factor Meters 266
9-16 Function Generators 268
9-17 Distortion Meters 269
9-18 Frequency Counters 269

10 Graphic Symbols of Basic Components 270

10-1 Basic Diode Types 270
10-2 Photodiodes 271
10-3 Switching Diodes 272
10-4 Regulating and Reactive Diodes 274
10-5 Junction Transistors 275
10-6 Junction Field-Effect Types 276
10-7. Metal-Oxide Field-Effect Types 277
10-8 Signal Waveshape Symbols 278
10-9 Conductors and Resistors 280
10-10 Inductors and Transformers 281
10-11 Capacitor Symbols 282 ;
10-12 Transducers 283 nee
10-13 Switches and Relays 284
10-14 Miscellaneous Graphic Symbols 285 -.

11 Complete System Block Diagrams 287

11-1 AM Transmission-reception 287
11-2 FM (Mono) Transmitter 289
11-3. FM (Mono) Receiver 290
11-4 FM (Stereo) Transmitter 291
11-5 FM (Stereo) Receiver 294
11-6 Television (Black-and-White}) Transmitter 295
11-7 Color Signal Synthesis 296
 CONTENTS

11-8 Television (Color) Transmitter 296

11-9 Television Receiver System 298
11-10 Calculator and Computer Systems 301
11-11 Electronic Games 304
11-12 Speech Synthesis 305
11-13 System Miniaturization 307

12 Letter Symbols, Acronyms, and Definitions 309

12-1 Introduction 309

Index 355
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 Preface

Data Reference Book of Electronics contains a broad coverage of elec-

tronic topics ranging from basic concepts to radio, television, communi-
cations, and digital circuitry. It is intended as a reference text for all
students, technicians, and engineers who need to update their knowledge
of the basics of topics unfamiliar or far afield from those in which the
reader is actively engaged. Sufficient cross-references are given through-
out the text so that associated topics may be consulted when referencing
a particular areas. Numerous illustrations and circuit drawings are in-
cluded to expedite comprehension of operational details.
Chapter 1 is devoted to basic equations most commonly used in
electronics. Samples of applications are given in addition to the explana-
tions. Chapter 2 describes and illustrates numerous circuits commonly
used in all aspects of electronics, including a variety of amplifiers, detec-
tors, rectifiers, and relaxation oscillators, as well as radio-frequency
types. Circuit descriptions are continued in Chapter 3 and involve signal
modification, signal routing, and signal control types. Chapter 4 details
the factors involving fabrication of integrated circuits, their general char-
acteristics, and the special circuits used in switching and gating.
The various digital-system codes are outlined in Chapter 5 and in-
clude tables giving representative comparisons and applications. Digital-
circuit logic gates and switches are covered in Chapter 6 and include the
basic principles of symbolic logic. Chapter 7 lists more than two dozen
tables, including decibel ratios, conversions, measurements, dielectric
constants, mathematical symbols, color codes, and similar material.

xiii
xiv PREFACE

Chapter 8 describes the fundamental principles of communications.

Included are discussions on amplitude modulation, frequency modula-
tion, the combination of AM and FM used in television, as well as pulse
code modulation. Chapter 9 is devoted to the fundamental principles of
instrumentation, including analog and digital meters as well as those
reading decibels and volume units.
Graphic symbols of basic components, plus a description of them,
are given in Chapter 10. Included are diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers,
transistors, and the basic symbols used for resistors, capacitors, induc-
tors, switches, and similar components. Chapter 11 illustrates and ex-
plains the formation of complete systems, using block diagrams.
Included are communications systems (radio, television, etc.), and com-
puters, computerized games, and similar items.
A special feature of this text is Chapter 12, which contains tables
listing comprehensive letter abbreviations and definitions of commonly
used words and phrases in all branches of electronics. Thus, the reader
has ready access to the meaning of letter symbols such as ATC, BIFET,
H-MOS, PIA, VCO, and numerous others. Similarly, complete defini-
tions are listed for words such as baud, biquinary, mnemonic, siemens,
varactor, and others.

MATTHEW MANDL

~~
Electronics Handbook
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 Basic Equations
In Electronics

1-1. OHM’S LAW

The basic equations relating values of current, voltage, and resistance are
known as Ohm’s law. Use of these equations permits the solving of an
unknown quantity by utilizing the known values of two other quantities.
The basic equation, J = E/R, states that the quantity of current in a cir-
cuit is equal to the values of electromotive force divided by resistance.
The equation P = EJ states that the power is equal to the values of elec-
tromotive force multiplied by current. The unit value of electromotive
force (£) is the volt (V); for current (J) it is the ampere (A); and for re-
sistance (R) it is the ohm (({Q). Multiple or fractional values may be en-
countered as well as basic unit values. Thus, if FE= 5 V and J = 2 A,
the power (P) = 2 X 5 = 10 W. Had the voltage been 5 kilovolts (5
kV), the power would have been 10 kW. Similarly, if E is 0.2 wV and J
is 100 mA, the power is 0.2 x 10-® x 100 x 10>? = 0.02 wW.
The four quantities (EZ, J, R, and P) can be rearranged to find any
unknown quantity. Thus, the various relationships can be shown in a
wheel arrangement as shown in Figure 1-1(A) for dc or ac (with no
phase shifting) or as in (B) for ac exclusively. Thus, voltage can be found
by the following:

ip iTR Mer ; br PR (1-1)

 2 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Figure 1-1 Ohm's Law Wheels

Hence, if current has a value of 2 A and resistance 300 2, the volt-

age is 600. Had the current been 5 mA and the resistance 20 kQ, the
voltage would be 100 (0.005 x 20,000). If the power is 60 W and the
current is 2 A, the voltage is 30 (60/2). As another example, if the pow-
 OHM’S LAW 3

er is 2 W and the resistance 8 2, the voltage is 4, since 2 x 8 = 16, of

which the square root is 4.
Knowing the values of voltage, resistance, and power, we can solve
for current using the following equations:

je E or P or Be (2)
R E R

Thus, if the voltage is 260 and the resistance is 13,000 9, the current is
0.02 A. Similarly, if the power is 75 W and voltage is 5, the current is 15
A. For solving resistance values the following equations apply:

Ofae=—s OF P (1-3)
ik

As in previous examples, simple calculations solve for the un-

known. Thus, if a circuit has 60 V applied and the power dissipated in a
resistor is 2 W, the resistance is 1800 2, since 60 xk 60 = 3600 and
when the latter is divided by 2 we obtain the resistance.
For de or ac power (assuming no phase shift between voltage and
current) the following equations are useful:

D
PTET or ER eos (1-4)

From the foregoing it is indicated that a voltage of 30 multiplied

by a current of 0.06 A gives a wattage dissipation of 1.8. Similarly, a
current of 0.07 A and a resistance of 2 k{. would indicate a power dissi-
pation of 9.8 W. For ac the power expressed as EJ is also termed the ap-
parent power because any phase difference between current and voltage
could decrease the power value found by multiplying voltage by current.
As shown in Figure 1—1(B), the cosine of the angle must be considered
for solving true power, since P = EI cos @ (see also Sec. 1-17). When
the true power is divided by the apparent power, we solve for the power
factor:

Power factor = ie powers). (1-5)

apparent power
4 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Thus, if we have 2.5 V and 2 A, the apparent power is 2.5 K 2 =

,-
5 W. If the phase angle between voltage and current is 45°, however, the
cosine is 0.707 and hence the true power is 2.5 K 2 & 0.707 = 3.5 W.
Thus, the power factor (cosine) is 3.5/5 = 0.707.
Thus, when a value of cosine is involved, the true power is always
less than the apparent power because of the phase difference between
voltage and current. With no phase angle the power factor is 1 (cosine of
0°). With a 90° phase angle the cosine is 0 and hence the product of volt-
age, current, and 0 is 0. Current can also be related to the quantity of
electrons. The charge unit is called the coulomb and its symbol is Q. The
coulomb is equal to 6.28 x 10!'* electrons. The rate of flow of a single
coulomb in 1 second represents 1 A of current:

fae (1-6)
t

where J is the current in amperes

Q is the quantity of electrons in coulombs
t is the time in seconds

From Eq. 1-6 it is obvious that a current of 105 Q of electron flow

past a point in a circuit in 15 seconds = 105/15 = 7A.
As with the basic Ohm’s law, the symbols of current, time, and
coulombs can be rearranged as needed:

Q — It
(1-7)

~
1-2. SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCE
~

When resistors are placed in series, the total resistance is the sum of in-
dividual resistances:

|S a 5Suneswl!9 al rl pa Cac snk (1-8)

Thus, if a circuit has three series resistors and the values are 2.5 1,
750 9, and 2 kQ, the total resistance by simple addition is 2752.5 9.
When resistors are in parallel the total resistance is always less than the
smallest value resistance. To solve for total resistance when two parallel
resistors are involved, the following equation can be used:
 SERIES AND PARALLEL INDUCTORS 5

R,A : ae
aid R, De (1
Rea ?

Thus, for two parallel resistors having values of 2 and 8 2, respec-

tively, the total resistance would be 1.6 9. When more than two resis-
tors are in parallel the following equation applies:

1
+ GIR,) (1-10)
(1/R,) + (1/R,) + (/R,) +
total

Equation 1-10 does, of course, also apply to two resistors. In our

previous example of 2 and 8 2 we obtain 1.6 1 total. Similarly:

l 1 ee Sea)
(1/2) + (1/8) 7 (4/8) + (1/8) = 5/8

1-3. SERIES AND PARALLEL INDUCTORS

When inductors are wired in series the total inductance is the sum of all
the inductors. If the individual coils are separated sufficiently so that
their fields do not interact, the total inductance of series string can be
expressed as

i Gneseries)i— VL. yeyOs Sse aaOo (1-11)

When inductors are in parallel the total inductance is always less

than the smallest-value inductor. Thus, the reciprocal formula is used for
finding total inductance, in similar fashion to the equation for solving for
total resistance in parallel resistors:

1
L,(in parallel) = (E12)
CL) eri) Caretta EL)

When inductors are coupled sufficiently close so that the magnetic

lines of the individual inductors interact with each other, the total induc-
tance for series and parallel inductors is influenced by mutual inductance
(M). The latter also applies to the coupling of primary and secondary
windings in transformers. Mutual inductance of 1 henry (H) occurs
6 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

when alternating current having a value of 1 A in the primary induces 1

V of ac in the secondary. When all magnetic lines of the primary cut the
secondary winding (as is the case in a closely wound transformer) the
mutual inductance in equation form is

M=VLL, (1-13)

When inductors are coupled loosely and all the lines of force of
each inductor do not interact, the coefficient of coupling (k) becomes a
factor and hence the following equation applies:

jpg (1-14)
el it
The coefficient of coupling indicates the percentage of coil interac-
tion. Thus, if only one-fifth of the lines of force of one inductor inter-
rupts another inductor, the coefficient of coupling is 20%. The equation
for finding the mutual inductance when the coefficient of coupling is in-
volved is

Mink 7 Ee (1-15)

For series inductors the mutual inductance is additive if each in-

ductor is wound in the same direction so that the magnetic fields aid
each other. Such wiring is termed series aiding and the equation for total
inductance then becomes

Per eeriataia “a ™~,

(series aiding) = ZL, + £,+ 2M (1-16)

If coupled inductors are wound in opposite*directions so that the

magnetic fields of one coil oppose that of the other, the following equa-
tion applies:

L,(series opposing) = L, + L,— 2M (1-17)

1—4. SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITORS

When capacitors are placed in parallel the total capacitance increases;

hence, the following equation applies:
 REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE 7

©; (parallel) =) CibsCy st Gye C (1-18)

Thus, if three capacitors are in a circuit and their respective values

are 0.05, 2.00, and 0.003 wF, the total capacitance is 2.053 wF. When
capacitors are placed in series, however, total capacitance is less than the
lowest capacitance in the circuit and hence the reciprocal equation is
used:

G(Series) = 1
CG VGLAIC) +11) (1G) i
When only two capacitors are in series the following equation can
be used:

C,: C,
(1-20)
Coe,

Thus, if two capacitors are in series and the values are 6 and 12
HF, Eq. 1-20 gives us

ey! = 4 uF
6+12 18
Equation 1-19 can, of course, also be used, with the same result:

1 1 1 12

1-5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE

The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of ac is termed reac-

tance (symbol X) as opposed to the resistance offered by a resistor.
Where resistance consumes power, however, reactance does not because
a pure inductor creates an out-of-phase condition with voltage leading
current. Thus, when voltage is at its peak the current flow is at the zero
point of the sine wave; hence, the energy is returned to the generator or
other source. The amount of reactance offered by an inductance is relat-
ed to the amount of inductance in henrys and the rate of change of the
8 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

alternating current. Inductive reactance is usually identified by the sym-

bol X, and the following equation applies:

x fb 2arfL (or 6.28 x f x L) (1-21)

or

X,=
L
wL (since 6.28f= w)

where X, is the inductive reactance in ohms

fis the frequency in hertz
L is the inductance in henrys

Reactance is expressed in ohms just as with resistance. Knowing

the value of reactance and frequency, Eq. 1-21 can be used to solve for
inductance:

PEE: (1-22)
6.28f
Similarly, if the inductive reactance and inductance values are
known, we can solve for the frequency:

xX
j= ; Say (1-23)

Compared to an inductor, the capacitor has an opposite reactive

characteristic. At any instant when the voltage is teading in an inductor,
it lags in the capacitor, when both ZL and C are in the same circuit. Simi-
larly, for a current lead in the capacitor at any instant, there is a corre-
sponding current lag in the inductor, creating a 90° difference in phase
relationships (assuming that resistance is absent). Thus, capacitive reac-
tance (symbol X,) can be calculated by the following equation:

X.= =.= : (1-24)

WafC, eUC 6.28 of
where X,. is the capacitive reactance in ohms
fis the frequency in hertz
Cis the capacitance in farads
 REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE 9

As was the case with the inductors, we can rearrange Eq. 1-24 to
solve for either capacitance or for frequency if two known values are
available:

1
C-— 1-25
6.28/X,. sae
f= ae (1-26)
6.28CX,
Inductive and capacitive reactances can be related to ac voltage
and current values as was the case for E, J, and R with dc. Thus, the
following equations apply:

X= E7 (1-27)

pee cee (i=28)

xX,

1X (1-29)

X= E (1-30)
I
pee (1-31)
X¢

ea be (1-32)

When both reactance and resistance are present in a circuit, the

combination of the two forms an opposition termed impedance, symbol
Z. The relationships of resistance, reactance, and impedance in a series
circuit are trigonometric, as shown in Figure 1—2(A) and as indicated by
the following equation:

Z=-VR+ xX (1-33)

Equation 1-33 shows the basic equation applicable to the reactance

of either inductance or capacitance. When both the latter are in a circuit
with resistance, however, the total reactance is either predominantly ca-
10 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Z=5
xX =3 xX, =3

R=4

(a)
Aes
R=4
(b)
pyCaan
- Z=4.47

Figure 1-2 Trigonometric Aspects of R, X, and Z

pacitive or inductive, depending on the amplitude of each, as shown in

Figure 1-2(B) and (C). Thus, if the reactance of the inductor is 20 kN
and that of a capacitor is 50 kf), the total reactance is 30 k{) and is pri-
marily X_. If the capacitive reactance is 3000 and inductive reactance
is 15,000 (, the total reactance is 12,000 9 of X,. The standard equa-
tion for a circuit having resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance indicates the subtraction of X. from X,. Obviously, if X, pre-
dominates, the two reactance values are interchanged in the following
equation: :
see
Lome Re XN (1-34)

In a series circuit the same current flows through each component

but the voltage drops across components vary as resistance or reactance
varies. Total voltage is, therefore, a vector quantity and may be found
by the following equation:

Ep= V Ef+ EY (1i=35)

In finding the E, value, the voltage value across inductive reactance

is subtracted from the quantity of voltage across the capacitive reactance
if the latter voltage is higher.
 REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE 11

The relationships among Z, £, and J are indicated in the following

equations:

TatEF 1-36
(1-36)

Ti E 1-37
Z ee)
E=1Z (1-38)

For parallel resistance and reactance Eq. 1-34 no longer applies.

Values of voltages and currents can be used to solve for impedance, as
shown in Eq. 1-36. In a parallel circuit the voltage has a constant value
across the resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Current values through
these components differ, however. Hence, the following equation must be
used to solve for total current as an initial step toward finding
impedance:

| a Piss Ty — I, (1-39)

Having found total current, impedance can be calculated by E/I,,

as shown in Eq. 1-36. Advantage can be taken of trigonometric func-
tions for solving unknown values. Since the quotient of the side opposite
divided by the side adjacent is the tangent 0, the quotient of X/R is also
the tan 0. Once the tan is known, trigonometric-ratio tables or scientific
calculations will give the phase angle, cosine, and other values. Because
the cosine of an angle is the ratio of the side adjacent to the hypotenuse
(R/Z), the value of the side adjacent (R) can be divided by the cosine val-
ue to find the hypotenuse (Z). As an example, if X = 1560 2 and R =
2080 2 the following calculations apply:

tan 80 =
_ 1560 ==) (0)7/5)
2080

0 = 36.87°

cos 80 = 0.8

Zz — 2080 _ 600 0

Additional equations involving impedance (Z) are illustrated in

12 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Figure 1-1(B). The equation derivations for Z, R, and X are given in Ta-
ble 1-1. Additional factors related to trigonometry are given in Sec.
1-15.

TABLE 1-1. Z, R, and X Equation Derivations

BC2 — vA Bl aAG-
AB? = BC? — AC’
AG — sBCZ-
AB
c=] Va hy Z=V
R +X?
= VAG O- R=
VL ae
b= Ve =a. i= Va ke
it Re 3 OXe= 40, ands — Oy the
calculations that apply are:
Z=VPHtRPH=HV
9+ 16=V25=5
R=VP—f=V25—-—6=V 9=3
KV 5? 3 V2 =i VelGc= 4

1-6. RESONANCE, BANDWIDTH, AND Q

In an electronic circuit when the ohmic value of capacitive reactance

equals the inductive reactance, the opposing factors of the two reac-
tances cancel, leaving only resistance. Signal voltages and currents are
thus in phase and since (X, — X,) = 0 in Eq. 1-34, resistance is the
only dominant factor and the condition known as resonance prevails.
Resonant circuits are widely used in various branches of electronics for
the selection of signals having specific frequencies “while rejecting other
signals with frequencies above or below the resonant-circuit selection
span. Tuning circuits in communications and other electronic systems
permit adjustment of the inductance/capacitance ratio (L/C) by variable
capacitors or inductors, or by circuitry that changes specific reactance
values (see Sec. 2-32). For finding the resonant frequency when L and C
values are known, the following equation applies:

l
tf agence eee (1-40)
6.28 VLC

This ability of a resonant circuit to select a given signal or group

of signals within the resonant bandpass is termed selectivity (Q). The lat-
 RESONANCE, BANDWIDTH, AND @ 13

ter indicates the degree by which a resonant circuit accepts signals

around the desired frequencies while rejecting signals of unwanted fre-
quencies. The degree of selectivity is related to the amount of resistance
in a circuit. Resistance may also be present in the inductor and for this
reason the selectivity (Q) is referenced to the ratio of inductive reactance
to resistance. The respective equations for series and parallel circuits are:

(Series)Q = —
x; R
(Parallel)Q = ~ (1-41)
R XL

In Figure 1-3 the resonant series circuit current (U/,) is plotted

against frequency (/) to produce the selectivity curve shown. The sharp-
ness of the slope indicates a high degree of selectivity and a conventional
reference are points f, and f,. The latter are the frequencies at which the
amplitude of the high- and low-frequency slopes are 0.707 of the peak
amplitude of the curve. These points are also termed half-power frequen-
cies. The amplitude of these points f, or f, is 1/ V 2 of its value at the
resonant frequency point (f). The bandwidth of a circuit is considered as
the distance between the two half-power frequencies:

Bandwidth = f, — f, (1-42)

Since Q is related to resistance and inductance values, either of the

half-power frequencies can be found as well as bandwidth, as indicated
by the following equations:

Figure 1-3 Selectivity Curve

14 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

je i — (1-43)

f=h- a (1-44)

Bandwith = f, — f, = ae (1-45)

Q= = j (1-46)

£=0%,—f) (1-47)

1-7. DECIBELS

Decibel ratings are comparisons of amplitudes and not of unit measure-

ments. Thus, the decibel (dB) represents a unit indicating the difference
in amplitude levels. The decibel can relate to one power level as com-
pared to another, one voltage level as compared to another, or one cur-
rent level as compared to another. Decibel ratings relate to the manner
in which the human ear responds to sounds having different intensities.
The ear has a logarithmic response and hence is more receptive to low-
intensity sound-level changes than to high-intensity changes. When the
change in sound level is barely noticeable to the average ear it is approx-
imately | decibel. '
The unit be/ (named after Alexander Graham Bell) is too large a
unit and is not used. Instead, one-tenth of a bel (the decibel) is common-
ly used. The equation for finding the decibel in power is:

P
dB = 10 log a (1-48)
2

The larger power value is divided by the smaller to obtain the ra-
tio. A doubling of power is equal to 3 dB:

10 log == 10 x 0.30= 3
 DECIBELS 15

A 3-dB rating is obtained when we compare an audio amplifier

having a 30-W output with another having a 60-W output. Since the
decibel rating is not a measurement of power, the same 3-dB rating is
obtained if we compare a 100-W unit with one of 200 W. When the deci-
bel rating relates to a higher value, the decibel value may be preceded by
a plus sign, although the sign could be omitted to indicate a plus quanti-
ty. When the comparison relates to a lower value, a minus decibel figure
is indicated. Thus, a change of power from 10 W to 20 W = 3 dB, and
a change of power from 20 W to 10 W = —3 dB (see Table 7-1). The
3-dB difference for a doubling or halving power is a convenient refer-
ence, as is the fact that when power is increased 10 times, it represents
10 dB:

10 log = = 10 x 1.0 = 10 dB

When comparisons are made involving several decibel levels, the

unit values are additive. If, for instance, amplifier A has a rating of 25
W and amplifier B a rating of 50 W, the decibel difference is 3. Compar-
ing amplifier B to amplifier C having a rating of 100 W again gives us a
value of 3 dB. When, however, we compare amplifier A to amplifier C
(25 W to 100 W) we obtain 3 dB + 3 dB = 6 GB. Similarly, the power
increase of 10 times for a reading of 10 dB is related to a power increase
of 100 times, which equals 20 dB. Thus, increasing the power difference
of 10 dB tenfold, we obtain an additional 10-dB increase: 10 dB + 10
dB = 20 dB. Similarly, of course, a multiple 3-dB increase gives us a to-
tal sum value:

3 dB + 3dB + 3 dB = 9 dB

The decibel equations relating to amplitude levels of voltage and

current are as follows:

20 log zi (1-49)
E2

20 log (1-50)
2
16 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

The term ‘‘20 log” in Eqs. 1-49 and 1-50 instead of 10 log is nec-
essary because if voltage (or current) is doubled in a circuit, the power or
quadruples. This is evident by the following examples, where the current
value is doubled and the power changes from 120 W to 480 W:

Pai PR IS22 3001120 W

and

Pisin 4x 30 I 480W

On occasion, specific levels are used for reference to simplify desig-

nations of changes in power, current, and voltage. A common reference
is 0.006 W (6 mW) across a resistance of 500 9. Analog-type
multimeters often have a decibel scale included on the dial as discussed
in Chap. 9 and illustrated in Figure 9-6.

1-8. NEPERS

The decibel rating system is commonly used in the United States, where-
as in Europe the neper has been widely used to express amplitude rela-
tionships similar to those of the decibel system. The neper system uses
the natural logarithm base € (2.7182...). A neper is thé log. of the scalar
ratio of two voltages or two currents and the appropriate equations are:

It :
n = log. + = (1-51)
I,

E
n = log, : (1-52)
E.

As an example, if a change is made to increase a 2-A circuit cur-

rent to 4 A, n = log, 4/2 = log. 2 = 0.69314. The same neper quantity
is obtained for two voltages having a ratio of 2. There is a constant rela-
tionship between decibels and nepers and 1 dB = 0.1151 neper, or 1
neper = 8.686 dB. Thus, for the 0.69314 neper obtained above, multipli-
cation by 8.686 yields 6 dB, the correct amount for a doubling of either
voltage or current.
With the power ratio related to the square of the voltage and circu-
 TIME CONSTANTS 17

lating current, the number of nepers by which these voltage and current
differ is found by

fi (1253)
P, 7

Thus, if there were a power change from 3 W to 12 W, Eq. 1-53

yields 1/2 log. (12/3) = 1/2 log. 4 = 0.69314. Again multiplying the
latter by 8.686 produces the same 6 dB as in the earlier example in this
section, showing the related voltage ratio that produces this neper and
decibel quantity. (As an alternative for finding the decibel value in the
foregoing example, the quantity 0.69314 could be divided by 0.1151 to
produce the 6 dB.)

1-9. TIME CONSTANTS

When a voltage is applied to either a capacitor or inductor a specific in-

terval of time is required for electric energy amplitudes to reach maxi-
mum values. The time required for a specific value of voltage or current
to reach 63% of its maximum value is known as the time constant. The
symbol for the time constant is the lowercase Greek letter tau (7). For a
capacitor in series with a resistor, a minimum of electric pressure is
needed initially to create a significant amount of current flow. As elec-
trons move to one side of the capacitor and away from the other, in-
creased voltage (electric pressure) is needed. This characteristic is
illustrated in Figure 1-4, which shows exponential curves representative
of capacitor charge voltage and capacitor charge current. As the capaci-
tor charges it acquires a voltage having a polarity that opposes the sup-
ply potential. The time necessary for the voltage across a capacitor to
reach 63% of its maximum value is given by the equation

ti RC. (1-54)

where C is the capacity in farads

7 is the time constant in seconds
R is the resistance value in ohms

Equation 1-54 can be rearranged to solve for capacitance or for

resistance:
18 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Curve of inductor charge current

or capacitor charge voltage

OSB Oe5

Figure 1-4 RC and L/R Time Constant Curves

C= (1-55)
alr

R= (1-56)
G9

With a series inductor and resistor the application of a voltage

causes current to be built up in each successive turn, producing a count-
er voltage that delays current buildup as shown in Figure 1—4. The time
required for the current through the inductor to reach a value that is
63% of its maximum value represents the related time constant as shown
by the following equation: “Ay

r= 4R : (1-57)

where L is the inductance in henrys

7 is the time constant in seconds
R is the resistance value in ohms

As with the capacitor time constant, Eq. 1-57 can be rearranged as

shown below to solve for L and R:

Dizi oR (1-58)
 TIME CONSTANTS 19

R= 2 (1-59)
=

Representative time-constant values are given in Table 7-4. This

table, however, does not give intermediate time constants (such as 0.22,
0.063, etc.). In such tables, the voltage and current percentages are taken
to the nearest two-digit value of the exponential function. A time con-
stant of 0.7, for instance, would show the percentage of inductive charge
voltage as 49.66 instead of 50. Thus, when intermediate values or greater
accuracy is required, it is necessary to utilize equations based on expo-
nential functions. The equations necessitate the use of tables for such
functions for determining values of €~* or the use of a calculator that is
scientifically oriented and will give values of €. For equations involving
RC circuits, the X value is always t/RC, where ¢ is the time in seconds,
R the value of the resistances in ohms, and C the capacitance in farads.
For equations involving L/R circuits, the X value is always t(R/L), with
the inductance in henrys.
The various equations related to the time constants involving in-
stantaneous values follow. These include the instantaneous voltage across
a capacitor, e,., the instantaneous voltage across the resistor, e, (in series
with a capacitor), the instantaneous current through the resistor, , (in
series with a capacitor), the current through the inductor /,, the voltage
across the inductor e,, and the voltage across the resistor (in series with
an inductor).

e.= E(1 —e-"8) (1-60)

ej eRe (1-61)

ae eeue (1-62)
R

ae (eee) (1-63)
R

ene he "= (1-64)

e,= E(1 — e-#/£) (1-65)

20 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

1-10. TRANSFORMER TURNS RATIO

The relationship of voltages and currents in a transformer primary and

secondary winding are related to the number of turns of wire within
each transformer section. The basic turns-ratio relationships may be
expressed as

Bice Neve (1-66)

pepri PAKpri
where E,.. is the voltage across the secondary
Ei 18 the voltage across the primary
N.,.18 the number of coil turns in the secondary
N,,; 18 the number of coil turns in the primary

Equation 1-66 can be rearranged for finding individual primary

and secondary voltages: ;

EN,= NE, (1-67)

N,E,
b= je (1-68)

EN,
(a (1-69)
N,

When the ratio of turns between the primaty and secondary is

known, the secondary voltage (Z,) can be found:
.

E,= turns ratio X E, (1-70)

There is an inverse relationship between the voltage and current in

a transformer, since a current availability step-down effect occurs when a
voltage step-up prevails for a given power transfer from primary to sec-
ondary. Hence, the following relationships apply:

rN.
aie
i WN 1-71
coe
 POLAR AND / NOTATIONS 21

Equations similar in form to Eqs. 1-67 through 1-69 are also

readily derived:

Nery le (1-72)
NI.
i=
P
(1-73)
N,
IN,
L= 5 (1-74)

In a transformer, the ratio of the impedance of the secondary (Z,)

to the impedance at the primary (Z,) varies as the square of the trans-
former turns ratio:

Z N?
(1-75)
Z N?
P

The turns ratio is instrumental in establishing an impedance match

between two circuits coupled by the transformer as shown by the follow-
ing equation:

Turns ratio = ek (1-76)

By using Eq. 1-76 we can step down the ohmic value of an imped-
ance of one circuit to equal that of a lower impedance of another circuit,
or the impedance of a circuit can be stepped up to match the higher im-
pedance of the circuit to which the first is coupled.

1-11. POLAR AND / NOTATIONS

Notations involving the polar forms and the / operators are widely used
in electronics for expressing and identifying signal phases and types of
amplitudes. When a vector quantity is identified by indicating the ampli-
tude and phase angle (with the horizontal axis representing resistance),
the expression is known as polar notation. Thus, if the impedance is 150
© and the phase angle is 36.8°, we can express this in polar form as

Z = 1507366"
22 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

The notation using the j operator designates j values as reactance

quantities and numbers only resistive values. The j operator is identical
to the operator i used to identify imaginary numbers in conventional
mathematics. The use of j in electronics avoids confusion with the 7 sym-
bol for instantaneous current values. The j-operator system is also
known as rectangular notation as well as complex algebra. It designates a
vector quantity by an ordinate of real quantity and an ordinate of the /
quantity, as Z = 330 + j4002. In rectangular notation the operator
designation relates to the characteristics of —1. Multiplication of any
positive number by —1 results in a negative sum. Multiplication of a
negative number by —1 produces a positive sum. Hence, —1 can be
considered as an operator that reverses the sign of the number by which
it is multiplied (without altering the amplitude of such a number).
The basic principle of the 7 operator is illustrated in Figure 1-5.
The vector arm (A) has a fixed length. Assume that the magnitude is 30
units and the latter is multiplied by the —1 operator. A countercluck-
wise 180° rotation would occur, reaching the position identified as B.
Another multiplication by —1 produces another 180° change and the
original position is reached. Thus, when the vector arm amplitude is
multiplied twice by —1 it creates a 360° rotation. To facilitate calcula-
tions involving alternating current, the operator must produce a counter-
clockwise rotation of 90° instead of 180°. In theory this special operator
must be one that produces —1 when multiplied by itself. The unit value
of the required operator cannot, however, be ascertained by taking the
square root of —1 since there is no real root for a minus number. Thus,
that number representing V—1 is designated the imaginary number
with the symbol j. :
In rectangular notation resistance values arebene along the X
axis of a graph and reactance values along the Y axis, as was shown in
Figure 1-2. An inductive reactance value is designated as +j and a ca-
pacitive reactance by —/j. Polar-form notation can be changed to rectan-
gular notation by

2) =o2 Coser Zicim@ (1-77)

As a typical example, the conversion of Z = 400 /43° yields

Z = 400 X 0.731 + 7400 x 0.682

= 292.4 + 7272.8 1
 ADMITTANCE AND SUSCEPTANCE 23

Direction
of rotation

Figure 1-5 Vector Rotation for Multiplication by —1

Equation 1-77 is also useful for ascertaining the rectangular-form

amplitudes of voltage or current from polar notation. The equation is
expressed as

E, = E, cos 0 + jE, sin 0 (1-78)

1-12. ADMITTANCE AND SUSCEPTANCE

Conductance has for its symbol G and it is the reciprocal of resistance.

The reciprocal of reactance is susceptance, for which the symbol is B. On
occasion, inductive susceptance may use the symbol B, and capacitive
susceptance as B.. The reciprocal of impedance is admittance, having the
symbol Y. Instead of expressing these values in ohms ((2) they are desig-
nated as siemens (S) in the SI system (see Table 7-22). In the older mks
and cgs systems the reciprocal function was given in mho (ohm spelled
backward). These values can be related for finding unknown quantities
as shown by the following equations:
24 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Geek (1-79)
R
Vo (1-80)
Z
pe oh (1-81)
x
hae (1-82)
Re 1X
Y =G-— JB, (1-83)
YisiG +8. (1-84)
u¢
Boot
72 : (1-85)

ye
RP (1-86)
Z

1-13. EFFECTIVE, AVERAGE, AND PEAK AC VALUES

In alternating-current designations, the term effective value of either volt-

age or current indicates the magnitude level equivalent to the dc value.
Thus, an electric light bulb used in an ac line of 120 V produces as
much light as it would when used on a 120-V dc line. The effective value
is ascertained by sampling numerous instantaneotts values, squaring
them, obtaining the sum of the squared values, and then finding the av-
erage value. The square root of the latter produces the effective value. It
is for this reason that the latter is also referred to as the root-mean-
square (rms) value. The following equations permit solving for effective
values when peak values are known, or vice versa. The 0.707 in the
equations equals one-half of the square root of 2 (VY2 = 1.414).

E spesige = 0107. XEvcg

effective
(1-87)

1
EN, = — = 1414 XE (1-88)
pti 20.707 5
 TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 25

Although the peak amplitude of one alternation of alternating cur-

rent or voltage has a very short duration, the value is important in cal-
culating other values. By dividing successive alternations of the sine
wave into a number of ordinates and averaging them, the average value
is obtained. The appropriate equations for solving either average or peak
values are:

eek a 08T OA Ea (1-89)

1 ee eae ee (1-90)

1-14. TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS

Basic transmission lines are shown in Figure 1—6. Part (A) shows a two-
wire line with insulating spacers separating the conductors. Often a plas-
tic insulating material is utilized, as shown in (B), typically a 300-9 tele-

Insulating Plastic
spacers insulation

(a) (b)

a tt
ee4
(c) (d)

Output | Output 2 Output 3

Input Ry we Zo

Figure 1—6 Line Factors

26 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

vision system twin lead. The coaxial cable is shown in part (C), where an
inner conductor is held in place by a plastic insulation or by washer-like
spacers. Essentially all three lines illustrated are two-wire lines. (The co-
axial cable uses the outer shield as one of the conductors.) As shown in
part (D) a transmission line can be represented as series inductors and
shunt capacitors having specific values per unit length. Some resistive
components are present in the conductors themselves, although for larg-
er-diameter conductors the ohmic value is negligible per unit length. The
line’s impedance is termed characteristic impedance (symbol Z,). The
term iterative impedance is sometimes used instead of “characteristic im-
pedance” because of the repetitive Z for successive unit lengths. Another
term also in use is surge impedance. Since all these terms refer to the
identical characteristic, the same symbol (Z,) is used. Since, for any ad-
ditional series inductance there is a corresponding shunt capacitance, the
characteristic impedance remains substantially constant regardless of line
length. When spacers are used such as in Figure 1-6(A), the line is con-
sidered to have air as its insulation and Z,is calculated as

)
Zy = 276 log— (1-91)
a
where Z,is the characteristic impedance
a is the radius of each conductor
b is the center-to-center conductor spacing

In Eq. 1-91 the a/b ratio can represent millimeters, feet, inches, or
other units and the Z, will still be the same.
As an example of the application of Eq. 1-91massume that a two-
wire line had a spacing of 3 cm between wires and that each conductor
had a diameter of 0.04 cm. The characteristic impedance would then be

Zoa2i6lon

29276 lox =
0.04
= 276 < 2,176!
= 600.6
 TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 27

If the values of inductance and capacitance are measured over a

given line length, the same L/C ratio prevails. For any additional length
selected the increased series inductance is offset by the added shunt ca-
pacitance. Hence, Z,can be calculated by the following equation:

Ze= =e (1-92)

As an example, if a transmission line (with air dielectric) has, for a

given unit length, an inductance of 0.24 mH and a capacitance of 0.001
HF, the Z, is

gaits 0.25 =
0.00152

== Ve) D0) OOO

5002

For a coaxial cable having air as the dielectric the characteristic imped-
ance is found by the following equation:

Zreevi38 tog (1-93)

a

where a is the outside diameter of the inner conductor

b is the inside diameter of the outer conductor

When the dielectric material of the coaxial cable is not air, Eq. 1-
93 must be multiplied by

ot te (1-94)
Vk
In Eq. 1-94 the symbol k is the dielectric constant of the material
referenced in relation to air considered to have a k of 1, with all other
materials having a higher value. Table 7—13 lists k values for some typi-
cal materials. The k value, however, may vary with temperature, applied
voltage, signal frequency, and other circuit factors. Hence, the k values
must be considered as approximate.
28 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

As shown in Figure 1—6(E), a section of transmission line can be

used for time delay of signals. One or more taps can be used at selected
intervals along the line for obtaining various time-delay signal outputs.
Regardless of line length, the end of the line is terminated in a load re-
sistor (R,) having an ohmic value equal to the characteristic impedance
(Z,). When the line is terminated in a resistance of this value all the en-
ergy reaching the end of the line is absorbed and none is reflected back.
If the terminating resistance is omitted (open line) or if the line is short-
ed, the radio-frequency (RF) energy reaching the end of the line will be
reflected back and create standing waves along the line. This comes
about because signals now travel in two directions along the line, result-
ing in phase differences. At sections where voltages are in phase high
amplitudes prevail, whereas sections having out-of-phase conditions have
low- or zero-voltage amplitudes. When standing waves occur along the
line, no energy is consumed by the line since all the energy is reflected
back into the generator. Sections of the line now have voltage peaks or
current peaks (called Joops), while other sections will have voltage or
current low points (called nodes). The distance between two loops (or
the distance between two nodes) is equivalent to a half-wavelength of the
frequency of the RF signal causing the standing waves. The distance be-
tween two loops can thus be measured and the value utilized in Eq. 1-95
for RF measurement purposes. Utilizing the distance in meters (d) the
following equation applies:

ts
_ 300,000 (1-95)
2d
where fis the frequency in kilohertz =,
d is the distance in meters
~.

In Eq. 1-95 the 300,000 is related to the travel of light and electro-
magnetic waves through space during which each has a velocity of
299,792.5 kilometers per second (km/s) or 186,282 miles per second
(mps). (The kilometer designation is rounded off to 300,000.)
For the delay line shown in Figure 1-6(E), no standing waves oc-
cur to distort the signal. The time in seconds for signal energy to travel
a given length of line is found by

t=VLC (1-96)
 TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS 29

As an example, assume that a line has a total inductance of 0.25

mH and a total capacitance of 0.001 wF. The delay in seconds for this
length of line (using Eq. 1—96) is

Pr VO A025-*)(0.001->)
Sa Vance
= 0.5 us

1-15. TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS

Trigonometry is widely used in electronics for calculations involving

phase angles in alternating current, reactance and impedance relation-
ships, and so on. In summarizing the fundamental concepts of this
branch of mathematics it must be emphasized that the basic terms relate
to the right-angle triangle as shown in Figure 1-7. Using the angle (@) as
a reference, the sides of the triangle are designated the side adjacent to
the angle, the side opposite, and the hypotenuse, as shown in Figure 1-
7(A). These sides are used in electronics to reference amplitudes of im-
pedance (Z), resistance (R), inductive reactance (X,), and capacitive re-
actance (X,), as shown in Figure 1-7(B) and (C) (see also Sec. 1-5).
Various relationships are utilized for calculation purposes, includ-
ing the solving of an unknown length by utilizing the length of one of

‘ ; Z
Side opposite XG)

Side adjacent R

nwt: (b)
R

X¢
Me,

Figure 1-7 _ Trigonometric Terms

30 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

the sides plus the phase angle. Ratios of the sides produce values desig-
nated as sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent. These terms
relate to the angle (8) and hence the angle symbol is often used with the
abbreviation as: sin 0, cos 0, tan 8, cosec 9, sec 8, and cot 8. The deriva-
tions of the ratios of sides are given in Table 1-2.

TABLE 1-2. Basic Trigonometric Factors

_Opposite _ = sin @ (sine of the angle)

Hypotenuse
Opposite o= tan 6 (tangent of the angle)
Adjacent
_Adjacent _ = cos @ (cosine of an angle)
Hypotenuse
Adjacent = cotangent 0 ( : )
Opposite tah 0
Hypotenuse = secant 0 ( . )
Adjacent cos 8
Hypotenuse = cosecant o( : )
Opposite sin 6
sin?@ + cos?0 = 1
eg ™ sin 0
cos 6
vane » cos 8
sin 6
ae pa Ae eee
cos’
eokené sie ia 1 + cotan’6
sin’0

The length of a side of a right-angle triangle can be solved utilizing

the known angle and the length of one of the sides by the combinations
shown in Table 1-3.
Tables listing the values of various ratios are published in mathe-
matics texts and are accurate to the number of places shown. Extensions
beyond the numbers shown are rounded off. A typical example is the
partial listing shown:in Table 1—4.
 TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS 31

ee a ee ee eee eee eee

TABLE 1-3. Relationships of Triangle Lengths

Hypotenuse Length Opposite-Side Length Adjacent-Side Length

Opposite x cosecent Hypotenuse X sine Hypotenuse x cosine

Opposite/sine Hypotenuse/cosecent Hypotenuse/secent
Adjacent x secent Adjacent x tangent Opposite < cotangent
Adjacent/cosine Adjacent /cotangent Opposite/tangent

TABLE 1-4. Trigonometric Ratios

Degrees Sin Cos Tan

0 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000

1 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175
2 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349
3 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524
4 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699

5 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875

6 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051
7 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228
8 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405
9 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584

10 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763

11 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944
12 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126

In Table 1—4 the sin, cos, and tan values have been rounded off to
four places. Thus, in many instances the true value involves more num-
bers. For example, at 2° the cos is given as 0.9994, but a scientific calcu-
lator may display 0.99939. Also, the scientific calculators can give
enumerable intermediate values between whole numbers that, in table
form, would be quite lengthy. For Table 1—4, for instance, the sin value
for 1.35° would have to be extrapolated, but a scientific calculator dis-
plays 0.023559 in a fraction of a second. Similarly 1.7 yields a sin of
0.029666, and so on.
The scientific calculators also provide for the finding of inverse
trigonometric functions. Thus, if the tangent is given as 0.72655, it can
be entered on the keyboard and the tan~'! key depressed to display the
32 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

angle (36° in this instance). Similarly, if a cosine value of 0.92719 is en-

tered and the cos~! key depressed, we get the angle of 22°. In such scien- aa

tific calculators the degree/radian switch can be used for converting to

either mode as needed (see also Sec. 1-16). As an example, to solve for
(tan 7/5) we enter 77/5 and with the switch at Rad depressing the tan-
gent key produces 0.72656 (using 3.1416 as the representative pi). Other
basic equations derived from the trigonometric functions include the im-
pedance equations given in Sec. 1-5.

1-16. RADIANS AND ANGULAR VELOCITY

A pure sine wave of alternating current or voltage has trigonometric

characteristics as shown in Figure 1-8. Although many of the signals
utilized in electronics are not pure sine waves the latter are usually used
to illustrate and discuss the relationships involved. Figure 1-8(A) shows
a circle illustrating the relationship between the radius and the circum-
ference. When the length of the radius is successively measured along the
circumference, it always fits 277 or approximately 6.28 times. The length
of a single radius along the circumference creates an angle for its arc of
57.3°. This angle is termed a radian.
As shown in Figure 1—8(B), a pure sine wave consists of two alter-
nations, each of opposite polarity. Each alternation has the same dura-
tion as the other, has an identical incline and decline, and has the same
amplitude, although of opposite polarity. There is an interrelationship
between the radius and the velocity factor of the sine wave shown in
Figure 1—8(B). If the circle shown in (A) is assumed to rotate clockwise
through 360° but the radius were made to rof%te counterclockwise
through 360°, the radius line arrowhead would trace out the waveform of
a complete sine wave. For a movement of the radius arm from the hori-
zontal position shown in (A) to a vertical position involves an angular
change of 90° as shown in (B). In the vertical position it also represents
the peak amplitude of the sine-wave signal. Because the movement of the
radius arm illustrates the continuous changing of the angle as well as
representing instantaneous amplitudes, the radius arm movement repre-
sents the velocity of the sine wave. Thus, the expression 277 mentioned
above, when multiplied by the frequency of the sine wave, produces what
is termed the angular velocity, the symbol for which is w (lowercase
Greek letter omega). Since 27 radians represents 360°, and since each ra-
 VECTORS, PHASORS, AND SCALARS 33

1 radian

Angle 57.3°

(a)

Figure 1—8 Radians and Angular Velocity

dian has an angle for its arc of 57.3°, the circumference equals 27 X ra-
dius = 27 X arc of 1 rad. Thus, the following relationships prevail:

Circumference = 27 times radius = 27 times arc of 1 radian

360° = 277 radians
1 radian = 57.3° (57° 17’ 44.8” approx.)
180° = a radian
90° = “7 radian
1° = 0.01745 radian

For the factors discussed in this section, the term vector is often
used, with the radius referred to as a vector arm. For specific discussions
of vectors and phasors, see Sec. 1-17.

1-17. VECTORS, PHASORS, AND SCALARS

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and essentially is

represented as a straight-line segment having motion in a particular di-
34 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

rection. The latter is based on a specific reference system to which the

ae
word vector thus applies. For the vector, its length is proportional to
magnitude and in electronics thus has reference to voltage or current.
Although the term phasor is sometimes used as being synonymous with
vector, there are essential differences between the two. In a phasor dia-
gram the angle represents a timing difference, not a directional one. In
this respect the phasor differs from the vector, although both are nor-
mally represented on a phasor diagram. Another term, scalar, is defined
as a quantity of mass, length, time, temperature, and so on, exactly spec-
ified numerically on an appropriate scale.
On occasion reference is made to a vector product. For the latter
there is a magnitude proportional to the product of the magnitude of
two related vectors as illustrated in Figure 1-9(A). Another term for
vector product is cross product. A scalar product is the product of the
lengths of two related vectors, multiplied by the cosine of the angle be-
tween the two. The scalar product has also been termed dot product or
inner product. A representative scalar product application occurs when
solving for true power when the voltage and current are out of phase, as
shown in Figure 1—9(B) (see Sec. 1-1).

(a) Se

Out of
phase

(b)

Figure 1-9 Vector and Scalar Product Factors

 TRANSISTOR PARAMETER EQUATIONS 35

1-18. TRANSISTOR PARAMETER EQUATIONS

Parameter equations for transistors must take into consideration the type
of circuit involved, such as common emitter, common base, common
source, and so on, as described in Chap. 2 and illustrated in Figures 2-1
through 2-3. For the grounded-base circuit the ratio of a change in col-
lector current (/,) to a change in emitter current (/,) is termed the alpha
(a) and represents the forward-current transfer ratio of a circuit. The
equation is

Hee (1-97)

Current gain in a grounded-emitter circuit is termed beta and the

symbol is 8. The equation is the ratio of collector current to the base
current:

(ee (1-98)

Field-effect transistors have a transconductance rating usually

obtained with the gate bias at 0. The transconductance has for its sym-
bol g,. When the ohmic value of the load resistance (R,) and the g, are
known, signal gain is calculated by the following equation:

Gain = g, X R, (1-99)

The characteristics of a transistor circuit, including the operational

parameters, are symbolized by letter combinations (see Tables 12-2 and
12-3). The lowercase letter / (for hybrid) combines constant-voltage and
constant-current procedures. In circuit analysis a common practice is to
designate the input and output lines as shown in Figure 1-10(A). Here E,
and J, represent the input-signal voltage and current values, while £, and
I, indicate the output voltage and current values. The transistor circuit is
represented by a square or rectangle and this concept is often referred to
as a black box. The latter implies unknown quantities and characteristics
within the circuit that can be ascertained by applying specific voltages
while also shorting certain terminals as required.
36 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

Transistor
ag Output
circuit

(a)

Figure 1-10 Transistor Circuit Symbol Designations

For the 4 parameters the following equations apply in relation to

Figure 1-10(A). The input impedance parameter, with output terminals
3 and 4 shorted (and E, = 0), is designated as A, for common emitter,
h,, for common base, and h,, for common collector. The input impedance
equation is ~,

E
k= a ’ (1-100)

The reverse-transfer voltage ratio, with input terminals 1 and 2

open and J, = 0, is

The forward-transfer current ratio, with output terminals 3 and 4

shorted and E, = 0, 1s
 TRANSISTOR PARAMETER EQUATIONS 37

> I iS (1-102)

h= | (1-103)

In Figure 1-10(B) is shown the equivalent circuit for the grounded-

emitter amplifier. The 4 symbols with letter subscripts are utilized with
the base current indicates as i,, collector current i, and input voltage é,
(which also develops across resistor R,). Consequently, the actual volt-
age appearing between base and emitter is notated as e,. The output
voltage across the load resistor is designated as e. The output admit-
tance is given as h,, and the reverse-voltage transfer voltage symbol is /,,
for the emitter circuit. The forward-current transfer ratio is given as h,
in reference to the emitter, and corresponds to B given in Eq. 1-98. The
forward-current transfer ratio, with e, = O in equation form, is

h,= (1-104)

Some manufacturers use A, for signal-current gain to symbolize

current amplification. The equation is

Sees (1-105)
i ewok

Equation 1-105, as with others, can be altered for circuits other

than the common-emitter type. The equation remains the same except
for a change from e in the second subscript letter to suit the particular
circuit involved (see Tables 12-2 and 12-3).
Admittance factors were covered in Sec. 1-12, where it was point-
ed out that admittance (Y) is the reciprocal of impedance (Z). The Y pa-
rameters are useful for investigating the operational characteristics of
field-effect transistors. As with the h parameters, the Y parameters also
have subscripts identifying the circuit type. Thus, Y, is the input admit-
38 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ELECTRONICS

e
tance for the common-source circuit, Y,,is for the common gate, and so
on. Similarly, Y,,is the common-drain output admittance, and Y,, is a
common-gate forward-transfer admittance. The basic admittance equa- —

tions that follow omit the second subscript, which can be added to ac-
commodate the circuit configuration utilized.
Again referring to the black-box concept of Figure 1—-10(A) the in-
put admittance parameter with output terminals 3 and 4 shorted (EZ, =
0) in equation form is

Y=— (1-106)
E,

The reverse-transfer admittance is obtained with input terminals 1

and 2 shorted and E, = 0:

(1-107)

The forward-transfer admittance with the output terminals shorted

and E, = 0 has the equation

yo (1-108)

The equation for the output admittance with the input terminals
shorted and E, = 0 is .
~

y=. ‘ (1-109)

Input and output current equations for source-follower circuitry

are:

1a? 0 Oa aN Get (1-110)

I= Y.~,+ YE
os ~d (1-111)
 TRANSISTOR PARAMETER EQUATIONS 39

For common-gate or common-drain circuits, the second subscripts

in Eqs. 1-110 and 1-111 are changed accordingly. As an example, for a
common-gate circuit the equations become

L= Y,E.+
ws
YE,
4
(1-112)
1,2 Y,E,+ YE, (1-113)
 Circuit Descriptions

2-1. INTRODUCTION

Various basic circuits widely used in electronics are described in this

chapter. A schematic of each circuit is included and the purpose of the
circuit is given. Next, a description of the general operational principles
follows, with emphasis on essential factors.
Circuits in this chapter include amplifiers, oscillators, demodula-
tors, and others relating to various branches of electronics. Auxiliary cir-
cuits such as pads, attenuators, feedback, integration, differentiation, and
other signal modification and routing types are covered in Chap. 3. Cir-
cuits forming logic gates and switches are discussed in Chap. 6. System
applications of circuitry are described in Chaps. 8’and 11.
For quick localization of a particular circuit, refer to the index at
the back of the book for the page number that starts the discussion.

2-2. COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUITS

A common-emitter circuit is a widely used audio or RF amplifier type.

Its primary purpose is to increase the amplitude of the input signal. A
typical circuit using a pnp transistor is shown in Figure 2-1(A). Here the
emitter is grounded and the input signal is applied across the base and
ground terminals as shown. The output signal is obtained from the col-
lector (as against ground) and there is a 180° phase reversal between the
input and output signals as shown. Component values and transistor

40
 COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUITS 41

(c) (d)

Figure 2-1 Common-Emitter and Source Circuits

types depend on the circuit requirements and characteristics needed. The

pnp bipolar junction transistor has three terminals: base, emitter, and
collector, designated as B, E, and C.
A circuit such as this can be designed to operate in any desired
amplifier classification. For Class A operation the bias between the base
and emitter terminals of a pnp transistor should be such that the base is
negative with respect to the emitter to form forward bias. The voltage
between collector and emitter should be reverse bias and consequently
(for the pnp transistor) the collector is made negative with respect to the
emitter. Resistor R, is in series with the bias potential and the input sig-
nal adds to and subtracts from the bias voltage. In turn, the degree of
42 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

conduction through the emitter—collector changes and hence the voltage

drop across the load resistor R, varies accordingly. When the forward ti

bias between base and emitter undergoes a positive change the total neg-
ative bias potential is reduced and the current through R, declines, thus
reproducing an amplified replica of the input signal with a 180° phase
change.
The circuit shown in Figure 2-1(A) is a basic type and a more
practical version is illustrated in (B). Here, an npn transistor is used and
it illustrates the changes necessary in bias polarities. Now, for forward
bias the base should be positive with respect to the emitter, and for re-
verse bias the collector potential is also positive. A voltage divider con-
sisting of R, and R, is utilized to establish the proper bias at the base
terminal. A stabilizing circuit composed of R, and C, is usually utilized
to compensate for the transistor’s thermal changes that may alter con-
duction levels. If transistor conduction increases slightly because of ther-
mal effects, current through R, rises and the voltage drop across this
resistor also rises. This voltage increase establishes a countereffect on the
bias and the bias reduction would tend to decrease emitter—collector cur-
rent flow to compensate for the unwanted increase. Capacitor C, has a
bypass effect for the signals and minimizes voltage variations across R,
for such signals. Essentially, capacitor C, places the emitter at signal
ground and the circuit thus conforms to the common-emitter designa-
tion. Hence, another term for this circuit is grounded emitter.
For the circuit shown in Figure 2-1(B), capacitor C, isolates the de
at the base terminal from the input system. The signal-current gain for
the grounded-emitter circuit relates the ratio of current available at the
output to the current circulating at the input, with a collector voltage
held constant. The signal-current gain is also commonly referred to as
the forward-current transfer ratio and is expressed by Eq. 1-102.
~

2-3. COMMON-SOURCE CIRCUITS

When a field-effect transistor (FET) is utilized to form a circuit

equivalent to the common-emitter type, it is designated as a common-
source or grounded-source circuit. The primary purpose for such a circuit
is signal amplification, as was the case for the common-emitter type. A
typical representation is shown in Figure 2-1(C), where an n-channel-
type FET is used having elements consisting of the gate (G), source (S),
 COMMON-SOURCE CIRCUITS 43

and drain (D). For a p-channel FET, the only circuit changes would be a
reversal of bias polarities. For the circuit shown at (C), batteries B, and
B, are illustrated to indicate the relative bias relationships at the input
and output sections. The signal input developed across R, and capacitor
C, bypasses the bottom of this resistor to ground. Similarly, capacitor C,
places the bottom of the load resistor R, at signal ground.
The bias potentials between the input and output of an FET differ
from those of the bipolar transistor. Basically, the latter is a signal-cur-
rent amplifier that has an amplified current change in the output section
that represents similar changes of the signal current at the input. For an
FET, however, a signal voltage applied across the input terminal controls
the amplified signal-current changes in the output system. The two types
of FET units consist of the junction type (JFET) and the metal-oxide
semiconductor type (MOSFET). The MOSFET is also referred to as the
insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET). Both types are fabricated
for either the n-channel or the p-channel characteristic (see Figure 42).
For the circuit shown in Figure 2-1(C) the JFET unit is utilized. For
this circuit there is a decrease in channel conduction when the applied
potential is negative at the gate, since it depletes the channel of carriers
within the FET. For the p-channel type, positive gate voltage decreases
conduction. Thus, the JFET is normally in a conductive state between
source and drain even without a gate-to-source voltage (V,,). Thus, the
channel can conduct current in either direction (drain to source or
source to drain). In typical Class A operation, reverse bias is applied to
the unit in contrast to the forward bias applied to the bipolar junction
transistor.
In comparison to the JFET, the MOSFET has its gate structure
within the transistor insulated from the channel by a dielectric such as
silicon dioxide. Hence, the gate input impedance is extremely high. For-
ward bias can be used to enhance the channel current (increase current
flow) or reverse bias to deplete (decrease) it. Hence, MOSFETs can be
designated as enhancement or depletion types. For the depletion types
there is drain-current flow without bias at the input. When bias is ap-
plied, drain current decreases to the value required for signal-handling
(dynamic) operation. The terminal-enhancement MOSFET is utilized in
the circuit shown in Figure 2-1(D). Bias is established by the voltage di-
vider consisting of R, and R,. The input signal is coupled by capacitor C,
and alternately adds to or subtracts from the established bias. The resul-
tant change in drain-source current is felt across R, and forms the
44 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

amplified output signal. Resistor R,and capacitor C, have the same func-
tion as those in Figure 2—1(B); they stabilize the effects of thermal chang-
es within the transistor.

2-4. COMMON-BASE CIRCUITS

Common-base circuits are illustrated in Figure 2-2(A) and (B). Since the
base elements are grounded, another term for this circuitry is grounded
base. The purpose of the grounded-base circuit is to amplify the input
signal to the degree established by circuit characteristics. Because the
base terminal is grounded, there is a minimum of undesired coupling be-
tween output and input sections and hence this circuit is superior in this
respect to the grounded-emitter circuit. As shown in Figure 2—2(A), the
input signal is applied between emitter and base and the amplified ver-
sion is obtained from across the load resistor (R,) on the collector side.
There is no phase reversal between the input and output signals as is the
case for the grounded-emitter circuit.
For the circuit shown in Figure 2—2(A) a pnp transistor is used.
The equivalent circuit using an vpn transistor is illustrated in (B). The
voltage-divider arrangement, consisting of R, and R,, could also have
been used for the circuit in (A). Operational characteristics for the two
circuits are similar. Signal-current gain represents the division of the out-
put-signal current by the value of the input-signal current (see Eq. 1-97).
Because the ratio of the current available at the output to that current
circulating in the input determines current gain, the full term is forward-
current transfer ratio. ;
™

2-5. COMMON-GATE CIRCUITS ie

The JFET equivalent circuit of the common-base junction bipolar tran-

sistor type is shown in Figure 2-2(C). Here the p-channel JFET is used
and the circuit is termed a common-gate or grounded-gate type. Opera-
tion is similar to that shown in Figure 2—2(A) and (B) because isolation
between input and output is again achieved and there is no phase rever-
sal between input and output signals. Another version showing the
MOSFET is illustrated in Figure 2—2(D). The element termed “SUB” is
an additional gate terminal connecting to the foundation solid-state sub-
strate during the fabrication process. Sometimes G, and G, designations
 EMITTER-FOLLOWER CIRCUITS 45

Figure 2—2 Common-Base and Gate Circuits

are utilized. The designation V,, is often employed in reference to the

applied FET drain potential (see Table 12-3). As with other circuits of
this type, the input signal is applied between the source and ground and
the amplified resultant obtained across the drain-circuit load resistor R,.

2-6. EMITTER-FOLLOWER CIRCUITS

The emitter-follower circuit is also known as the grounded-collector cir-

cuit. Such a circuit is used for impedance step-down purposes because
the input impedance is substantially higher than the output impedance.
46 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

Hence, such a circuit is useful as a substitution for a step-down trans-

former for signal-routing purposes. The basic circuit is shown in Figure
2-3(A). Here capacitor C, places the collector terminal at signal ground.
The input signal has the same phase as the output signal. The term /ol-
lower is derived from the fact that the output signal phase follows that of
the input. With such a circuit there is unity signal-voltage gain or a gain
loss, although some signal-current amplification is possible. A more prac-
tical version is illustrated in (B), where the input coupling capacitor C, is
shown as well as voltage-divider resistors R, and R,. Since the voltage
drop across R, is positive at the base, the required forward bias is pres-
ent between it and the negative-polarity emitter. Capacitor C, couples the
output signal to subsequent circuits. The latter, in shunt with R,, affects
total output impedance.

Output

Bias =

(c) (d)

Figure 2-3 Emitter and Source-Follower Circuits

 COUPLED LOW-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS 47

2-7. SOURCE-FOLLOWER CIRCUITS

A JFET source-follower circuit is shown in Figure 2-3(C). Here the

drain element is placed at signal ground by capacitor C, and the output
signal is obtained from across resistor R,. Because the phase of the out-
put signal follows in phase that of the input signal, the term source fol-
lower applies. Since the drain is at signal ground, the term grounded-
drain circuit also applies. The subsequent circuits following resistor R,
contribute to the total impedance at the output. Since the input imped-
ance is high, a step-down impedance occurs between input and output.
A more practical version is illustrated at (D), where a terminal depletion
IGFET is illustrated. Capacitor C, provides for dc isolation between the
gate element and prior circuitry. Bias is supplied via resistor R, and the
output follower signal appears across R, and is coupled to subsequent
circuitry by C,. For MOSFET units, the input impedance is so high that
the impedance can be considered virtually equal to the value of R,. The
output impedance is substantially lower because of R, and the associated
shunting circuitry coupled by C,.

2-8. COUPLED LOW-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

Two low-signal amplifiers commonly coupled by a capacitor (C,) are

shown in Figure 2—4(A). The purpose for such circuitry is to build up the
signal amplitude by successive amplifier stages until the desired level is
achieved. The input signal is applied between the coupling capacitor C,
and ground and hence appears across the base and emitter of transistor
Q, [see also Figure 2-1(B)]. Capacitor C, of the thermal stabilizing net-
work that includes R, places the bottom of the emitter at signal ground.
The output signal develops across resistor R,, but not across R,,
since the latter is shunted by the low reactance of C,. Capacitor C, cou-
ples the signal to the base input of Q, and across resistor R,. Since resis-
tors and a capacitor are involved in the coupling system, this method is
sometimes referred to as R-C coupling. Such coupling is widely used and
generally more inexpensive and simple than inductor or transformer cou-
plings. On rare occasions, resistor R, may be replaced by an inductor, or
the coupling can consist of a transformer between Q, and Q,, as shown
in Figure 2-4(B). The purpose for a transformer coupling is for imped-
ance step-down or step-up as required. By a step-up of the signal voltage
some signal gain is realized across the transformer between the primary
48 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

Output

Q,
Q, PS

(b)
Figure 2—4 Coupled Low-Signal Amplifiers

(P) and secondary (S). Note that the transformer eliminates the resistors
R, and R, as well as coupling capacitor C,. The disadvantages of the
transformer are its variation of inductive reactance for various signal fre-
quencies as well as in the distributed capacitanc®s between coil turns
that creates variations in capacitive reactance. These undesired changes
contribute to an uneven frequency response in audio or video systems.
Capacitor C, and resistor R,are referred to as a decoupling network.
Resistor R,1is also utilized to set the proper voltage for the collector sys-
tem. The decoupling circuit isolates signal voltages between amplifier
stages by preventing their distribution throughout the system by virtue of
a common power supply. The decoupling network of C, and R, also ex-
tends the signal-frequency response of the amplifier by providing low-fre-
quency compensation. The capacitor has a low-reactance shunting effect
that increases for higher-frequency signals and hence minimizes common
coupling in the power supply. At the same time, capacitor C, places the
bottom of R,at signal ground as shown in Figure 2-4(A). The base-com-
 VIDEO AMPLIFIERS 49

pensating factor arises because the network effectively increases or de-

creases the collector load resistance of Q,. For higher signal frequencies
C, has a very low reactance and R, is substantially shunted and
consequently virtually all signal voltages appear only across resistor Re:
Similarly, coupling capacitor C, also has a low reactance for the higher
signal frequencies. Thus, most of the high-frequency signal energy is cou-
pled to the input of Q,. For lower-frequency signals, the reactance of C,
rises and the amplitude of the signals applied to the next stage declines.
Hence, the lower-frequency signals are attenuated. The decoupling net-
work compensates for the diminished low-frequency signals because the
latter causes the reactance of C, to increase. Consequently, C, has less of
a shunting effect across R,and hence a portion of the signal components
develop across both R,and R, in series. In effect, the total load-resistance
value has been raised and thus the signal voltage drop across the total
load also rises. Hence, low-frequency signal amplitudes are decreased to
compensate for their attenuation caused by coupling capacitor C,.
In practical systems the ohmic value of R,is selected to be approxi-
mately one-fifth the ohmic value of R, and about 10 times the reactance
of C, for the lowest-frequency signal handled by the amplifiers.

2-9. VIDEO AMPLIFIERS

In a television receiver or transmitter it is necessary to increase the am-

plitude of video signals obtained from the detector or generator. The am-
plifiers used for this purpose are similar to audio amplifiers except that
the signal frequency response range must be increased considerably to
accommodate the picture signals, which have a span from 30 Hz to 4
MHz. A typical two-stage system for a black-and-white receiver is
shown in Figure 2-5. Here, special components have been added to ex-
tend the signal-frequency range necessary. One of these units is the shunt
inductor L, which parallels capacitances of both the transistors and those
formed within the circuitry. The latter consist of capacitances from the
wiring to ground, and from metallic components to ground. The induc-
tance of L, in parallel with circuit capacitances form a low-Q broadly
resonant circuit for the upper-frequency signals. Since a parallel L-C
combination has a high impedance for signals at resonance, the shunting
effects for high-frequency signals are minimized. In addition, a narrow
group of signals each side of resonance also encounters sufficient imped-
ance to prevent signal attenuation. An inductor such as L, is termed a
50 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

C by To sound IF =—
1 2 amplifiers
+V
O

IF 2, R To sync
d signal Video (~~ : banat
input | detector AK,

C, R7

Gs, evs —V tube

R, lig
Ry
> Brightness

4.5 MHz trap

Figure 2-5 Television Video Amplifier

peaking coil, and for Figure 2-5 this coil is in series with R,, to which
the collector potential is applied.
Another peaking coil, L,, is in the collector line of Q, and isolates
shunt capacitances of the two amplifiers. A shunting resistor R, loads the
coil R, to minimize transient oscillations that may cause oscillations or
ringing. This inductor, in series with any circuit capacitances, will have a
low-impedance bandpass for higher-frequency signals. Inductor L, has a
function different from the other inductors: it forts a 4.5-MHz series-
resonant circuit with capacitor C,. Because of the low impedance of a se-
ries-resonant circuit, 4.5-MHz signals are shunted*and hence are not ap-
plied to the Q, input, where they would eventually cause interference
patterns on the picture screen.
Both the demodulated picture and sound intermediate-frequency
(IF) signals are applied to the base input of Q,. In addition, a 4.5-MHz
signal is produced in the video detector and this is a lower-frequency
version of the sound IF signal generated in the tuner. Transistor Q, feeds
the demodulated signals to the base of Q, for amplification and applica-
tion to the picture tube. Sound signals are trapped out as shown. The
4.5-MHz sound IF signal present in the emitter—collector circuitry of Q,
is applied to a paraliel-resonant circuit tuned to this signal. A transform-
 CHROMA AMPLIFIERS 51

er is created by the coupling of L, to L, as shown. Thus, the resonant

circuit composed of C, and L, tend to reject all signals except the
4.5-MHz one to which it is tuned.
Resistor R, in the emitter of Q, alters the bias potential when the
movable arm is adjusted. Thus, the gain of this transistor is set by the
viewer to the level desired. Resistor R, prevents the emitter from being
placed at direct ground when the variable arm of R, is at the top of R,.
Brilliancy is regulated by adjusting R,. As the picture-tube cathode is
made more positive with respect to the control grid, the latter becomes
more negative and hence repels more of the electrons coming from the
cathode structure. Consequently, beam intensity is decreased, as is the
brightness level. For a less positive picture-tube cathode, control grid
bias is reduced, more current flows, and brilliancy increases.

2-10. CHROMA AMPLIFIERS

In color television receivers several amplifiers are used to increase the

amplitude of the three signals representing red, blue, and green. Typical
circuitry is shown in Figure 2—6 and the combination of the three colors
produced at the output of the amplifiers is applied to the cathodes of the
picture tube as shown. The color signals are combined with the black—
white luminance signal to produce the various shades of colors appearing
on the screen.
The signals obtained from the color detector circuitry are applied
to the base inputs of the three transistors utilizing the common-emitter
circuitry. Resistors establish the proper voltages for the forward- and re-
verse-bias values needed. Thus circuit function is similar to the
grounded-emitter system described in Sec. 2-2. Two color-gain controls
are utilized, R,, and R,,. There is no specific gain control for the green
signals, since its relative value in comparison to the red and blue signals
can be established by adjustment of R,, and R,,. If, for instance, the am-
plitude of the signals representing green is too high in comparison to the
red and blue signal gain, the gain of the red and blue signals is increased
by R,, and R,,so that, in effect, the amplitude of the green is lowered to
balance the three. The inductor identified as RFC is a radio-frequency
choke coil that provides a high reactance for the signals and thus pre-
vents their leakage to the power supply. The low resistance for dc has a
negligible loading effect on the feed lines. Spark gaps (SG) are used in
each circuit, as shown, for discharging any buildup of high voltage in
 52 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

aA Color
picture

Color
detector
circuits

Figure 2—6 Chroma-Signal Amplifiers

circuit components. When the potential builds up beyond a specific value

it causes an arc-over and thus is discharged.

2-11. SINGLE-ENDED AUDIO AMPLIFIERS ts

The purpose of a power amplifier is to develop ‘sufficient signal energy

for application to a loudspeaker, recording head, or other similar trans-
ducer. Usually, the power amplifier is preceded by several low-signal am-
plifiers. Where the original sound source is picked up by low-sensitive
transducers such as dynamic microphones and magnetic phono car-
tridges, special low-signal amplifiers (termed preamplifiers) are also uti-
lized. A typical single-ended audio power amplifier is shown in Figure 2-
7. Here, the input signal from the previous low-signal amplifier stages is
impressed across resistor R,. The latter is a variable type and forms the
volume-level control for the output amplifier. Capacitor C, couples the
signal energy across resistor R, and hence across the base and emitter
 SINGLE-ENDED AUDIO AMPLIFIERS 53

aly

Volume
control

Audio
input

Speaker

Figure 2-7 Single-Ended Audio Power Amplifier

terminals of the transistor. The addition of resistor R, to the input circuit

forms a voltage divider for establishing the forward bias to the base ter-
minal as shown.
The circuit shown in Figure 2-7 functions in similar fashion to the
low-signal amplifiers described earlier in this chapter. Resistor R,and ca-
pacitor C, form the thermal stability circuitry described in Sec. 2-2. For
the circuit shown, an output transformer is used, although for most
modern audio systems, dual transistors coupled directly to the speaker
or other transducer are utilized. The transformer provides an impedance
match between the voice coil impedance (or other transducer) and the
impedance of the recommended load resistance value for the transistor.
The turns ratio between the primary and secondary of the transformer
determines the impedance-matching factor: (Z,/Z,) (see also Sec. 1-10).
Transformers are more costly than other components and, in addi-
tion, have several disadvantages over other coupling methods. Unless a
transformer is of superior design, it has significant distributed capaci-
tances between turns of wire and layers of wire and hence exhibits a low
capacitive reactance for higher-frequency signals and consequently tends
to attenuate them. Also, any dc resistance in the wire of the transformer
windings consumes some audio power and represents a signal loss. Since
the primary and secondary windings are inductors, their inductive reac-
tance also varies for changes of signal frequency and consequently con-
tributes to an uneven frequency response. To improve transformers
requires costly design changes consisting of larger cores, which permits
the use of fewer turns of the winding for less dc resistance. Because an
increase in the core area of the transformer increases permeability, fewer
54 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS
a
—

turns are required for obtaining the same inductance values that would
prevail for the smaller-core transformer using additional wire. The circu- ¢e
>

lating magnetic fields also create other losses, including eddy currents.
Any thermal buildup in the core and windings causes energy losses.

2-12. PHASE INVERSION

Amplifiers utilizing the phase-inversion principle are needed to form

push-pull circuits. The latter provide for increased power output, a re-
duction of harmonic distortion, and a more even frequency response. As
with the transformer factors discussed in Sec. 2-11, the use of phase-
splitting transformers not only increases the cost over R-C coupling, but
also adds bulk, uneven frequency responses, and produces other losses as
described in Sec. 2-11. For comparison purposes a typical transformer-
coupled phase inverter and push-pull circuit is shown in Figure 2-8(A)
and an R-C type in (B). :
The purpose for phase inversion is to furnish signals of opposite
phase to the input terminals of push-pull amplifiers (either audio or RF
types). For the circuit shown at (A), transformer T, has a split secondary
winding; hence, the signal applied to the primary of 7, appears across
each half of the secondary as an out-of-phase pair, as shown. Because
there is a phase inversion between the input signals at the base terminals
of a common-emitter amplifier and the signals appearing at the collector
circuitry, the amplified versions of the signals appear across the primary
of 7, again inverted as shown. The negative-polarity signal across one-
half of the output transformer primary winding combines with the posi-
tive-going signal and the other half of the winding “to produce a com-
bined resultant at the secondary of 7,. Thus, although there are dual
signals produced by the two transistors, the centerttapped primary of 7,
performs an additive function and thus combines the individual ampli-
tudes of the two signals into one signal of approximately double the
original amplitude.
Resistor R, from the common-emitter terminals to ground requires
no bypass capacitor when the transistors have similar characteristics and
are fairly evenly matched. Since a symmetrical circuit is present, the in-
crease in emitter—collector current for Q, flowing through R, is offset by
the decrease in emitter—collector current for Q, flowing through R;;
hence, no signal voltage appears across the latter.
 PHASE INVERSION 55

Input Signal

signal power
output

(a)

Figure 2—8 Phase-Inversion Circuitry

A transistor circuit wherein signals are obtained from both the col-
lector and emitter resistors can serve as a phase inverter, as shown in
Figure 2-8(B). Both R, and R, have the same ohmic value and thus the
signal voltage that develops across each has the same amplitude. These
signals, however, are 180° out of phase with each other since current
flow is up through one resistor and down the other. The two signals are
coupled to the base elements of Q, and Q, and the push-pull output cir-
cuitry has the identical function to that at (A).
56 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-13. COMPLEMENTARY-SYMMETRY AMPLIFIERS

A widely used audio amplifier, the complementary-symmetry type, is

shown in Figure 2-9. Although two transistors are utilized to provide a
single output, the system is not the push-pull type. Transistor Q, applies
a signal to the base terminal of Q, as well as Q,. Unlike push-pull, how-
ever, the signals appearing at Q, and Q, have the same phase. Note, how-
ever, that Q, is an npn transistor and Q, is a pnp type. The voltage-
divider network R, and R, apply a positive potential to the base of Q,
and a negative voltage at Q,. When a positive alternation of an input sig-
nal appears at the base terminals of the output transistors the npn tran-
sistor Q, undergoes an increase in its forward bias, hence a conduction
increase. For Q,, however, the positive input signal decreases the forward
bias; hence this transistor has a decrease in conduction between emitter
and collector. Thus, for a given input signal, there is an opposite effect
on conduction. For a negative-polarity input signal conduction decreases
for Q, but increases for Q,. The consequence is that-equivalent push-pull
symmetry is achieved with the complementing transistor output (mpn and
pnp). Thus, there is no need for a phase-inversion circuit and the low im-

Earphone
jack

Figure 2-9 Complementary-Symmetry Audio Amplifier

 RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 57

pedance of the output circuitry of transistors permits application of sig-

nal power to the loudspeaker without intervening transformers.
When the speaker is in operation, resistor R,, presents an open-cir-
cuit condition. When the earphone jack is plugged in, the speaker is dis-
engaged and resistor R,, is placed in series with the earphones to
minimize overload. This is standard practice, and the values of resistor
R,, may range up to 330 2. Often, the bottom speaker lead is placed di-
rectly to ground instead of using capacitor C,. When in use, however, C,
usually has a value of over 200 wF and thus has a sufficiently low reac-
tance for most of the audio signals to provide for a signal-grounding
effect. Additional resistors or capacitors are sometimes utilized to
achieve a greater circuit symmetry for Q, and Q, since Q, has a grounded
collector and hence Q, is above ground by comparison.

2-14. RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS

Audio amplifiers are operated as Class A for many low-signal types and
Class A or B for some power types. Amplifiers designed for radio-fre-
quency signals may utilize any type of operation, such as A, B, or C.
The characteristics of these types are defined in Table 12-3. Radio-fre-
quency amplifiers in receivers are usually employed in tuners. For trans-
mitting purposes, successive RF stages are utilized (see Chap. 8). In re-
ceivers of all types the superheterodyne principle is employed almost
exclusively, as described in Chap. 11. Thus, the stages following the tun-
er are intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifiers since they increase the
signal amplitude of the intermediate signal produced by the heterodyning
process in the tuner.
The basic circuits for RF and IF amplifiers are shown in Figure 2-
10. An n-channel enhancement MOSFET is utilized in part (A). Note
that the bias voltage for the gate (G) as well as the voltage for the drain
(D) are shunt fed; that is, the feed lines parallel the resonant circuits
rather than having the power applied in series with the resonant circuit
as shown for the amplifier in (B). For the MOSFET circuit in (A) a se-
ries radio-frequency choke (RFC) is present in the V,,, line and helps to
confine the signal energy to the amplifier circuits. The higher reactance
of the RFC provides an isolation factor and minimizes common signal
coupling by the power supply for various circuits fed by it.
Inductor L, in series with capacitor C, constitute a series-resonant
circuit acting as a feedback loop for neutralization purposes. The vari-
58 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

able capacitor C, permits adjustment of the proper feedback signal am-

plitude to minimize oscillatory tendencies. The term neutralization is a
carryover from vacuum-tube electronics but is also applicable to solid-
state circuitry. For the latter, however, a more appropriate term is
unilateralization and it has been widely used. A unilateral circuit essen-
tially refers to one having only a single-direction path for the signal han-
dled. Thus, unilateralization is a process wherein the external feedback
system cancels both reactive and resistive coupling between input and
output sections of a transistor. Neutralization, however, is deemed to
cancel only resistive coupling between input and output circuitry.
As shown at (A), the input RF signal is applied across L, that
forms the primary of a transformer with L, as the secondary. The latter,
however, is shunted by tuning capacitor C, and forms a parallel-resonant
circuit having a high impedance for the desired signal. The signal is ap-
plied to the gate circuit by capacitor C,, which also isolates the dc bias
from the grounding effect of L,. The amplified signal appears across the
output resonant circuit consisting of C,and L,. Capacitor C, prevents the
shorting of the dc drain potential by inductor L,. The signal output is
obtained from the transformer secondary L,. When such a circuit must
be tuned for various signal frequencies, the tuning capacitors C, and C,
are usually ganged; that is, both rotor sections are on a common shaft.
The ganging is depicted on a schematic by an interconnecting dashed
line as shown in Figure 2—10(A).
The basic intermediate-frequency amplifier shown in Figure 2-
10(B) is tuned to only a single frequency and hence dispenses with the
variable capacitors shown in (A). For precise adjustments to resonance,
variable core transformers are utilized as shown. Again, the signal is im-
pressed across the transformer, the inductors of whic form resonant cir-
cuits with shunting capacitors. Bias voltages related to incoming signal
amplitude are obtained from the detector and applied to resistor R, for
automatic volume control (AVC) purposes. The latter system maintains
a fairly constant audio output level even though the station signal
strength may vary from one station to another. When a stronger signal
is tuned in, the detector furnishes an AVC voltage to the base of Q, that
reduces forward bias and hence decreases gain to compensate for the in-
creased signal (see also Sec. 3-11).
Capacitors C,and C, provide a ground return to the emitter circuit
and minimize the tendency for common-signal coupling by the power
supply. The base of Q, taps inductor L, for an improved impedance
 RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS 59

RF signal
input

Figure 2-10 RF and IF Amplifiers

match. The tap on L,, however, is for signal division so that an inverse
signal can be coupled by C, to the base circuit for neutralization pur-
poses. Resistor R, and capacitor C, are for minimizing thermal effects
and hence stabilize the transistor function for a change of temperature.
For an increase in the dc across R,, the emitter becomes less negative
and hence the forward bias is reduced. Consequently, there would be less
conduction and hence compensation for the unwanted de increase.
 60 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-15. COUPLED IF STAGES

Intermediate-frequency amplifier stages employing capacitive coupling

are shown in Figure 2-11. Transformer coupling could also be used as
was shown for the RF amplifiers in Figure 2-10. The amplifier circuitry
of Figure 2-11 has been used for video IF signals in television receivers.
Transistors Q, and Q, are the dual-gate FET types and are particularly
useful since they have a separate terminal for the automatic gain control
(AGC) voltages obtained from the demodulator (see Sec. 3-12). Transis-
tor Q, obtains its input signal from the tuner. Capacitor C, applies the
signal to gate terminal G, as shown. Resistors R, and R, form a voltage-
divider network for establishing the proper G, bias. The AGC input is
applied to transistor gate G,. Resistor R,and capacitor C, form a filter to
bypass any signal variations. Hence, only the dc bias signal for gain con-
trol purposes appears at G,. As with automatic volume control (AVC)
for radio, the AGC regulates the gain of the IF stages to maintain a con-
stant output level as preset by the viewer. When another station having a
different carrier signal level is tuned in, the AGC provides a bias change
to compensate for the difference and thus performs a correction.
The output signal from Q, is obtained from the FET drain element
and appears across the parallel-resonant circuit composed of C, and L,.
The high impedance provides for a large voltage buildup for the signal

Input from R
tuner

Figure 2-11 Video IF Stages

 CLASS B OR C (RF) AMPLIFIERS 61

and the latter is coupled by C, to the G, terminal of Q,. The basic func-
tion of the latter transistor is identical to Q,. To obtain maximum signal
transfer, inductors L, and L, have variable cores for peak tuning to the
signal. Resistors R, and R, in conjunction with capacitors C,and C, are
the conventional source-element stabilizing networks discussed in Sec. 2—
2. Resistors R; and R,, in conjunction with C, and C,, are decoupling
networks that provide a direct return to the source circuits for the signal
energy and minimizes common coupling in the power supply.

2-16. CLASS B OR C (RF) AMPLIFIERS

A typical RF amplifier with resonant circuits is shown in Figure 2-12.

This circuit is usually operated either Class B or C, as determined by the
bias potentials applied. For Class B operation the circuitry is utilized in
communication systems where amplification of a modulated RF carrier
signal is necessary. The term Class B /inear has been used to identify op-
eration on the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve of the
transistor. Once an RF signal is modulated, successive Class C amplifiers
are unable to retain the complete modulated waveform because collector
current flows for only portions of single-polarity alternations of the in-
put signal (from zero to maximum in one direction). For Class B, how-
ever, the base-emitter bias is reduced to the cutoff point and only
alternations of a particular polarity of the input signal are effective in
collector current control. The resonant circuit utilizes the flywheel effect
to reinstate the missing alternation of the signal polarities lost at the
input.

Output

Bias

Figure 2-12 Class B or C (RF) Amplifier

62 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

For the circuit shown in Figure 2-12 the application of reverse bias
at the input will drive the quiescent operating point sufficiently into the
cutoff region for Class C operation. Consequently, collector current
flows only for a portion of every other alternation of the input signal,
contributing to the high efficiency of this system. As shown, the input
RF signal is applied to the primary winding L, of the input transformer
formed in conjunction with L,. These inductors have shunting capacitors
(C, and C,) that help form the resonant circuits required. Inductor L, is
tapped for impedance-matching purposes between the inductor and the
input of the transistor. At the output, the resonant collector circuit
(sometimes referred to as the tank circuit) consists of L, shunted by vari-
able capacitors C,and C,. A single capacitor as was used for L, could be
placed across L,, but the dual-capacitor arrangement places the rotor
section at ground and thus minimizes shock hazards during tuning. Since
the rotors are connected to a common shaft and the stators are separat-
ed or split into two sections, such capacitors are also termed split-stator
types. Bias and power supply potentials are applied in series with radio-
frequency chokes (RFC) that offer a high reactance for signal energy and
minimize common coupling among amplifier sections via the power
supply.
Because interelement capacitances of transistors may provide regen-
erative coupling between input and output circuitry, amplifiers may os-
cillate and generate an unwanted signal. To eliminate such tendencies a
neutralizing capacitor (V,) is employed. Because the power supply
feedline taps L, the resonant circuit is effectively split in half to produce
at the bottom a signal 180° out of phase with that at the top. Hence, the
neutralizing capacitor connects to the bottom of the collector resonant
circuit and couples a portion of a signal to the base.terminal of the tran-
sistor. The capacitor is tuned until neutralization is accomplished (see
the discussion on unilateralization in Sec. 2-14).

2-17. PUSH-PULL RF AMPLIFIERS

As with the push-pull circuitry used with audio systems discussed in Sec.
2-12, push-pull can also be utilized for RF stages. A typical system is il-
lustrated in Figure 2-13 utilizing two junction transistors (npn types).
The incoming signal appears across inductor L, and is coupled to L,.
The secondary L, is tapped at center by the bias feed line as shown.
 PUSH-PULL RF AMPLIFIERS 63

Figure 2-13 Push-Pull Class C Amplifier

Split-stator capacitors as discussed for the circuit shown in Figure 2-12

are convenient in push-pull because of the circuit symmetry that prevails.
The center taps in the resonant circuits plus the centerline of the split-
stator capacitors split the resonant circuits into dual sections to accom-
modate the push-pull transistors. As for the circuit shown in Figure 2-
12, neutralization is utilized, although for the circuit of Figure 2-13 the
dual process is usually termed cross-neutralization. Here, capacitor NC,
connects from the bottom of the output resonant circuit to the base ter-
minal of Q, while NC, connects from the top of the output resonant cir-
cuit to the base terminal of Q,. Thus, the necessary degenerative signals
are obtained for feedback purposes and their amplitude is established by
the setting of the neutralizing capacitors.
In transmitting systems successive Class C amplifying circuits are
used between the carrier oscillator and the final antenna system that
transmits the signal. Thus, the low-amplitude signal initially generated is
raised to the power level required for transmission. In practical systems
appropriate ammeters (or milliammeters) are connected in series with the
base and collector circuits to maintain a constant check of current levels.
A current meter in a base circuit aids in the proper tuning of the reso-
nant circuit and permits adjustment of the amplitude of the drive signal
input. A current meter in the collector circuitry permits checking for the
current dip that occurs when precise resonance is obtained during ad-
justment of the variable capacitors. For neutralization procedures the in-
put RF signal is removed and the feedback capacitor is tuned for a
minimum current reading in the base-current meters.
64 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-18. RF SIGNAL FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS

The Class C amplifier circuits illustrated in Figures 2-12 and 2-13 can
also be used for doubling or tripling the frequency of the signal applied
at the input. Conventional circuitry is utilized as shown in Figure 2-14,
except that the output resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the in-
put-circuit frequency. If, for instance, the circuit were used as a frequen-
cy doubler, a 2.5-MHz signal would find resonance in both of the input
parallel-resonant circuits. The output circuit in the collector, however,
would be tuned to 5 MHz and consequently the flywheel effect of the
resonant circuit would maintain this frequency and provide the second-
ary L, with the doubled output. For frequency doubling, the output cir-
cuit is pulsed at half the rate of the signal interchanged in its resonant
circuits. Thus, the collector circuit furnishes power to its resonant circuit
only half as often as would be the case if the input signal were also 5
MHz. If the output resonant circuit is tuned to triple or quadruple the
frequency of the input signal, efficiency declines considerably because the
circuit energy is not being replenished as often as in standard amplifiers.
For frequency-multiplier circuitry, neutralization is not necessary because
the dissimilarity in frequency between input and output signals inhibits
regeneration.

2-19. AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK AND DEGENERATION

Many amplifiers utilize degenerative (inverse) feedback for diminished

harmonic distortion, increased frequency response, improved stability,
and noise reduction. The basic principle is illustrated in Figure 2-15,
where a portion of the amplified output signal is fed back to an earlier
circuit. For inverse feedback the signal that is fed back is out of phase
with the signal where the feedback potential is applied as shown. Hence,
the signal that is fed back has an inverse function in relation to the sig-
nal existing at the point of feedback. With such feedback, amplification
is reduced in proportion to the amplitude of the fed-back signal.
For the circuit shown in Figure 2-15 the amplitude of the feedback
signal is established by selection of the proper value of R, in the feed-
back line. Capacitor C, isolates the dc components at the output and in-
put circuits, When the feedback signal appears across the emitter resistor
R, of Q,, there is a reduction of the signal voltage across R, proportion-
ate to the amplitude of the signal fed back. For a positive alternation of
 AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK AND DEGENERATION 65

Bias

Figure 2-14 Frequency Multiplier (RF)

Output
amplifiers

NR

First audio
amplifier
¢— To speaker

Figure 2-15 _ Inverse Feedback

an input signal the inverse feedback signal of negative polarity would al-
ter the forward bias between emitter and base of Q,, with a resultant de-
cline in emitter—collector signal current. Distortion present at the output
would also be contained within the feedback signal and would inversely
affect the generation of such unwanted distortion (for additional feed-
back data, see Sec. 2-21).
66 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-20. DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

The Darlington solid-state unit consists of two transistors, as represented

by the symbol shown-in Figure 2-16(A). The input transistor’s circuitry
is an emitter-follower type feeding the base input of the second transis-
tor. Characteristics of this unit include exceptionally high gain. Total sig-
nal-current amplification (Aie) is the product of the amplification
obtained from each of the transistors within the Darlington structure
(see also Sec. 1-18). Thus, h,, * h,,, = Ay, (where the latter is the total
Darlington gain). For Figure 2-16(A) resistors R, and R, form a voltage
divider supplying bias to the base of the first transistor. The output is
obtained from across emitter-resistor R,as shown.
The Darlington pair has many applications because of the high sig-
nal amplification and exceptional sensitivity. The output signal produces
sufficiently high collector signal current levels to perform as an efficient
driver even though fed by low-amplitude supply potentials. Hence, the
device reduces the number of components that would otherwise be re-
quired for a given system. The Darlington pair is useful in audio circuit-
ry as well as in switching devices. It is also useful for forming signal gen-
erators (oscillators). There is an impedance step-down between input and
output as with the common-collector (emitter-follower) circuitry. The
output impedance is usually equal to the resistance of R,, while the ap-
proximate input impedance equals the amplification factor B? x R,.

2-21. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The operational amplifier is a unit (usually direct. goupled) utilizing an

appropriate feedback loop. It is used where high gain (over 1 million
possible) and a flat response are needed. The basic principles are illus-
trated in Figure 2-16(B). The lowercase Greek letter beta (8B) usually
used to indicate transistor gain is also employed to represent the decimal
equivalent of the percentage of voltage fed back. Thus, the feedback loop
consisting of R,is sometimes identified as 8B. Since the feedback is degen-
erative, only a small portion of the output signal is fed back; otherwise,
the amplification of the circuitry would be reduced considerably. With a
feedback signal applied to the input of a transistor stage, it is amplified
and appears at the output of that stage to which it is applied as an am-
plified signal but out of phase with the distortion that develops within
 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 67

tava

Input Input Output e

0

Output

(a) = (b)

Figure 2-16 Darlington and Operational Amplifiers

that stage. Hence, distortion and noise signals are attenuated in propor-
tion to the amplitude of the feedback signals.
In the absence of feedback, the input signal voltage e, is increased by
the amplification resulting in an output signal e. Thus, the open-loop am-
plification (without feedback) can be expressed as e,/e,. With inverse feed-
back (also termed negative feedback) the feedback symbol is often
preceded by a minus sign: —f. Representing amplification as A, AB rep-
resents the feedback factor. Thus, 1—AB is a measure of a feedback am-
plitude. When the feedback factor AB is much greater than 1, the signal-
voltage gain is independent of A and amplification with feedback becomes
1/B (see also Sec. 2-19).

2-22. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

The differential amplifier is useful for handling a wide-signal bandpass

with excellent circuit stability. It is a versatile circuit and can be used as
a mixer for heterodyning several signals, a limiter for signal clipping, a
modulator, as well as a signal-frequency multiplier. The basic circuit is
as shown in Figure 2-17(A) and contains no capacitor or inductor.
Thus, because of the minimum number of components, it lends itself
well in the design of integrated circuits and is frequently utilized as a
companion circuit to the operational amplifier described in Sec. 2-21. As
68 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

(a) (b)

Figure 2-17 Differential Amplifier Circuits

shown in Figure 2-17(A), two transistors are used in an emitter-coupled

arrangement wherein a constant-current source section is common to
both. Two input and two output terminals are provided in a symmetrical
system. Resistors R, and R, have matched values and both transistors
have virtually identical characteristics.
There are several operational modes possible with this circuit. The
signal can be applied to only one of the inputs, grounding the other.
Hence, if a signal is applied to input 1, the amplified version would ap-
pear at the collection of Q,. Similar characteristics prevail for transistor
Q,. In both instances there is a phase difference between input and output
signals. Considering the constant-current source as resistive, or if it were
replaced by a single resistor, signal-current variations would occur across
it and provide common coupling. Consequently, the emitter—collector
current of Q, would also contain signal voltages when the input to Q, is
activated. Similarly, a positive alternation of the input signal at the base
of Q, would raise forward bias for a current increase in the collector—
emitter. Because of common coupling, similar current changes would pre-
vail for the other transistor. For an input signal at the base of Q, and an
output obtained from the collector of Q,, the operational mode is desig-
nated as single-ended input-output signal, inverting mode. For an input at
Q,, but an output from Q,, the mode is a single-ended input-output,
noninverting mode.
 BANDPASS AMPLIFIERS 69

The input signal can be applied across both base circuits to form a
differential-type mode. An advantageous characteristic of the differential
amplifier is the common-mode characteristic obtained for in-phase sig-
nals appearing at both input terminals simultaneously. Undesired signals
picked up by the two inputs simultaneously would produce a voltage
across an emitter resistor that tends to attenuate the common-mode sig-
nal without affecting a desired signal applied to a single input only. Be-
cause of this common-mode characteristic, the differential amplifier is
highly stable. As shown in Figure 2-17(B), the constant-current-source
symbol shown in (A) is represented by transistor Q, and associated com-
ponents. For this circuitry the impedance between the collector and
emitter of Q, is sufficiently high for constant-current purposes, yet resis-
tor R,can have a much lower value than the conventional emitter resis-
tor utilized in Figure 2-17(A). The reduction of the voltage drop across
an emitter resistor also reduces power dissipation (see also Sec. 4-8 and
Figure 4-7).

2-23. BANDPASS AMPLIFIERS

A bandpass amplifier is used in color television receivers to raise the

gain of the color video signals while removing pulse- and sync-signal in-
formation so that the latter do not cause interference when applied to
the picture tube. A typical circuit that performs these functions is shown
in Figure 2-18. The bandpass amplifier is usually between the video am-
plifier output circuits and the color-signal demodulators. As shown, the
video signal input is applied to the base of transistor Q, and amplified in
the emitter—collector section in conventional fashion. A signal, obtained
from the horizontal output transformer, is applied to the junction of the
two capacitors C,and C,. Such a signal is termed a blanking signal since
it has a polarity that opposes the power supply voltage applied to R,.
When the blanking pulse appears it switches the transistor current off
and thus prevents amplification of both the synchronizing signals and
the 3.58-MHz burst signal accompanying all color transmission. Thus,
the bandpass amplifier is momentarily inoperative during the presence of
the blanking signal (which occurs only during the horizontal blanking
interval). The blanking pulse is of sufficient duration to prevent amplifi-
cation of the vertical sync pulses, equalizing pulses, horizontal sync sig-
nals, blanking signals, and the color burst carrier reference signal of 3.58
MHz.
70 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

To color
signal
detectors

Contrast
control

Blanking +V
signal
input

Figure 2-18 Bandpass Amplifier

The output signal is transferred from L, to L, and this transformer

arrangement utilizes <. variable core for tuning purposes. The output cir-
cuit is broadly resonant around the 3.58-MHz region to accommodate
the chrominance sideband signal components. Resistor R, is a variable
color control that permits adjustment of the amplitude of the output sig-
nal and compares to the contrast control in black-and-white television.

2-24. BURST-GATE AMPLIFIERS

™,
The purpose for a burst-gate amplifier is to process the special synchro-
nizing signal transmitted during color telecasting. This synchronizing sig-
nal of 3.58 MHz is transmitted as a nine-cycle segment situated on the
latter part of the horizontal blanking interval. Because of its short dura-
tion it is termed a burst signal. This synchronizing signal is necessary to
lock in the receiver’s subcarrier oscillator so the latter produces a stable
color-signal carrier as a needed substitute for the one that was sup-
pressed at the transmitter. Once reformed in the receiver, the subcarrier
is recombined with the color-signal sidebands to permit demodulation of
the color video signals.
The burst signal must be removed from the composite video signal
arriving at the receiver so that the burst signal can be routed to the re-
 BURST-GATE AMPLIFIERS 71

quired circuits. The undesired signals that accompany the synchronizing

burst signal are removed by a gating circuit such as that shown in Fig-
ure 2-19. Here, transistor Q, receives the composite video signal via ca-
pacitor C, to the base terminal. At the same time a keying pulse,
obtained from a tap on the horizontal output transformer, is also applied
to the base terminal of Q, as shown. This keying pulse occurs only dur-
ing the horizontal blanking interval and has a polarity that provides for-
ward bias and causes the transistor Q, to conduct periodically. Thus, OQ,
conducts only during the time that the burst signal is present in the
composite video signal and consequently only this burst signal appears
at the collector output of Q,. Although the output is amplified, an addi-
tional burst-signal amplifier (Q,) is often used.

Gate
Video

of
signal

input
C

Figure 2-19 Burst Gate and Amplifier

The keying pulse is delayed approximately 3 to 5 ws to prevent en-

try of horizontal sync-pulse signals. Capacitor C,in conjunction with L,
forms a high-impedance parallel resonant circuit for 3.58 MHz. Inductor
L, is coupled to L, (transformer secondary) and a variable core permits
precise tuning. Capacitor C, couples the burst signal to the base input of
Q, and the amplified version appears across resistor R,. Capacitor C,
couples the signal to the phase detector and subcarrier oscillator system
(described in Sec. 2-30) for automatic frequency control of the subcarrier
generator.
72 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-25. SWEEP OUTPUT AMPLIFIERS

The purpose for sweep amplifiers is to raise the signal amplitude of the
sweep signals utilized in television receivers and oscilloscopes. Sweep sig-
nals are needed in television to move the electron beam within the pic-
ture tube in both the vertical and horizontal planes at a rate established
by the relaxation oscillators and synchronizing signals. It is necessary to
sweep the beam both vertically and horizontally to form a rectangular
lighted area referred to as a raster. It is upon the latter tracings that the
picture information is impressed (see Sec. 8-5). For oscilloscopes the sig-
nal to be used is commonly applied to the input of the vertical amplifiers
while an internal horizontal sweep system scans the signal across the
face of the tube.
The basic circuitry necessary for television receivers is shown in
Figure 2-20. Transistor Q, is the vertical sweep output amplifier that
raises the signal level above that obtained from the vertical sweep-signal
oscillator or driver stages. The amplifier system is conventional, with the
amplified signals developing across R,. Capacitor C, couples the ampli-
fied sweep signals to the vertical deflection coils consisting of L, and L,,.
These coils are placed around the neck of the picture tube in combina-
tion with inductors L, and L,. The latter are the horizontal deflection
coils fed by the horizontal sweep amplifier system shown. Inductors L,
through L, are combined in a common housing (termed a yoke) and are
placed around the neck of the picture tube. The combined magnetic lines
of the four sweep inductors move the beam within the picture tube to
form the raster mentioned earlier.
The horizontal output system is more complex than the vertical out-
put circuitry because of the multiple functions associated with Q,. A
high-voltage diode D, minimizes undesirable transient signals generated
by the abruptly changing high-amplitude pulse signals. Another diode, D,,
supplies several thousand volts for the focus-control electrode of the pic-
ture tube. The amplitude of the sweep voltage developed is related to the
size of the picture tube and the receiver design (black-and-white or color).
For the circuitry shown in Figure 2—20, a black-and-white receiver is as-
sumed, although similar circuitry is utilized for color receivers.
The output from Q, is applied to a horizontal transformer consist-
ing of a primary (L,) and several secondary windings. Although the
sweep signals are coupled by capacitor C, to the horizontal deflection
coils, they are also used to produce the focus electrode potentials as well
as the potentials needed by the second anode of the picture tube. Thus,
 ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR 73

Ly
Vertical R, C;
sweep L,
i
signal R 1 i
input 2

To focus
electrode

73 D, HV
D, Ly, Ds; D;

a ‘i
aco Di Cs To horizontal
Horizontal 7 L, phase detector
sweep 6
signal = =
zat To AGC
system

= als

Figure 2-20 Sweep Output Amplifiers

the secondary winding L, steps up the voltage to a value ranging be-

tween 15 and 30 kV, depending on picture tube size. Color receivers re-
quire a higher-amplitude second anode potential than black and white. A
series of diodes (D, through D,) serve as rectifiers for the high voltage
potentials. Additional windings are present for pulse signals needed by
the horizontal phase detector, gating circuits, and AGC systems.

2-26. ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR

A variety of signals must be generated in electronic systems for gating,

counting, and control purposes. Such signals consist of both RF and au-
74 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

dio types and include sine-wave, pulse, and square-wave formations. The
generators used to produce signals are also termed oscillators and there
are two primary categories: resonant-circuit types and relaxation types.
For the resonant-circuit types the frequency of the generated signal is de-
termined by the value of resonant circuitry components plus circuit in-
ductances and capacitances in aggregate. The relaxation oscillators pro-
duce signals that have a frequency related to circuit component values
usually without resonant systems. Two basic RF signal generators are il-
lustrated in Figure 2-21.
The oscillator shown in Figure 2-21(A) was one of the first reso-
nant-circuit types and is identified as the Armstrong feedback type. Note
that the output signal develops across the resonant circuit consisting of
C,and L,. A pickup inductor L, samples a portion of the signal and cou-
ples it back to the base terminal of the transistor using capacitor C,.
Thus, a continuous input-output loop is formed to sustain oscillations.
When the circuit is switched on, the initial rise of potentials is sufficient
to initiate the oscillatory processes. The phase relationships between sig-
nals appearing across L,and L, determine the polarity of the feedback. If
L, is reversed, the feedback will be degenerative and hence will prevent
oscillations. Capacitor C, provides for a direct signal return from the col-
lector circuitry to the emitter. Inductor L, is a radio-frequency choke
having a high reactance for the signals and thus minimizing their leakage
to the power supply. The frequency of oscillations is determined by Eq.
1-40.

2-27. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

The circuit shown in Figure 2—21(B) is termed a Hartley oscillator, after

its originator. This signal generator utilizes a tapped inductor (L,) that
forms a resonant circuit with capacitor C,. The tap splits the inductor
into two sections and sets up a division of components between the in-
put and output circuitry. Capacitor C, plus the upper portion of L, form
the base-emitter portion, while capacitor C, and the lower section of L,
form the collector-emitter portion. Thus, the output signals are coupled
to the input section by virtue of the mutual inductance existing across
the tapped L, winding. Consequently, feedback is established in similar
fashion to the circuit shown in (A).
Capacitors C,and C, isolate the de circuits and prevent such poten-
tials from being grounded through inductor L,. Inductor ZL, is an RF
 COLPITTS OSCILLATOR 75

Output

(b)
Figure 2-21 Armstrong and Hartley Oscillators

choke isolating signals from the power source. Resistor R, is in series

with the feed line for the bias to the base of the transistor.

2-28. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

The Colpitts oscillator is another version of the RF types designed to

generate high-frequency signals. A typical circuit is shown in Figure 2—
22(A), using an FET. [A junction transistor could also be utilized for
this circuit in similar fashion to that shown in Figure 2—21(B).] For the
76 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

Output

Output
Crystal
slab

(b)

Figure 2-22 Colpitts and Crystal Oscillators we

Colpitts oscillator, L, is not tapped as was the case for the Hartley oscil-
lator, but instead dual capacitors C, and C, are utilized. The rotor sec-
tions of these capacitors are connected to a common shaft and placed at
ground potential as shown. Thus, the capacitors and L, form the reso-
nant circuit. Because of the grounding of the rotor sections the resonant
circuit is electrically split in half just as was the case of splitting the res-
onant circuit of the Hartley oscillator by a tapped inductor. The split
resonant circuit provides coupling of the output signal obtained from the
source element of the FET to the gate input terminal to sustain oscilla-
tions. Capacitors C,and C, provide signal coupling with dc isolation. In-
 SUBCARRIER OSCILLATORS 77

ductor L, is an RF choke for isolation of the circuitry signals from the

power section.

2-29. CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

For increased frequency stability, piezoelectric quartz crystals are ground

to a specific thickness and utilized to stabilize the signal frequency of an
oscillator. The quartz crystal is a transducer that produces a signal volt-
age when subjected to mechanical vibrations, or it undergoes a vibration
when voltages are applied across it. It is usually mounted between two
metal plates forming the contacting elements for the unit. The mounting
plates plus the crystal structure produce a resonant circuit characteristic
wherein the mass of the crystal can be considered the inductance, and
the holding plates as the capacitance. A typical circuit is shown in Fig-
ure 2—22(B).
Resistor R, is the de ground return for the gate element, and capac-
itor C, and resistor R, form the conventional stabilizing circuitry to mini-
mize the effects of thermal changes (see Sec. 2-2). The output resonant
circuit consists of C, in parallel with L,, with the output obtained from
the secondary winding L,. Capacitor C,is a ground return to the drain
element to provide for a short signal path. Inductor L, is an RF choke
often utilized in RF circuits to provide a high reactance for signal energy
and prevent coupling to the power supply. For increased stability in
transmitting systems the crystal slab is often encased in a heated contain-
er. Since thermal variations alter the crystal frequency, a stabilized crys-
tal temperature helps maintain the signal frequency near or at its precise
point. In other instances synchronizing signals are utilized to lock in the
oscillator, as discussed in Sec. 2-30.

2-30. SUBCARRIER OSCILLATORS

The purpose for a subcarrier oscillator in color television systems is to

generate another carrier signal independent of the primary video carrier
signal. In color transmitting systems the subcarrier signal is modulated
by the color signals to produce sidebands. After modulation, the
subcarrier is suppressed and only the color sideband signals are trans-
mitted. Consequently, the missing subcarrier must be generated in the
receiver and combined with the incoming sidebands so that demodula-
78 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

tion of the color video signals can be accomplished. In the receiver the
subcarrier oscillator frequency must be locked in precisely with the fre-
quency of the subcarrier signal at the transmitter. This is accomplished
by utilizing the 3.58-MHz burst signal transmitted and processed by the
burst-gate circuitry discussed in Sec. 2-24.
A typical system for generating a subcarrier and controlling its fre-
quency is illustrated in Figure 2-23. Associated with the system is the
phase detector (also called a discriminator), explained more fully in Sec.
2-31, and the reactance-control circuit utilizing transistor Q,, described
more fully in Sec. 2-32. The oscillator transistor (Q,) has a feedback
loop from the collector terminal to the base terminal consisting of C, and
R,). A fixed-frequency quartz crystal is in series from the output section
of Q, to the base of Q, using coupling capacitor C,. The crystal is ground
for a 3.58-MHz frequency and thus stabilizes the circuit for oscillation at
that frequency. Rigid control with respect to frequency and phase is not
possible, however, because thermal effects cause a crystal frequency
change, as do variables in circuit component values for temperature
changes in the area of the oscillator circuit.
The exact subcarrier frequency is 3.579,545 MHz and for proper
color rendition the subcarrier oscillator in the receiver must be locked in
synchronization with the transmitted subcarrier burst signal. The lock-in
must be precise and correction must be performed automatically for any
slight drift wherein phase differences occur between burst and subcarrier
signals. Such rigid frequency control is accomplished by comparing the
output signal frequency of the subcarrier oscillator with the incoming
burst signal frequency in a phase-detector circuit. When a difference oc-
curs, a correction voltage is produced by the phase discriminator and ap-
plied to the input circuit of Q,, the reactance-contral circuit. The latter
then alters the subcarrier oscillator frequency to make the necessary cor-
rection. Note that the output from the Q, oscillator has a circuit loop
back to the phase detector, and the latter connects to Q,. Thus, a contin-
uous circuit loop is present and is often referred to as a phase-locked loop
(PLL). The output from Q, is also applied to the color signal detectors
where the demodulation process produces the color video signals.

2-31. PHASE DISCRIMINATORS

A typical phase discriminator using dual diodes is also shown in Figure

2-23, where it is used to compare a synchronizing burst signal frequency
 PHASE DISCRIMINATORS 79

S PLL 6
To color
signal
detectors
Ly
Burst
signal
input

Phase
detector 3.58 MHz
circuit a Rexotince oscillator

2 Ry control
circuit rey;
O

Reactance =
adjust

Figure 2-23 Subcarrier Oscillator and Control

with a subcarrier oscillator frequency. In such a system the phase detec-

tor generates a correction voltage when phase differences occur between
the two signals. As shown, the synchronizing input signal is applied
across a transformer primary L, and hence appears across the secondary
L,. The output applied to the reactance transistor Q, is obtained from
the junction of R, and R, as against the center tap of L, (ground return).
The sampled signal from the oscillator is applied to the junctions of di-
odes D, and D,, thus forming balanced input and output systems. The
circuit is symmetrical, with equal values for resistors R,and R, as well as
equal values for capacitors C, and C,. Although the circuit is sensitive to
phase changes, it resembles the conventional bridge circuit wherein a
balanced bridge produces a null voltage across specific terminals. For
the phase discriminator, a zero voltage exists when the synchronizing sig-
nal coincides with the oscillator signal. An output correction voltage is
produced when phase differences occur because of oscillator drift.
Whether the correction potential is positive or negative depends on
whether the oscillator frequency rises above or falls below that of the
synchronizing burst signal. The correction voltage is applied to the reac-
tance transistor Q,, and the value of the reactance increases or decreases
 ,

80 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

as needed, causing a slight change in the subcarrier oscillator frequency

for correction. The mass of the crystal can be considered the inductive
reactance and the holding plates the capacitive reactance to form the os-
cillator’s resonant circuit. Thus, the output from the reactance control
circuit can alter the reactances of the oscillator circuit and thus control
frequency (see also Sec. 2-32).

2-32. REACTANCE-CONTROL CIRCUITS

The purpose for a reactance-control circuit is to simulate either capacitive

or inductive reactance with a value related to a specific amplitude of in-
put potential. Thus, such a circuit can alter reactive and resonant charac-
teristics of other circuits by electrical rather than manual control. A
typical example is the reactance-control circuit shown in Figure 2-23. Re-
sistor R, helps establish the reactance characteristics, with capacitor C,
blocking dc potentials. Essentially, the oscillator signal is applied across
the output of Q, and consequently also appears across the R-C network
coupled to the input gate terminal. If R,is 10 times that of the gate input
impedance of Q,, the R-C network of resistors and capacitors from the
gate circuit to ground will have a signal voltage lag since current leads in
a network that is predominately capacitive. Thus, the signal at the gate
terminal of Q, has its phase altered to lag the oscillator signal. Hence, the
circulating signal developed in the source—drain output section has a cur-
rent-lag characteristic as compared to the oscillator signal. Consequently,
the reactance circuit appears to have inductive characteristics. This factor
can be more readily understood by reference to the reactance circuitry il-
lustrated in Figure 2-24. f
A reactance circuit using a junction transistor is shown in Figure
2-24(A). This circuit simulates a capacitive reactance and when shunted
across an oscillator it can regulate the frequency within certain limits.
The reactance-forming components consist of C, and R,. These two com-
ponents essentially are coupled across the oscillator circuit. Hence, the
RF signal generated by the oscillator appears across this network of C,
and R,. The values of the latter two components are selected to have a
certain component-value ratio. Capacitor C, has a reactance that is sub-
stantially greater than the resistance of R, for the frequency of signals in-
volved. If the oscillator voltage is represented as E along the x axis of a
graph, it is shown as in Figure 2-24(B). The current for C, and Resis
 REACTANCE-CONTROL CIRCUITS 81

Io Se

.
N
SCilator E, 1 lags Ee

OO? ew
TGR,

(a) (b)

Figure 2-24 Reactance-Control Circuits

shown at right angles along the y axis. The graph thus depicts the cur-
rent for the R,-C, network leading the oscillator voltage by 90°. Across
resistor R,, however, both voltage and current are in phase, since pure
resistance does not alter such phase relationships. Hence, the signal volt-
age at the base terminal input of transistor Q, leads the oscillator voltage
by 90° as shown in (B). Since collector current is in phase with base-ter-
minal voltage, the collector current (J,) is also shown along the y axis of
the graph. Thus, it is obvious that collector current leads oscillator volt-
age and thus introduces a capacitive reactance across the resonant circuit
of the oscillator. In practical applications, the resistance of R, is selected
to have an ohmic value of approximately one-tenth of the capacitive re-
actance of C,, thus making the network C,-R, primarily capacitive.
82 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

An input potential applied to the base of Q, alters emitter—collector

current within a range established by the amplitude of the input signal.
Thus, collector current can be raised or lowered by applying either a
positive or negative voltage across R,. Thus, the simulated capacitance
value is changed accordingly. If a sine-wave type signal is applied to the
input of Q,, the frequency of the oscillator signal will change at a rate
dependent on the frequency of the input signal. For an audio-signal in-
put, a frequency modulation of the oscillator’s RF signal is produced.
Another method for varying reactance by voltage changes is illus-
trated in Figure 2—24(C). Here a varactor diode is utilized as a shunt
across an inductance L,. The varactor diode exhibits a capacitance di-
rectly proportional to an applied reverse-bias voltage. Thus, diode D, and
inductor L, comprise the resonant frequency-determining circuit of the
oscillator. A voltage change will alter the capacitance of the diode and
hence can regulate the frequency of the oscillator signal generated. A
variable resistor (R,) can be utilized for tuning purposes or a number of
fixed-value resistors can be switched in the circuit so that pushbutton
tuning selection can be utilized.

2-33. MULTIVIBRATORS

The multivibrator is a signal generator of the nonresonant type wherein

the frequency of the generated signals is established by. the values of cir-
cuit resistances and capacitances. The multivibrator, as well as the block-
ing oscillator described in Sec. 2-34, are known as relaxation oscillators,
and they are useful in a wide variety of circuitry for signal
production. %
As shown in Figure 2-25, the basic raidivibeatee circuit usually
contains two transistors in typical amplifier circuitry. As shown, howev-
er, instead of provisions for an input signal at Q,, the output from Q, is
coupled back to the base input of Q, using capacitor C,. Thus, the sig-
nals fed back to Q, are continuously amplified and recirculated to pro-
duce and maintain signal generation.
Relaxation oscillators can be locked into synchronization with an
external signal for precise frequency-control purposes. This is done in
television receivers where synchronizing pulses are transmitted to lock in
the vertical and horizontal sweep generators of the relaxation type. For
synchronization of the circuit in Figure 2-25 an unbypassed emitter re-
sistor R, is utilized. The synchronizing signal is applied across this resis-
 BLOCKING OSCILLATORS 83

Synchronizing
signal input

Figure 2—25 = Multivibrator Oscillator

tor and if the sync-signal frequency is at or near the free-running

frequency of the multivibrator, frequency lock-in will result. The circuit
can also be synchronized by a signal having a frequency twice that of the
free-running signal frequency. As shown, the output signal is obtained
from the collector of Q, and coupled by capacitor C, in conventional
fashion. The circuit is symmetrical in design; hence an output could be
obtained from the collector of Q, and the synchronizing signal applied
across R,.

2-34. BLOCKING OSCILLATORS

As with the multivibrator discussed in Sec. 2—33, the blocking oscillator

is a relaxation type. It is useful in applications where it is necessary to
synchronize the frequency of the generated signal with that of an exter-
nal signal. A typical blocking oscillator using a single npn transistor is
shown in Figure 2-26. The operating principle consists of periodically
blocking the transistor conduction by having the circuit continuously
change the emitter—base forward bias. As shown, a transformer is uti-
lized in the collector circuit with L, providing for a signal output as well
as a feedback coupling loop. An additional winding, L,, provides for sig-
nal synchronization.
 THE Lip COLLEGE
N O N D A G K S com! MINITY
E HAs
84 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS RT 78 NEW York 13215,

Synchronizing
signal input

Figure 2-26 Blocking Oscillator

During operation, the feedback loop charges capacitor C, with a

polarity that is negative at the transistor base. Since such a voltage rise
across C\ applies reverse bias to the base-emitter circuit, conduction for
the transistor ceases. The capacitor discharges at a rate depending on the
amount of energy stored and the time constant of the circuit compo-
nents. When the capacitor has discharged across R, normal forward bias
prevails and the transistor conducts again. The feedback loop again
builds up a reverse bias to stop conduction and the operating cycle is
thus repeated continuously as long as the power is applied to the circuit.
Proper operation depends on the polarity of the signal fed back from L.,.
For proper synchronization, the sync-signal frequency must be at or near
the free-running frequency of the blocking oscillator. The sync signal ap-
pearing across L, from L, can trigger the transtssor into conduction
slightly prior to when it would normally do so. Thus, control of the fre-
quency of the generated signal is maintained. *

2-35. HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLY

The half-wave power supply, as well as the full-wave type described in

Sec. 2-36, is widely utilized to convert the ac from the power mains to
de for utilization as needed in electronic circuits and systems. As shown
in Figure 2-27, transformers are utilized for increasing or decreasing the
voltage levels obtained from the power mains. Additional secondary
windings may be utilized where intermediate voltage levels are required.
 HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLY 85

+V

line Filtered dc
input output

=E
Switch

(a)

tye DALARAN
ac
input Ve
dc output

Vi

(b)

Figure 2—27 Basic Power Supplies

In television receivers, for instance, an additional winding is necessary to

furnish the low-voltage ac needed for the picture-tube filaments. For
such devices as radio receivers, tape recorders, and high-fidelity stereo
amplifiers, power supply voltages may range from several volts to 100 V
or more. For industrial application, however, heavy-duty components are
utilized because kilowatts of power may be needed.
The circuit shown in Figure 2-27(A) is a half-wave type using a
single diode rectifier (D,). This circuit is a basic economical type satisfac-
tory for low-priced equipment. Generally, a fuse is utilized in the input
line to protect against overloads that may occur when power-supply
components become defective. A switch is also present in the primary
winding to turn the power supply on and off. The alternating current
from the line is in the form of a continuous sine-wave signal, as shown.
When this appears across the secondary of the power-supply transform-
er, diode D, permits passage of only the positive alternations. These half-
86 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

alternations are termed pulsating dc. A continuous path is provided by R,

and R, (plus the load system across R,). Capacitors C, and C, are termed
filter capacitors and have a low reactance for the ripple frequency of the
pulsating dc. Hence these units tend to smooth out current fluctuations.
Also, these capacitors charge to the peak amplitude of the pulsating dc
and tend to assure a continuous-value output current flow, depending on
the load characteristics. If the load draws current at a rate above that by
which the capacitors can be charged, the filtered dc output would con-
tain a significant ripple.
Resistor R, may be replaced in some commercial applications by a
filter inductor having a high series reactance for the ripple frequency.
The rectification action of diode D, charges the filter capacitors each time
a positive pulse is produced. Because the pulsating dc has intervals be-
tween pulses, the power-supply regulation is somewhat inferior to that of
the full-wave type discussed in Sec. 2-36. In power supplies regulation is
the term applied to indicate to what degree (as a percentage) the filtered
dc output voltage varies as the current drain on the power-supply chang-
es. Voltage regulation is the ratio of output voltages that prevail for the
minimum and maximum current drains (see Sec. 2-40).
The filter capacitors are of the electrolytic types and to prevent
damage, their polarity markings must coincide with the potentials ap-
pearing across them. Since the filter capacitors are charged to the peak
values of the pulsating dc, the output voltage will be somewhat higher
than the rms value of the ac power input for no-load conditions. As the
load is increased the additional current drain depletes the charges of the
capacitors and output voltage will then decline to a level dependent on
regulation.
lac

2-36. FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLY €

A full-wave power supply is illustrated in Figure 2—27(B). This term is

applied because dual diodes are employed so that each alternation of the
ac signal is utilized. The result of the dual diode function is the forma-
tion of an unbroken sequence of unidirectional pulses, as shown. Since
the pulsating dc amplitudes are continuous, the filter capacitors are
charged at twice the rate of the half-wave power supply. Consequently,
regulation is improved and a smoother filtered dc output can be
obtained. Thus, the filter capacitors can have lower values than that
 VOLTAGE-DOUBLER CIRCUIT 87

needed for the half-wave supplies while maintaining the same degree of
ripple-filtering process.
For the circuit shown in Figure 2-27(B), the secondary of the
transformer is center tapped to ground for an equal division of the volt-
age at D, and D,. Thus, to obtain approximately the same output voltage
from the full-wave circuit as for the half-wave, the secondary winding
would have twice the number of turns. Where the secondary for the cir-
cuit in (A) may have a 30-V potential, the secondary winding in (B)
would have a 30-V potential on each side of the center tap. The dual di-
odes have a common junction for the voltage output line feeding the
typical series resistor and filter capacitors as shown for the circuit in (A).
When a positive alternation of the ac line voltage appears across the sec-
ondary, the center tap has a negative potential with respect to the top of
the secondary. In this instance electron flow would be from center tap
through the load circuit, through R,, and to the rectifier. Since the bot-
tom of the secondary winding is negative, diode D, does not conduct.
When the next alternation of the ac line potential appears across the sec-
ondary, its negative polarity at the top of the transformer indicates a
positive polarity at the anode of D, with respect to ground. Consequent-
ly, electron flow through the ground network, through the load, and
through resistor R, completes its return flow to the bottom of the trans-
former utilizing the conducting D.,.
Thus, for each alternation of the ac line signal, a positive alterna-
tion of rectified signal energy is produced by the full-wave system. The
diodes conduct alternately and convert the positive and negative ac line
signals to unidirectional pulsating dc. The disadvantages of the full-wave
system are the need for an additional rectifier and a center-tap trans-
former, but the advantages over the half-wave type are improved filtering
and regulation.

2-37. VOLTAGE-DOUBLER CIRCUIT

The purpose for a voltage-doubling power supply is to obtain approxi-

mately twice the filtered de output potential than can be realized from
the half-wave or full-wave power supplies. The voltage-doubler circuit
utilizes two diodes, as shown in Figure 2—28(A). Capacitors C, and C,
are an integral part of the doubling procedure since they receive alter-
nate charges and apply their additive charges to the output lines. Capaci-
88 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

tor C, charges to the full output voltage and provides filtering of the
ripple components.
When a positive alternation appears across the secondary of the
transformer, the top line applied to D, is positive and the bottom line
feeding the junction of C, and C, is negative. Under this condition diode
D, conducts and in so doing charges capacitor C, to the peak of the po-
tential across the secondary winding. For the second alternation of the
incoming ac, the top of the secondary is negative and the bottom posi-
tive. Now, electron flow is through diode D, and its return path is to the
bottom of the secondary winding. Consequently, capacitor C, is also
charged to the peak of the voltage appearing across the secondary wind-
ing. Thus, successive alternations of the sine-wave ac across the second-
ary alternately charge capacitors C, and C, with a polarity as shown.
Since the two capacitors can be considered as two voltage sources
in series, the sum of the charges provides for approximately double the
voltage appearing across the transformer secondary winding. Under load
conditions the voltage would decline slightly, depending on the efficiency
of the filtering system and the nature of the load applied. If the load cir-
cuit drains a substantial amount of current in a given time, the two recti-
fiers would be unable to replenish the successive charges across C, and C,
rapidly enough to maintain a peak output potential. Thus, the value of
the output potential depends on the degree of regulation available from
the system.

2-38. VOLTAGE-TRIPLER CIRCUIT

In addition to the voltage multiplication system desqribed in Sec. 2-37, a

voltage-tripling circuitry has also been utilized. A typical example is
shown in Figure 2—28(B) and it is useful for obtaining approximately
three times the voltage delivered by the secondary winding of the power
transformer. Note that three diodes are required here, in conjunction
with capacitors C, and C,. Capacitor C, is part of the filter system and
an extension of the filter system can be employed by adding resistor R,
and capacitor C, shown by the dashed-line formation.
For a positive alternation of the ac line signal appearing across the
secondary of the transformer, the anode of D, would have a positive po-
tential applied with respect to the bottom of the transformer (negative).
Thus, electron flow is from the lower line of the secondary winding
charging capacitor C, with a polarity as shown, with the return electron
/
 VOLTAGE-TRIPLER CIRCUIT 89

Doubled
voltage
output

input

Figure 2-28 Voltage-Multiplier Power Supplies

flow through the conducting D, to the upper positive secondary line. For
the next alternation of ac, the upper terminal of the secondary is nega-
tive and the bottom positive. Now diode D, is unable to conduct but di-
ode D, has the proper forward bias for conduction. Consequently,
capacitor C, is charged with a potential polarity as shown. The charge
across C,, however, is twice that which formed across C, because C, was
charged not only by the potential across the secondary winding, but also
by that which prevailed across C,.
When the third alternation appears across the secondary winding
the top is again positive and the bottom negative. Now, C, is charged
again to the peak voltage and diode D, also conducts. Consequently, ca-
pacitor C,is charged to a potential that is the swm of the voltage across
C, plus that appearing across the secondary winding. Thus, the voltage
appearing across C, is approximately three times that of the line voltage
under no-load operating conditions. As with the other power supplies
discussed in previous sections, the output voltage level is determined by
the load current drawn from the power supply and the degree of filtering
that aids regulation.
90 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-39. BRIDGE-RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

The purpose for a bridge-rectifier circuit is to obtain full-wave power

supply operation without needing a center-tap transformer. The disad-
vantage is that four diode rectifiers are needed as shown in Figure 2—
29(A). Note that the diodes form a balanced bridge network with the
output applied to a conventional ripple filter section composed of two
capacitors and a series resistor. Two diodes are used for rectifying the
positive half-cycles of the alternating current and another two for the
negative alternations. When a positive alternation appears across the sec-
ondary winding (L,) electrons leave the negative bottom terminal of L,
and flow through D,, through the ground circuit, up through the load,
through R,, and through diode D, for a return to the top of L,. When a
negative alternation appears across L,, electron flow is through diode D,,
through the ground-return circuit and load, and through diode D, for the
return to the transformer. Thus, the bridge power supply rectifies both
the positive and negative alternations of the incoming alternating current
for full-wave rectification.

2-40. ZENER REGULATOR

The purpose for a zener diode is to regulate the output voltage from a
power supply and thus maintain a fairly constant level within certain
limits of current drain variations. The zener is a silicon diode that con-
ducts current when forward bias is applied, as with the conventional rec-
tifying diode. The zener function, however, occurs when a reverse-bias
voltage of proper amplitude is applied. For a low Teverse bias the resis-
tance of the zener diode is high and only a minimal amount of current
flows. As the reverse-bias potential is raised, there is only a slight and
insignificant increase in conduction. As the bias voltage is gradually in-
creased, a critical point is reached where the internal resistance of the di-
ode undergoes a sharp drop to an ohmic value almost zero. Conse-
quently, current immediately flows through the diode in an amount that
would constitute a damaging breakdown in a conventional diode of com-
parable dimensions. For the zener diode, however, the sudden conduc-
tion, even though in the reverse direction, is not harmful to the internal
structure if the applied voltage lies within specified limits. If the reverse-
bias voltage is removed, reverse conduction ceases. The breakdown point
achieved for a certain bias potential is referred to as the zener region.
 ZENER REGULATOR 91

Fuse

Switch

Unregulated
Input from
power
supply Regulated
filter
section

(b) (c)
Figure 2-29 Bridge-Type Supply and Regulation

The amount of bias required to reach this region (and the amount of
current that would flow) depends on the degree of resistivity designed
into the silicon diode and to the bulk of the solid-state structure.
Once the zener region has been achieved, the voltage drop across
the diode will remain constant and hence the unit is used for regulation
of voltage output. A typical circuit is shown in Figure 2—29(B). Resistor
R, is a voltage-limiting type having an ohmic value selected to provide a
voltage for operation within the zener region. The zener diode is con-
nected into the circuit so that the voltage across the diode forms a re-
verse bias. The regulated output voltage is obtained from across the
diode as shown. The voltage at the top of resistor R, is unregulated.
When the load circuit draws additional current from the regulated out-
put terminal, the voltage drop across R, increases and under normal cir-
cumstances less voltage would appear at the output. The zener, however,
alters its conduction to the degree necessary to maintain the output volt-
age at the value established before the load current drain changed. Such
92 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

zener diodes operate within specified limits and units are designated by
voltage and power ratings, so particular ones can be selected as needed.
The zener diode can be paired so that voltage regulation of alter-
nating current can be obtained. The basic circuit is shown in Figure 2—-
29(C). Note that the two diodes are wired in opposing fashion so that
they conduct alternately for respective positive and negative alternations
of the alternating current from the line. Units are available containing
two matched diodes which are already connected back to back for com-
mercial purposes.

2-41. POWER-SWITCHING DIODES

When it is necessary to apply power to a load at predetermined intervals

rather than continuously, special power-switching diodes are utilized.
Such diodes come in a variety of sizes and permit use of low-power gat-
ing potentials to turn on or off a comparatively much higher power. A
basic switching circuit for the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is shown
in Figure 2-30(A). As with other diodes, the symbol is representative
and does not indicate the power-handling capability of the unit. The
SCR devices are available in small units for low current capabilities as
well as large units having higher voltage and current ratings.
As shown in Figure 2-30(A), the SCR represents a basic diode
with an additional element referred to as the gate. The power source ap-
plied across the SCR circuit has the polarity shown. ‘Current will not
flow, however, and hence the circuit is in a nonconducting state. When a
steady-state or pulse gate signal is applied between the gate terminal and
ground, the positive gate potential causes the SCR to switch into its con-
ducting mode. Thus, voltage is applied across the load and current flows
in an amount determined by internal resistance of the latter. If the gat-
ing voltage is removed, the SCR continues to conduct and remains in
this gated-on position until measures are taken to stop conduction, as
explained later. Thus, whether a short-duration pulse or a dc gating sig-
nal is applied, conduction continues and the gate signal loses control.
Conduction will cease when the circuit is momentarily opened to
remove the voltages across the anode and cathode of the SCR. When po-
tentials are reapplied, the SCR remains again in a nonconducting state
until a new gating potential is applied. With dc input to the SCR circuit,
the diode latches on when gated and continues conduction; if ac is ap-
plied, however, the voltage across anode and cathode changes polarity
 POWER-SWITCHING DIODES 93

SCS

(a) (b)

% DIAC TRIAC

ac or dc
input
Gate

sae a pata
elas ar
(c) (d)

Figure 2—30 Electric Power Switching Circuits

continually and the alternations with reverse bias will periodically cause
SCR nonconduction (assuming the presence of the gating signal). The
amount of output power from the circuit can be controlled by utilizing
an ac gating signal and shifting its phase with respect to that of the in-
put ac power.
Another switching diode is the silicon-controlled switch (SCS) as
shown in Figure 2—30(B). Here, either a positive or negative pulse can
intitiate the switching mode, depending on whether G, or G, is used. As
opposed to the SCR, the SCS can be switched off by a specific gating
signal. A dual-diode switching unit is shown in Figure 2—30(C). This de-
vice is termed a Diac and the input can be either ac or dc as shown.
This special diode can be used to switch power automatically since it
conducts only when a predetermined voltage level is reached. Once this
voltage is applied, the diode conducts in either direction. When a gate
electrode is added to the Diac as shown in Figure 2-30(D), the unit is
termed a Triac. This diode unit is similar to the SCR and does not con-
duct until a gate signal is applied. For the Triac, however, either ac or
dc can be switched, and the latter can be applied in either polarity (plus
to the Triac and negative to the bottom line, or negative to the Triac
and plus to the bottom line).
94 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

2-42. AM DETECTORS

The purpose of an AM detector is to extract from an amplitude-modu-

lated RF carrier the audio or video signal information. A typical circuit
is illustrated in Figure 2-31 and it performs a rectification of the RF sig-
nal in similar fashion to that for the half-wave power supply discussed in
Sec. 2-35. The amplitude-modulated carrier is applied across the primary
(L,) of the input transformer as shown. The radio-frequency signal in
this case is indicated as the intermediate-frequency (IF) signal, since this
is the result of signal mixing in the tuner—a characteristic of the super-
heterodyne receiver (see Chap. 11). The signal appears across the second-
ary winding (L,), which is shunted by capacitor C, to form a resonant
section tuned to the IF signal.
A solid-state diode performs the half-wave rectification and the
demodulated audio or video signal develops across resistor R,, which
also serves as the volume or gain control. As shown in Figure 2-31, the
incoming IF signal is an amplitude-modulated carrier and for purposes
of illustration, the first segment shows the unmodulated state. The diode
rectifier converts the signal to a series of unidirectional pulses, as shown
for the rectified RF. The pulsating dc is filtered by capacitor C, and
hence the pulses are converted to a low-frequency signal that follows the
amplitude changes of the rectified RF signal. The result is an output sig-
nal having amplitude changes but of a unidirectional nature such as
pulsating dc. Coupling capacitor C, not only transfers the demodu-
lated signal to an amplifying stage, but converts it to one having ac
characteristics.
Diode
detector

Vole (gain)
control
IF signal i:
input

\
= |\ |
\ |
|
il fii iM \
bad DPI

Modulated RF Rectified RF Audio (or video)

. output
Figure 2-31 AM Detector Circuit
 FM DETECTORS 95

2—43. FM DETECTORS

The purpose for the FM detector is to extract from a frequency-modulat-

ed RF carrier the audio information (or whatever other modulating sig-
nal had been used). The most widely used circuit for this purpose is the
ratio detector shown in Figure 2-32. Two diodes are utilized as shown
plus an output filter network for extracting the audio information. The
incoming frequency-modulated signal is applied across the primary of
the input transformer. The secondary winding is split into two sections
by a center tap and the latter is connected to a series inductor (L,) cou-
pled to the primary L, as shown. The secondary sections of L, and L,
form a dual symmetrical circuit and in the presence of an unmodulated
RF carrier signal, both diodes conduct equally for successive negative-
signal alternations. Consequently, a steady-state output voltage prevails
across resistors R, and R,. Capacitors C, and C, charge to the peak am-
plitude of the rectified signals. For positive alternations (during which
the diodes are nonconducting) capacitors C, and C, discharge across the
resistors and maintain a steady-state output voltage.
For a frequency-modulated input signal, there is a constant change
of signal frequency above and below the resonant frequency established
by the tuned circuit composed of L,, L,, and C,. Now, the coupling of
L,to L, produces a circuit imbalance resulting in greater conduction for
one diode with respect to the other. The result is an uneven voltage dis-
tribution across R, and R,. As an example, assume that an unmodulated
signal produces 0.25 V across R, and the same voltage across R,. Total
voltage would then be 0.5 across the resistive network. For a specific fre-
quency deviation of the incoming signal the voltage drop across R, may
drop to 0.2 V while that across R, may rise to 0.3 V. For a greater fre-
quency deviation of the incoming carrier the voltage across R, may drop

D 1

FM signal
input

Audio
output

Figure 2-32 Ratio Detector for FM

96 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

to 0.1 V and that across R, rise to 0.4 V. For a carrier shift in the oppo-
site direction, the voltage across R, would rise whereas that across R,
would decline. Note that the total voltage across the two resistors re-
mains the same although the ratio of voltages changes. By utilizing one
of the output resistors as the output audio source the voltage variations
can be tapped.
Capacitor C, shunts the resistive network and it has a much higher
capacitance than C, and C,. The purpose of C, is to charge to the peak
voltage (such as the 0.5 V in the preceding example). Since a capacitor
opposes an abrupt change of potential, it absorbs undesired transients
such as static or interference from amplitude-modulated signals that may
be accompanying the frequency-modulated carrier. Thus, capacitor C, is
an effective noise-suppression device and hence eliminates the necessity
for the noise clipper stage that was required for the older-type discrimi-
nator FM detector. The latter circuit resembles the ratio detector except
that both diodes are wired in the same direction and no shunting capaci-
tor such as C, is used. Instead, the discriminator required a limiter cir-
cuit that preceded the detector and clipped off amplitude-modulated
peaks and noise signals. The limiter stage was also referred to as a clip-
per. Although performance equaled that of the ratio detector, the simpli-
fication of the latter has resulted in widespread usage.

2-44. REGENERATIVE DETECTORS

The purpose for a regenerative detector is twofold; it can demodulate the

incoming RF signal and can also be switched into an oscillatory state
for the production of an independent signal. The*generated signal can
then be utilized to heterodyne with signals such as the Morse code con-
tinuous-wave (CW) type. Such signals consist of unmodulated RF coded
into segments and would be inaudible when processed by the average de-
tector. The regenerative detector, however, mixes its signal with the in-
coming signal and by adjusting the detector to produce a difference in
the frequency of the two signals, an audible signal is produced. If the re-
generative detector signal and the incoming signal have the same fre-
quency, the condition known as zero beat occurs and no audio signal
would be produced. The mixing of signals having dissimilar frequencies,
however, produces an audio output when the difference is within the au-
dible signal range.
 COLOR-SIGNAL DETECTORS 97

A typical circuit is shown in Figure 2-33 and a feedback inductor

(L,) is used to couple a portion of the amplified signal from L, back to
the input circuit composed of L,. The phase of the signal fed back must
be such that oscillations occur. The incoming signal is transferred to the
resonant circuit composed of L, and C, and rectification (detection) oc-
curs between the base and emitter sections of the input circuit. The vary-
ing signals between base and emitter of the transistor influences current
flow in the collector-emitter section and produces an amplified output.
The audio signal thus develops across L, and hence is available from the
secondary L,as shown.
The degree of coupling between L,and L,can be varied to establish
the amount of regeneration; or the inductors can be at a fixed separation
and the degree of regeneration adjusted by variable resistor R,. When
this resistor increases positive feedback, the circuit attains maximum effi-
ciency at a point immediately below the oscillatory point. When oscilla-
tions do occur, the circuit generates its own signal for use in the
detection of unmodulated carriers that contain code information as men-
tioned earlier.

Audio
S output

AM signal
input

Figure 2-33 Regenerative Detector

2-45. COLOR-SIGNAL DETECTORS

In color television systems three color signals are utilized: red, blue, and
green. These three signals are converted into two signals, termed J and Q
(in-phase and quadrature). Thus, spectrum space is conserved by trans-
mitting two instead of three sideband signals and in addition also sup-
pressing the subcarrier that was modulated to produce the color-signal
sidebands. Consequently, it becomes necessary to generate a substitute
98 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

color subcarrier in the receiver as well as reestablishing the original three

color signals that were used to produce the J and Q signals (see also
Secs. 11-7 through 11-9). At the receiver, color-signal detectors are uti-
lized as shown in Figure 2-34 to demodulate the composite RF signals
and produce R-Y and B-Y components. As shown, the 3.58-MHz color
subcarrier is injected into the circuitry of the demodulators and
recombines with the incoming J and Q signals. The detection produces
the red signal minus the luminance (Y) and the blue minus the lumi-
nance (Y) components. A matrix circuit such as that described in Sec. 2-
46 is then used to mix the correct proportions of the red and blue to ob-
tain the required green (G-Y).
For the circuit shown in Figure 2-34 transistors Q, and Q, repre-
sent the R-Y and B-Y demodulators. Some manufacturers designate
these as X and Y when certain color-signal phase relationships are estab-
lished for a particular receiver (See Secs. 8-6 and 11-7). As shown, the
chroma signals are applied to the inputs of Q, and Q, simultaneously and
signal variations appear across the emitter resistors R, and R,. In turn,
the signals across the resistors are modified by the subcarrier signal.

Color
demodulators

amplifier

amplifier

3.58 MHz color

— subcarrier
input

Figure 2-34 Color-Signal Detectors

 MATRIX CIRCUIT 99

Thus, the sideband color components are mixed with the subcarrier and
the respective R minus Y and B minus Y signals are detected and devel-
oped across the collector resistors R, and R,. Inductor L, introduces the
required phase shift for the Q, circuitry. The respective red and blue sig-
nal components are amplified additionally by Q,and Q, and processed as
described in Sec. 2-46.

2-46. MATRIX CIRCUIT

The purpose for a color-signal matrix circuit is to combine proportions

of the R minus Y and B minus Y signals to produce a G minus Y signal
representative of the green color-signal component. A typical circuitry is
shown in Figure 2-35. Transistors Q, and Q, are a continuation of the
circuitry shown in Figure 2—34. These are conventional amplifiers and
develop the output signal across R,, and R,,, and from there transfer

R-Y amplifier

hy, -Y amplifier
Q, |
“6;

+V bs Ry)

Figure 2-35 Color-Signal Matrix System

100 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

them to the input of the color picture tube. Resistor R,, has a lower val-
ue than R,, for proper signal amplitude apportionment. Thus, a tap at
the junction of these resistors couples a portion of each signal amplitude
to the base input of transistor Q,. Resistors R,,and R,,, as well as resis-
tor R,,, form the matrix for mixing required amplitudes of the red and
blue signals for forming the G minus Y composite for the green color.
The output from Q,is the amplified G-Y signal, which is now coupled
to the input of the color picture tube in conjunction with the other two
signals. (The proper proportions of chroma and luminance signals are
listed in Table 7-30.)

oe
 Signal Modification,
Routing, and Control

3-1. INTEGRATING CIRCUITRY

A simple R-C circuit utilized for pulse-signal modification is shown in

Figure 3-1(A). This circuit is an integrator and is widely used in various
branches of electronics. The degree to which the circuit modifies signals
depends on the RC time constant of the circuit. The pulse modification
consists of attenuating the high-frequency signal components to produce
the results shown in (B), (C), and (D). Essentially, the integrator per-
forms as a low-pass filter that attenuates high-frequency signals or signal
components. When sinusoidal signals are applied, those of higher fre-
quency are diminished to a greater degree than lower-frequency types.
Signal modification is primarily attenuation for sine-wave signals, al-
though some phase shifting occurs. Square-wave and pulse signals, how-
ever, have their waveshape altered due to high-frequency component
filtering.
From the calculus we can establish a formula relating to the signal
voltage applied to the integrator capacitor (e,) and the capacitor signal
current (i):

ojestah aide (3-1)

C
where e, is the signal voltage across the capacitor
C is the capacitance in farads
iis the capacitor signal current

101
102 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

Figure 3-1 Integrating Circuit and Waveforms

Thus, Eq. 3-1 indicates that the capacitor voltage eis proportional
to the time interval of capacitor current i. The time constant is long
compared to the width of the pulse signals applied. Pulse waveforms
contain numerous signal components which are harmonically related to
the fundamental frequency. For the upper harmonic components, where
the value of the resistor in ohms is considerably higher than the reac-
tance of the capacitor, the following relationships exi®;

C= aL Se dt . (3-2)
RC

From Eq. 3-2 it is shown that the output signal voltage of an inte-
grator is proportional to the integral of the input signal current. Note
Figure 3-1(B), where a positive pulse represents the input signal. The
steep leading edge of the pulse as it attains full amplitude applies this
potential across the input. The rise time is of short duration, but the flat
top holds the voltage at a fixed level for the duration of the pulse width.
In a capacitor, voltage lags current, and the voltage rise is exponential.
 DIFFERENTIATING CIRCUITRY 103

The capacitor reaches 63% of the full charge in one time constant. After
approximately five time constants the capacitor is charged fully. Because
of the long time constant of this circuit the voltage of the output signal
does not attain a leveling off unless a shorter time constant is present
compared to pulse width, as shown in (C). For a longer time constant an
almost pure sawtooth waveform is attained as in (B).
An inductor and resistor can also be used to form an integrator
circuit. For the one shown in Figure 3-1(A), resistor R, would be re-
placed by an inductor and C, with a resistor. A long time constant
would still prevail and the same type of output waveform is obtained.
Since inductors also have resistance as well as reactance, design factors
are more critical and in practical circuits the series resistor and shunt ca-
pacitor are used primarily.

3-2. DIFFERENTIATING CIRCUITRY

The basic differentiating circuit consists of a series capacitor and shunt

resistor, as shown in Figure 3—2(A). Compared to the integrator dis-
cussed in Sec. 3-1, the time constant of the differentiating circuit is short

Input R, Output H

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3-2 Differentiating and Dual Output

104 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

in relation to the width of the pulse signal applied. The integrating cir-
cuit can be compared to a high-pass filter because it diminishes the low-
er-frequency signal components of a pulse and hence modifies it. The
differentiator circuit is widely used to convert wider-than-desired pulses
to sharply rising, narrow pulses suitable for rapid switching and trigger-
ing in digital electronics. The differentiator retains the sharply rising
leading edge of the input pulse signal as shown in (B). For this circuit, a
voltage applied to the capacitor causes a current flow proportional to the
time derivative of the voltage across the capacitor:

de (3-3)

Because of the short time constant, some signal components of the

input pulse create a situation where the circuit resistance has a value
much lower than the capacitive reactance in ohms. Thus, these quantities
can be set down as follows to indicate the voltage across the resistor (e,):

eR — IR = RC# | (3-4)
dt

For an applied pulse, the leading edge represents a sharp rise and
since current leads voltage in a capacitor, the high initial current pro-
duces a voltage drop across R,, representing a spike-type waveform. For
the flat top of the input pulse the capacitor current declines as the ca-
pacitor charges at a rate dependent on the time constant. Because the
time constant is short, the capacitor charges very rapidly and current
flow drops to zero. Consequently, the voltage across R, also drops to
zero. For the trailing edge of the pulse the input voltage suddenly drops
to zero and the capacitor discharges across R,. The discharge direction is
opposite to the charge direction; hence, the voltage across R, is in the
form of a negative spike, as shown. As with the integrator circuit dis-
cussed in Sec. 3-1, pulse signals are usually applied to the differentiator.
If sine-wave signals are applied, the amplitude is attenuated progressively
as the signal frequency rises. Some phase shifting would also occur.
An inductor and resistor can also be used to form a differentiating
circuit, in which case C, is replaced with a resistor and R, with an induc-
tor. Because of the inherent internal resistance of an inductor, the design
is less desirable and usually avoided in practical circuitry.
 DIODE SIGNAL MODIFIERS 105

3-3. DUAL / AND C

In Figure 3—2(C) a dual circuit is shown performing both differentiation

and integration. For a pulse-signal input, the upper two terminals pro-
duce an integrated signal output, while the lower two terminals provide
a differentiated signal output. The time constant (7) for this circuit uti-
lizes the following equation:

=rea R, B,C,
(3-5)
KR, ek,

3-4. DIODE SIGNAL MODIFIERS

Diodes can also be used in special circuits for modification of signals or

for removing transients, noise-signal components, or excessive amplitude
peaks of signals. Diodes can also perform signal clipping for sine waves
so that they attain square-wave characteristics. The circuit shown in Fig-
ure 3—3(A) clips the peak amplitudes of input waveforms so that the out-

Figure 3-3 Diode Signal Modifiers

106 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

put signal amplitude is proportional to those values of the input

waveform exceeding a specific value. For the one shown in (A), a series
type is indicated since the resistor is in series with the diode. When a
bias voltage of proper polarity is applied to the terminals below the re-
sistor, a reverse bias prevails for the diode and no conduction occurs un-
less this bias amplitude is nullified. When a positive polarity signal
appears at the input, current will flow only for amplitudes that exceed
the reverse bias voltage. If, for instance, the reverse bias is 5 V and the
input signal is 12 V, a 7-V output is obtained, since 5 V of the input
waveform must overcome the reverse-bias potential.
A shunt clipper is shown in Figure 3—3(B). Here, the negative-sig-
nal portions of a square wave are clipped. This comes about because the
positive-polarity portions form a nonconducting reverse bias for the di-
ode and hence the signal passes through to the output. For negative por-
tions of the input signal, however, the diode conducts because of the
forward bias applied. Consequently, the diode shunts the negative por-
tions of the signal and hence the output consists of a series of positive-
polarity pulses as shown. If negative-polarity output pulses are required,
the diode is reversed in the circuit.
By using dual-shunt clippers, with one diode reversed as shown in
Figure 3-3(C) both negative and positive clipping is possible. Thus,
square waves can be reduced in amplitude, or sine waves can be clipped
to resemble square waves as shown. Such a parallel clipper is sometimes
termed a slicer. The degree of clipping is adjusted by regulating the am-
plitude of the bias potentials employed in series with each diode. For a
negative alternation exceeding the applied bias, D, conducts. The other
diode, D,, conducts for a positive alternation exceeding the bias poten-
tial. The combined clipping of the dual diodes modifies the input signal
as shown. Dual diodes in a single housing (a Diac) conduct only when a
certain specific potential is reached; hence the function for the circuit
shown in (D) is similar to that shown in (C). S

3-5. TRANSISTORIZED SIGNAL CLIPPER

A transistorized circuit signal clipper is shown in Figure 3—4. The cir-

cuitry is a conventional Class A type amplifier with the bias set on the
linear portion of the characteristic curve. For clipping purposes, the in-
put signal must have an amplitude sufficiently high in both its negative
and positive directions to drive the transistor into both the cutoff region
 SAWTOOTH SIGNAL FORMATION 107

Bias a.
Figure 3—4 Transistorized Signal Clipper

and the saturation region. Thus, the circuit is essentially an overdriven

amplifier that produces limiting or clipping functions for an input signal.
Depending on the amplitude of the input-signal drive, a portion of each
alternation peak of the output signal is clipped. If the input signal drive
is sufficiently high, the output becomes more nearly a square wave with
sharply rising leading and trailing edges. A junction transistor could, of
course, be used instead of the FET shown.

3-6. SAWTOOTH SIGNAL FORMATION

A method for forming sawtooth signals is shown in Figure 3—5(A). The

principle involved is the slow charge and rapid discharge of a capacitor
(C,) and hence the circuit is sometimes called a discharge circuit. No dc
bias is present between the base and emitter and hence the transistor is
at or near current cutoff. During nonconduction of Q, a closed-circuit
loop exists in the circuit composed of the battery, capacitor C,, and re-
sistor R,. Consequently, the battery charges the capacitor and the elec-
tron flow is in such a direction that the collector side of C, has a
gradually rising positive potential. Thus, the initial portion of the saw-
tooth waveform is generated. The rate of charge depends on the time
constant of the circuit and during the initial charge (to about 1% of full
charge) the potential rise is virtually linear after which the voltage build-
up would follow an exponential curve. Thus, the sharp drop in ampli-
tude which forms the complete sawtooth is initiated during the linear
portion of the voltage rise.
The input to the discharge circuit is obtained from a relaxation cir-
cuit such as a blocking oscillator. The signal consists of a sharp rise in
108 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

— Battery

Figure 3—5 Sawtooth Formation and Modification ~,

the positive direction followed by an abrupt change in the negative direc-

tion as shown. For the positive portion of the input signal the base ter-
minal of the transistor is positive with respect to the emitter and hence a
temporary forward bias is present that permits transistor conduction.
During the latter the transistor’s impedance drops to a low value and
behaves as a shunt across C,. Consequently, the capacitor discharges
through the transistor and the output voltage of the sawtooth waveform
drops abruptly to zero. During the negative excursions of the input sig-
nal the transistor is again in a nonconducting mode and capacitor C,
 SAWTOOTH SIGNAL MODIFICATION 109

charges again to form the rising amplitude of a new sawtooth signal. In

design practices the sawtooth-forming characteristics can be evaluated by
solving for the instantaneous potential across the capacitor for a given
time constant:

e= E(l — e-#R¢) (3-6)

where e, is the instantaneous voltage across the charging capacitor

E is the maximum voltage (source voltage)
€ is the Naperian log base and equals 2.718
R is the total series resistance in ohms
C is the capacitor value in farads
t is the time in seconds

If transistor Q, is held at cutoff (by the absence of a bias or by the

application of a low value of reverse bias) the input signal can consist of
a series of positive pulses. The time interval between pulses thus deter-
mines the amplitude and duration of the leading incline of the sawtooth.

3-7. SAWTOOTH SIGNAL MODIFICATION

In electrostatic-deflection oscilloscope tubes the sweep potential applied

to the deflection plates consists of a sawtooth waveform as depicted at
the output of the circuit in Figure 3-5(A). For magnetic deflection such
as used in television picture tubes, however, a sawtooth voltage applied
to the inductors may result in a distortion of the sawtooth current need-
ed for magnetic deflection. Consequently, it is often necessary to modify
the sawtooth voltage in a manner that will assure the creation of a cur-
rent sawtooth. A typical circuit for doing this is shown in Figure 3—5(B).
Here an emitter-follower circuit has a sawtooth applied to the base input
terminal as shown, and the output develops across resistor R, in the
emitter line. At the same time a negative-polarity pulse train is obtained
from the transformer of the horizontal output amplifier (see Figure 2-20)
and applied to the junction of R,and C, as shown. The applied inverted
pulse also appears at the base of Q,, where it combines with the incom-
ing sawtooth. The timing of the pulse is such that the time interval ¢, of
the inverted pulses appear at time interval ¢, of the sawtooth waveform.
Consequently, it modifies the sawtooth as shown at the output from Q,.
110 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

3-8. GAIN AND TONE CONTROLS

A variable resistor such as R, shown in Figure 3—6(A) is an attenuator

for regulating the level of signal amplitude applied to the transistor. In
radios and high-fidelity equipment it is known as a volume control and
in television it is a gain control. Thus, such devices modify the signal
amplitude from its maximum potential value to some lower amplitude to
suit the individual taste (see also Sec. 3-10). A similar variable resistor
can be used for tone control purposes as shown at (B). This resistor in
conjunction with capacitor C, attenuates higher-frequency signals be-
cause the capacitor has a decreasing value of reactance for higher-fre-
quency signals. In conjunction with C,, the impedance can be varied for
a greater or lesser high-frequency signal attenuation. When high-frequen-
cy signals are diminished, the base tones are accented in comparison and
hence this circuit is sometimes called a base tone control. A treble tone
control can also be formed, as shown in Figure 3—6(C). Here, capacitor

o—
C,

Bias
a
(a) -(b)

SS (d)
Figure 3—6 Gain and Tone Controls
 PRE- AND DEEMPHASIS CIRCUITRY 111

C, is the conventional coupling capacitor and the treble control is made

up of R,, C, and C,. Capacitor C, is usually a higher value than C, (for
example, 2.2 “F for C,and 0.1 “F for C,). When the variable arm of R,
is at the left capacitor C,is shorted out and the larger value of C, has a
sufficiently low reactance so that it has little effect on all signals. How-
ever, when R, is at the right, it shorts out C, and leaves C, in series with
the signal. The lower capacitance value creates an increasing attenuation
for lower-frequency signals and by comparison the higher (treble) signal
frequencies appear more predominant. Obviously, intermediate settings
of R, permit selection of different degrees of attenuation.
Most higher-quality high-fidelity radio receivers and audio amplifi-
ers have a switch identified as the /oudness control. When the switch is
thrown to the in position the circuit increases the base response, particu-
larly at low volume levels, to compensate for the decreased sensitivity of
the human ear to low-frequency tones. The circuit shown in Figure 3-
6(D) exemplifies the basic components utilized. The circuit is associated
with the volume control R, and a slide-type (or pushbutton) switch se-
lects the in or out for the loudness control function. With the switch in
the in position, capacitor C, is placed in series with C, and R,. Now the
higher-frequency signals encounter a lower reactance for the shunt ca-
pacitors and are attenuated, thus producing an equivalent base signal
boost. As the volume control arm is turned down it reaches the tap con-
nected to C, and resistor R,; thus, it provides for an increased shunting
effect for high-frequency signals. In the out position the slide switch
shorts out capacitor C,and also disconnects capacitor C,, thus providing
for normal response.

3-9. PRE- AND DEEMPHASIS CIRCUITRY

Special signal-modifying circuits are often used in audio and radio trans-
mission practices for noise-reduction purposes. In public-entertainment
FM radio, for instance, a special noise-reduction system utilizes a
preemphasis circuit at the transmitter for special signal modification and
hence at the receiver it is necessary to employ a circuit that restores the
signal to its original status. For the latter purpose a circuit, termed a
deemphasis network, is utilized. The two circuits are illustrated in Figure
3-7. Such circuits help reduce the noises present in the interelements of
transistors as well as circuit noises generated by certain electronic com-
ponents. Since these noises are usually generated at a fixed level, the sig-
112 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

(a) (b)

Figure 3-7 Pre- and Deemphasis Circuit

nal-to-noise ratio can be improved by a process whereby the level of the

signals (whose frequencies are in the noise regions) is raised above the
constant-level noise. Since the generated noise signals have a rising am-
plitude at higher-frequency audio signals, the latter are raised in level at
a rate that increases for higher-frequency signals. This is termed
preemphasis and can be accomplished by the simple circuit shown in Fig-
ure 3-7(A). Here a capacitor (C,) has a lower capacitance than normal
for a coupling capacitor. Hence, there is a rising reactance for signals of
lower frequencies. Thus, higher-frequency signal amplitudes rise.
In the United States the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) has established certain specifications for the pre- and deemphasis
systems. The incline in the signal amplitude beyond its normal value for
the audio signal starts at approximately 400 Hz and rises gradually.
Thus, at 1 kHz the increase is | dB; at 1.5 kHz the rise is almost 2 dB,
and at 2 kHz the rise is about 3 dB. For 2.5 kHz there is almost a 4-dB
increase and from then on the rise is virtually linéar, reaching 8 dB for a
5-kHz signal and 17 dB for a 15-kHz signal. The time constant for the
preemphasis network of C and R is 75 ws; that is, 7 = 75 X 10-°s. In
FM, the increase of signal amplitude at the higher frequencies for
preemphasis purposes produces an increase in the frequency deviation of
the carrier and the values selected by the FCC produce optimum benefits
without undue frequency shifting of the carrier.
At the receiver a deemphasis circuit is required so that the exces-
sive rise in the levels of the high-frequency signals are restored to nor-
mal. Otherwise, the audio reception would be harsh and shrill for the
 PRE- AND DEEMPHASIS CIRCUITRY 113

high-frequency end of the treble response. A deemphasis circuit is shown

in Figure 3-7(B) and consists of a series resistor R, and a shunting ca-
pacitor C, having the same time constant of 75 ws as used in the
preemphasis. Thus, the excessive levels of the higher-frequency signals
are effectively brought down to normal amplitude. Capacitor C, is the
conventional coupling capacitor and R, is the volume control. Capacitor
C; prevents shorting of the base bias potential furnished via R, when the
variable arm of R, is at ground.
In FM public-entertainment broadcasting another preemphasis sys-
tem that is widely utilized incorporates the Dolby noise-reduction princi-
ple. This is an extension of the widely used Dolby-B noise-reduction
system employed in stereo cassette tape recorders and other tape decks.
For the latter the Dolby circuitry is conveniently encapsulated within an
integrated circuit and becomes a unified section of the circuitry associated
with the tape system. During recording, the level of a group of high-fre-
quency signals is modified by successfully boosting the level to a degree
related to the original amplitude. Basically, the system raises noise-prone
higher-frequency signals above the constant-level noise. During playback
a decoder within the IC reverses the signal amplitude rise and brings it to
normal levels. The reduction also drops the noise signals, and hence the
usual tape background noises, including high-frequency hiss, are reduced
by as much as 10 dB.
In FM broadcasting the preemphasis utilized has the drawback
that bandwidth is increased due to greater carrier deviation caused by
the higher-frequency signals, which have an increased amplitude. In Eu-
rope the 75-us time constant for preemphasis is replaced with a less ob-
jectionable 50-us time constant. In high-fidelity practices, however,
problems prevail because of the wide band of audio-frequency response
desired (20 to 20 kHz or more). Thus, broadcast stations often use cir-
cuits that compress higher signal amplitudes (or employ automatic peak-
limiting circuits) to prevent overextended band widths. In utilizing the
Dolby system for transmission, the selected time constant for the
preemphasis and the deemphasis is 25 ys. The latter was found to be ad-
equate to form a noise-reduction system in transmission. The Dolby sys-
tem used for transmitting, however, requires a special decoder at the
receiver to realize optimum noise-reduction benefits. Without the decod-
er, the treble tones of music would be modified perceptibly. Receivers
using the decoding network have a switch for selection of either the 75-
or the 25-ws deemphasis system, with the latter decoded by the built-in
Dolby circuitry.
114 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

3-10. ATTENUATORS (PADS)

As mentioned in Sec. 3—8, gain and tone controls are essentially attenua-
tors, utilizing variable resistors. Attenuators (also called pads) are also
formed by fixed-resistor values designed to perform dual functions: to di-
minish the level of the signal amplitude, and to match the impedance of
the input circuit with that of the output. A typical three-resistor pad is
shown in Figure 3—-8(A). This is an unbalanced network, since one line is
above ground. This pad is also known as a TJ pad. A balanced pad is
shown in (B) and if the shunting resistor is center tapped, as shown by
the dashed lines, the upper and lower lines are equally above ground.
Variable resistors can be used for the T pads, with a typical sche-
matic representation as shown in Figure 3—8(C). In practical applications,
however, the three variable resistors are wired as shown in (D). The ad-
vantage of such an attenuator system is the maintenance of a fixed-value
resistance at the base of the transistor. For maximum volume level the
positions of the variable arms would be as shown, hence the input signal
is transferred to the base input. If each resistoris 25 kQ, the setting
shown in (D) would have R, from base to ground for this resistance. At
minimum volume the variable arms of R, and R, would be at the open

Input
; Output
signal

(a) x (b)

(c)

Figure 3—8 Fixed and Variable Pads

 AUTOMATIC VOLUME CONTROL 115

ends of the resistors while the variable arm of R, would be at ground.

Thus, between the base and ground R, would now provide 25 kf. For in-
termediate volume levels the same resistance would be maintained be-
tween base and ground.

3-11. AUTOMATIC VOLUME CONTROL

Automatic volume control (AVC) circuits are used in communications

receivers to maintain the volume level at an amplitude level selected by
the volume control setting. Thus, the system holds to the preset output
volume despite variations in the strength of the incoming signal to the
detector. Thus, AVC compensates for the fading of transmitted signals,
or the difference in the amplitude of RF signals coming from different
stations and locations. Essentially, automatic volume control can be con-
sidered as an automatic gain (AGC), although the term “AVC” is uti-
lized primarily in radios while AGC generally designates the system
utilizing television receivers, as discussed in Sec. 3-12.
The principle utilized in AVC consists of sampling the signal am-
plitude at the detector and utilizing this sample for regulating the bias of
the transistors for the RF and IF amplifier stages. When the incoming
signal strength rises, a higher signal is also developed in the detector sys-
tem and thus a voltage of proper polarity can be obtained from the de-
tector for altering the bias of the early stages to cause a signal amplitude
reduction. Thus, the AVC automatically brings the output signal level
down to that set by the volume control.
The AVC bias takeoff section is illustrated in Figure 3-9(A). As
discussed in Sec. 2-42, diode D, rectifies the incoming RF signal and the
result appears across resistor R,. The average value of the rectified signal
is maintained by capacitor C,. The output from the volume control R, is
coupled to a subsequent stage by C,. The takeoff network consists of ca-
pacitor C, and resistor R,. These two components form a filter section
that virtually eliminates audio-signal variations. Capacitor C, has a low
reactance to bypass audio-signal components; consequently, a negative-
polarity dc signal is formed. If the volume stabilization bias must have a
positive polarity, diode D, can be reversed to alter the electron flow di-
rection and hence the polarity of the AVC signal. In some industrial
electronic systems, the terms automatic signal amplitude control or auto-
matic level control are used.
116 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

Modulater
RF signal
input

Figure 3-9 Automatic Gain Controls

3-12. AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

The purpose of an automatic gain control (AGC) system is to maintain

the signal level (contrast) of a television picture to that preset by adjust-
ment of the contrast control. As with the AVC circuit discussed in Sec.
3-11, the AGC circuitry develops bias for the RF and IF stages to cor-
rect for any increase or decrease in gain above the preestablished value.
The basic circuit could be in the form of the AVC section shown in Fig-
ure 3-9(A), although the system known as keyed AGC illustrated in (B)
is the preferred method. Here, transistor Q, functions as the AGC gate
and transistor Q, performs the amplification of the AGC bias signals.
As shown in (B), the video signal input is applied to the base ter-
minal of Q, and consists of horizontal blanking and sync signals, vertical
blanking and sync signals, and the video signal, which contains picture
information. A positive-polarity pulse obtained from the horizontal out-
put circuit is applied to the Q, collector terminal as shown. Thus, the
signals at the base and collector have positive polarities. If negative-po-
 SIGNAL-DELAY SYSTEMS 117

larity signals were to be used, a pnp transistor would be employed for Q..
Resistor R, is set to the point where Q, does not conduct during the ab-
sence of base and collector signals. Thus, for Q, to conduct, both base
and collector signals must be present.
The precise adjustment of R, sets the input terminals of Q, to the
point where only the sync tips of the composite video signal arriving at
the base terminal have sufficient amplitude to permit conduction. How-
ever, without the presence of the reverse bias (furnished by the positive
pulse at the collector), conduction cannot occur. Since the pulse is
obtained from the horizontal output circuitry, and since the horizontal
blanking occurs periodically, conduction occurs at the horizontal sweep
rate. (The latter is 15,750 pulses per second for black-and-white trans-
mission and 15,734 for color.) When conduction does occur, electron
flow occurs through resistor R, as well as R,, R,, and R, (the latter con-
necting to the positive supply terminal shown). Thus, the base side of R,
develops a negative potential and establishes forward bias for Q,. The
periodic output signal obtained from the emitter of Q, is filtered by the
capacitor—resistor network that couples the signal to the base of Q..
Thus, a steady-state signal is maintained at the base of Q, and is ampli-
fied for applications to the IF amplifiers (from the collector) and the RF
amplifiers (from the emitter) as shown. Since transistor Q, does not con-
duct between horizontal sync pulses, any noise signals present in the in-
coming signals to the base of Q, are eliminated because the transistor is
nonconducting at that time. When the incoming signal rises in ampli-
tude, the base of Q, obtains a higher-amplitude signal. The latter causes
an increase in forward bias and thus increases the conduction amplitude.
As a result, a higher-amplitude AGC bias is developed with a polarity
established so that it will decrease the signal gain to the preset level.

3-13. SIGNAL-DELAY SYSTEMS

Often in electronic digital systems it is necessary to delay a signal (such

as a pulse or spike waveform) for a specific time interval. Several meth-
ods for doing this are shown in Figure 3-10. A transmission-line delay is
shown in (A) and consists of a number of series inductors and shunt ca-
pacitors. Such a line need not consist of discrete components but could
utilize equivalent forms of inductance and capacitance formed by any
length of transmission line needed. For higher-frequency signals the se-
ries inductance inherent in any length of wire becomes appreciable, as
 ~

118 CATION
SIGNAL MODIFIROUTING, ,
AND CONTROL

Peak
clipper
circuit

oe
oe
ee
OFa
Qo Ste nw _ Ne

Relaxation
oscillator

(c)
Figure 3-10 Signal-Delay Circuits .

does the shunt capacitance formed whenever two conductors are placed
into close proximity.
For a length of line such as that shown in Figure 3—-10(A), any sig-
nal applied to the input will travel the length of the line in a time inter-
val determined by the line length and the reactances formed by series
conductors and shunt capacitors. When the line is tapped at specific in-
tervals, as shown, output terminals are obtained that furnish a signal de-
lay that is longer for the terminals farther away from the input. For the
 COMBINING CIRCUIT 119

system shown, a pulse entering at time t, can be obtained at the first out-
put terminal with a delay of t, as shown. Subsequent taps produce the
same signal at later time periods than that of the input pulse. The line is
terminated by the shunt resistor, R,, which has an ohmic value equal to
the line impedance (Z= V L/C).
The load resistance at the end of the line absorbs the signal energy
reaching it. When R, has an ohmic value equal to the line impedance (Z,)
the resistor prevents any signal reflection back along the line. Line reflec-
tions cause standing waves of signal amplitude along the line and disturb
proper signal-delay function.
Another method for signal delay is shown in Figure 3—10(B). Here
a spike pulse having a leading edge identified as time ¢, is applied to a
single-shot multivibrator (see Secs. 3-2 and 6-19). The output from the
latter is a negative-polarity pulse with its leading edge coinciding in time
with the input spike signal. This pulse is differentiated by the series ca-
pacitor and shunt resistor as shown, producing a negative spike at time ¢,
and a positive spike at time 4. This signal is applied to a peak clipper
circuit, which eliminates negative excursions of the incoming signal. Con-
sequently, the output consists of a single spike pulse having a leading
edge delayed to time ¢,in relation to the input pulse time ¢,.
Another method is shown in Figure 3-10(C). Here the input pulse
having a duration referenced as ¢, and ¢, is differentiated to produce a
sharp positive spike at ¢, and a negative spike at t,. This signal is applied
to a relaxation oscillator that requires a negative-polarity pulse for pulse
repetition synchronization. Consequently, the output pulse is initiated by
the negative spike input 4, and hence the leading edge of the output
pulse has been delayed as shown.

3-14. COMBINING CIRCUIT

There are many occasions in electronic systems where certain pulse or

spike waveforms must be inserted into another group of signals at pre-
cise time intervals. A typical example occurs in television transmission,
where it is necessary to insert blanking pulses at specific time intervals in
the video signal. In addition, sync pulses are then mounted on top of the
blanking pulses. These and other combining tasks are performed by gat-
ing circuits which consist of several transistors with individual inputs
combined in a single output, as shown in Figure 3-11. Here transistor Q,
has forward bias applied to it via resistor R, and conducts continuously.
120 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

Trigger
pulse r]

Figure 3-11 Combining Circuit

Assume that the input signal consists of the five pulses shown, with a
two-pulse time interval between the third and the fourth pulse. This
pulse train is amplified by Q, and would appear in the collector circuit as
an amplified inversion of the input signal. The positive polarity is re-
stored by the subsequent amplifier stage as shown. Transistor Q, has an
uninterrupted train of positive pulses applied to the base circuit as
shown. No de forward bias is applied, but the pulse train has sufficient
amplitude and is of correct polarity to provide forward bias for Q,. Since
the latter, however, is in series with Q,, it is unable to conduct unless Q,
also conducts. For Q,, however, conduction does not occur until the soli-
tary positive pulse appears, having a time coincident with the fourth
pulse of input signal to Q,. Thus, the trigger pulse at Q, input and the
fourth pulse in the signal train at Q, form a coinciding forward bias that
permits Q, and Q, to conduct simultaneously. Consequently, these two
transistors develop an output signal that combines the added pulse am-
plitude triggered at the time interval illustrated. Consequently, the out-
put waveform now has this additional pulse inserted as illustrated at the
output amplifier terminal.
 BALANCED MODULATOR 121

Audio To sideband
signal amplifier

input

RF signal
input

Figure 3-12 Balanced Modulator

3-15. BALANCED MODULATOR

A balanced modulator using pnp transistors is shown in Figure 3-12.

The purpose for this circuit is to modulate an RF carrier, generate side-
bands, and suppress the original carrier and the modulating signal. As
shown, for this particular circuit the audio signal input is applied to
transformer 7, and transferred to the base inputs of the two transistors.
The RF carrier signal is injected utilizing transformer 7, and appears in
series with the power supply potential and the center tap of transformer
T,. Since the RF signal is applied at the center tap of the 7, secondary,
the signal is applied in phase to both base terminals of the transistor. The
amplified RF signal energy appears at the collectors of both Q, and Q..
Since the latter are connected in push-pull configuration, electron flow
through each transistor is from the — V terminal to the center tap of 7.
Hence, current changes caused by the applied RF signals at the base ter-
minals are equal and opposite for each side of the center tap at 7,. Thus,
cancellation occurs for the RF signal at the output.
For the audio signals appearing across the secondary of T, a phase
division occurs because of the center tap; hence, each base terminal re-
ceives a signal 180° out of phase with the other. Because the audio sig-
nals alter collector-current amplitudes for both Q, and Q,, the carrier-
frequency currents within each transistor are altered by modulation. The
resultant sidebands encounter resonant circuits made up of C, and the
upper winding for the primary of 7, for Q,, and C, and the lower wind-
122 SIGNAL MODIFICATION, ROUTING, AND CONTROL

ing of the primary of 7, for Q,. These parallel-resonant circuits have a

low impedance for the off-resonant audio signals and thus attenuate
them. Because the output circuit also suppresses the carrier, only the
sideband signals appear in the secondary of T.Fe
At the input, capacitors C, and C, have a low reactance for the RF
signals and thus provide for a low-impedance coupling to the base ele-
ments of the transistor. For the audio signals appearing across the i$
secondary, however, the capacitors have a high reactance and hence do
not effect audio-signal amplitudes (see Sec. 11—2).

oa
 4 Integrated Circuits

4-1. INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT FACTORS

Integrated circuit (IC) is a term describing a micro-miniaturized electron-

ic-circuit system. The finished unit may contain thousands of transistors,
resistors, diodes, and capacitors, all interconnected to perform specific
electronic functions. The integrated circuitry is contained in an extremely
miniature solid-state monolithic chip and encapsulated in a plastic hous-
ing. A number of external prongs are present, including those for apply-
ing power-supply potentials and for signal input and output routing. It
is significant that the external prongs have a bulk thousands of times
greater than the electronic components and circuits within the integrated
chip.
Integrated circuits are often used to make up a module containing
external components of a size or characteristic not lending itself to inte-
gration. The module thus forms a part of a unified and complete system.
Thus, computers, television systems, and so on, may have a number of
integrated-circuit units as well as modules present. The basic internal
structure, component formation, and other pertinent data are contained
in subsequent sections of this chapter.
Integrated circuits fall into several categories relative to the type of
circuitry contained within the chip. Some special-purpose ICs contain
discrete devices such as transistors, diodes, and thyristors, such as the
SCRs, SCSs, and others detailed in Sec. 2-41. The primary categories,
however, are those covered in the remaining paragraphs of this section.

123
124 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Linear ICs contain RF and IF amplifiers, audio amplifiers, opera-

tional and differential amplifiers, and others handling nondigital signals.
Digital ICs are those containing various logic circuits, such as flip-
flop systems, pulse counting and arithmetic sections, encoder units, and
parity-check devices (see Chaps. 5 and 6).
Memory ICs are those containing storage components for use in
calculators and computers. These IC types include random-access memo-
ry (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and other similar types. Also in-
cluded are code converters and registers, as well as character generators.
Interface ICs are those especially designed to interconnect and link
peripheral equipment such as printers and display units with the central
processor unit (CPU). Such ICs contain sensor circuits (level converters),
beginning and terminating with input and output lines matching the pe-
ripheral devices to the CPU.
Microprocessor ICs are chips containing thousands of transistors
and associated components capable of performing complete digital pro-
cessing in calculator and computer electronics. Some data storage capa-
bility and interface sections are included. The peripheral equipment
linked to the microprocessor is termed hardware, and the instructional
material and codes associated with a particular processor is known as
software.
Microcomputer ICs contain the basic sections making up the com-
plete central processor unit with necessary memory, data transfer circuit-
ry, data processors, arithmetic units, and so on. These are multiple-
prong chips, described in subsequent sections of this chapter.

4-2. DIODE-TRANSISTOR IC BASIC STRUCTURES ~._

The basic structure and formation of integrated circuitry is shown in

Figure 4—1. Numerous techniques are involved in processing the compo-
nents of an integrated circuit. Combinations of thermal, chemical, and
optical procedures are utilized. As shown in Figure 4—1(A), the founda-
tion slab, termed a substrate, usually consists of an extremely thin silicon
wafer. This particular substrate slab is chemically doped to form a p-
zone characteristic. As also shown, an n strip is overlaid by fusing the
two together. This process involves isolation defusion, which forms n
zones as shown in (B). The isolation of the n zones thus forms p-n junc-
tions. Consequently, as shown at (C), the basic elements of a semicon-
 DIODE-TRANSISTOR IC BASIC STRUCTURES 125

Isolation diffusion
regions
n zones
Layer
between
(n)
regions

Substrate
Substrate (p)
(Pp)

(a) (b)

Cathode Anode Base Collector

Emitter

(d) (c)

Figure 4—1 Basic IC Structure

ductor diode have been produced and appropriate terminals thus

complete the diode structure.
The basic diode structure can be processed additionally to form
transistors. The processes mentioned earlier may include utilization of
acid for etching away portions of the structure and the employment of
thermal processes and mask fabrication techniques. Photoetching proce-
dures are used in addition to defusion techniques and vacuum-deposition
procedures. Almost all of the basic electronic components needed in
complete systems can be fabricated and interconnected within the micro-
miniature IC structure. Since capacitance is always present between junc-
tions within the basic IC chip, the p-n junctions are utilized as
capacitors. Specific values can be obtained by design factors relating the
proximity of two elements as well as mass. Although inductors present
an almost insurmountable fabrication problem, the characteristics of in-
ductance can be produced to form an equivalent inductor utilizing
phase-shifting circuitry. Resistance elements present few problems.
126 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

When the component interconnections are on the same plane or

surface of the IC foundation slab the structure formation is referred to
as a planer process. Undesired elements or portions of the structure are
eliminated by defusion, etching, and oxidation. During defusion, atomic
structures are intermixed in precise proportions to achieve the particular
operational characteristic needed. The oxidation process involves the
combination of oxygen with a selected element to alter and re-form the
structure as needed. By continuing the process a triode-type junction
transistor is formed as shown in Figure 4—1(D). Here, an npn-type tran-
sistor is produced (see Chaps. 2 and 10).

4-3. FET AND COMPONENT FORMATION

As with the procedure outlined in Sec. 4-2 for diode and transistor for-
mation, similar processes are utilized in the design of IC field-effect tran-
sistors as shown in Figure 4—2. In part (A) an n-type silicon substrate
foundation is utilized with p-type defusions introduced for the produc-
tion of the FET elements of source, drain, and gate (see Chaps. 2 and

p channel

Source XK Drain
Gate

(a) a
Gate 2

n channel =

Source Drain
Gate |

Figure 4-2 Field-Effect Transistor Formations

 REFERENCE SCALE OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 127

10). The structure is finalized by employing masking processes. An ex-

tremely thin layer of oxide is formed over the surface. Etching proce-
dures form openings (termed windows) localized under the p regions. By
utilizing a metallic evaporation process over the surface area the neces-
sary metallic contacts are formed. For the junction field-effect transistor
(JFET) the gate element is created by defusing a p-n junction into the
channel material. Thus, as shown in (A), a p-channel FET is formed be-
cause of the polarity of the slab and the region that are established.
The n-channel type FET basic structure is shown in Figure 4—2(B).
Note the polarity differences between this n-channel type and the p-
channel type shown in (A). For creation of a dual-gate FET, the inte-
grated circuit is structured to produce an additional gate element in the
slab as shown in (C). The gate element (G,) is electrically insulated from
the initial (G,) gate element. In the formation of a p-channel dual-gate
FET there would be the same reversal of the defusion-zone polarities as
was the case between the single-gate p-channel and n-channel types.
The formation of combinational components such as a diode and
resistor are illustrated in Figure 4-3. As shown in (A), an n zone is
defused into the p-type substrate to form the diode. The resistor is creat-
ed by the defusion of a p zone into the n zone. Thus, the diode and resis-
tor are combined in this chip element. As mentioned in Sec. 4-2, a
capacitor can be included in the chip by taking advantage of the capaci-
tance existing between two elements. To prevent conduction, reverse bias
is utilized with the p-n junction. Generally, the value of the capacitance
so formed is determined by the depletion-region gap. Of interest is the
fact that the capacitance value is related to the amplitude of the applied
voltage since the latter can alter the depletion region gap. Such an alter-
ation would change the capacitance value because of the change in the
dielectric constant. Thus, during design the amplitude of the applied
voltage must be determined to achieve a specific capacitance value.
Ranges possible are from 15 pF to over 100 pF. Varactor diodes utilized
for tuning purposes in communication systems are such semiconductor
units that undergo a capacitance change by altering the applied voltage
(see Secs. 2-32 and 10-4).

4—4. REFERENCE SCALE OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Several terms have been utilized as a general reference for the magnitude
of the circuitry contained within an IC unit. Small-scale integration (SSI
128 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Cathode Anode

Silicon
pg dioxide
layers

Substrate (p)

(b)
Figure 4-3 Component Formations

refers to the types generally containing linear or digital circuit sections.

Such chips are usually used in association with other ICs making up the
complete electronic system. Medium-scale-integration (MSI) units are
types that house primary circuit combinations forming complete units
used in digital watches, electronic games, smoke alarms, and similar sys-
tems. The large-scale integration (LSI) contains thousands of semicon-
ductor transistors and components and such a single IC thus is utilized
in calculators and in advanced electronic games such as chess, checkers,
and backgammon.
The very-large-scale integration (VLSI) plus the very-high-speed in-
tegration (VHSI) contain transistors and associated components number-
ing in the hundred thousands. In addition to serving as central
processing units (CPUs) they are useful in forming large-capacity memo-
ries in excess of 64 kilobits. These very-large-scale types are the vital
cores of sophisticated electronic systems such as computers with exten-
sive self-contained storage, capable of complex processes, utilizing speech
 HOUSING AND SYMBOLS 129

synthesis when required, and capable of initiating visual display and

character recognition.
The VHSI units provide for extremely high-speed digital data han-
dling, gating, and signal routing. A capability of 1 megabit or more of
data handling per second is not uncommon. Very-large-scale integration
techniques involve the formation of higher packing within the chip dur-
ing formation. The process involves the building up of the vertical struc-
ture of the semiconductor as shown in Figure 4—3(B). A p-type substrate
is doped with n-type atomic impurities plus silicon dioxide layers. With
this process components such as resistors can overlay other semiconduc-
tor units. [On occasion, polarity signs may be used with the p and n des-
ignations. When a plus sign follows a zone designation such as n+, it
indicates an area of heavy doping with atomic impurities. The minus
sign (n—) refers to areas with light-percentage doping.]

4-5. HOUSING AND SYMBOLS

Since integrated-circuit units have such a wide range of internal compo-

nents and circuitry, there is a corresponding difference in the number of
external connectors found in commercial units. Some ICs may have only
a few prongs such as shown in Figure 4—4(A) or a number of prongs as
in (B). In (C) is shown a top view of a typical IC. Often the prong-num-
bering sequence origin is identified by either a notch, as shown, or a col-
ored dot. Some ICs are connected to other external circuitry by being
plugged into matching sockets. Others are set into prepunched holes in a
printed-circuit board with the prongs soldered to appropriate circuit
interconnecting wiring.
The integrated-circuit unit may be represented in several ways in
the schematic for the particular electronic system in which it is used. On
occasion the rectangular form is used as shown in Figure 4—4(D). Here a
communications detector and output amplifier system is incorporated
within the chip. The input signal is applied to the detector via IC termi-
nal 1 and the output is obtained from terminal 5. Terminal 7 is utilized
for positive voltage application while terminal 4 receives the negative
voltage potential. Pin 2 connects to the volume control. Other IC repre-
sentation of this type involving logic circuits are shown in Figure 6-11.
The IC may also be represented in triangular form as shown in
Figure 4—4(E). In such illustrations it is common practice to depict only
those terminals that are connected to internal components. Thus, for the
130 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

(e)
Figure 4—4 |C Housing and Symbols

IC shown in (E) there are no connections to terminals 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, and

12. Since this triangle represents an amplifier, a volume control is con-
nected to terminal 6 and ground as shown. The capacitor-resistor net-
work from terminal 3 to ground represents the emitter to ground
network for the input transistor. The positive potential is applied to ter-
minal 9 and the negative potential (at ground) is applied to terminal 11.
The output is obtained from terminal 7 as shown. |

4-6. T?L CIRCUITRY

A typical example of multiemitter transistors fabricated into integrated

circuits is shown in Figure 4—5(A). Such a device provides for multiple-
signal input for simplification of logic gate circuits and for decreased
time in switching. Such units may have only two emitters, whereas some
have three or more as needed. The unit is an npn transistor having the
advantage of operating at low power levels in digital logic circuitry.
 N-MOS AND P-MOS_ 131

Output
Collector

Ca
Sys
Loyal

Emitters

Aa} +V

Figure 4-5 T?L Circuitry

The three-emitter transistor (Q,) is shown in Figure 4—5(B), where

it is used in conjunction with a conventional three-element transistor (Q,)
to form a nand gate. Such a circuit is also termed a transistor-transistor
logic unit, designated by the letters TTL or T’L. Transistor Q, requires a
negative emitter with respect to the base for establishing forward bias.
Thus, the application of negative pulses to the input emitter sections is
needed for conduction. The collector of Q, is directly coupled to the base
terminal of Q,as shown. When three negative pulses appear at the input
of Q, the resultant forward bias causes a current flow in the base and
collector sections of Q,. The in-phase change in potential at the Q, collec-
tor also appears at the base terminal of Q,. The negative-polarity voltage
change at Q, decreases the forward bias and hence the conduction for Q,
drops. The conduction decline decreases the voltage drop across R,. The
resultant current decrease through R, represents a potential change in the
positive direction as shown.
The T’L circuitry accomplishes logic processes utilizing a minimum
of components. Switching response is very rapid because the time-delay
characteristics during signal processing are negligible. As the number of
emitters is increased to handle more input signals, the circuit efficiency
may decline. A multiple array of emitters may also cause a rise in solid-
state interelement noise generation.

4-7. N-MOS AND P-MOS

The metallic-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are

widely used in integrated-circuit design practices because of the particu-
132 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

lar advantages they offer during the fabrication process. Often the utili-
zation of npn and pnp bipolar transistors in LSI circuitry necessitates
several diffusion processes. In addition, the chip size is reduced consider-
ably when the semiconductor components can be packed densely during
formation. For the bipolar units electrical isolation from the common
substrate has hampered dense-packing processes. For the MOS devices a
single diffusion is often the only requirement and since the structure is
basically a self-isolating type, dense packing is expedited. The latter pro-
cess not only reduces IC size but also lowers internal capacitances that
interfere with rapid switching. Switching speeds are also improved be-
cause the dense packing permits the fabrication of a greater number of
transistors and components within a given chip, thus shortening the
interconnecting linkages between them.
The designations of N-MOS and P-MOS identify the basic struc-
ture of the MOSFET. When n-type doping is used for the source and
drain elements with a p-type channel separation an N-MOS formation
results. Here a positive potential is needed at the gate to permit conduc-
tion between drain and source. For the P-MOS unit the source and drain
undergo a p-type doping with the channel between them an n-type. Now
a negative potential at the gate permits conduction. The N-MOS unit
has superior switching chracteristics because virtually all conduction is
by electron movement in contrast to the P-MOS, where the majority car-
riers consist of holes which do not move as readily through the semicon-
ductor structure.

4-8. C-MOS ICs

A useful and widely used circuit incorporated into the ICs is the comple-
mentary metallic-oxide semiconductor, termed the C-MOS. The basic cir-
cuit is shown in Figure 4-6(A), where two MOSFETs are combined, one
a p-channel type and the other an n-channel type. The system is charac-
terized by extremely low operational currents, high efficiency, and its
usefulness in both linear and digital-logic systems. Since the p-channel
and n-channel units are in parallel, the operational characteristics involve
opposite-polarity signals. Consequently, if the n-channel transistor is gat-
ed into conduction the p-channel unit is nonconducting. In the absence
of input signals, the C-MOS system consumes virtually no electric pow-
er. Complex logic-circuit arrays utilizing C-MOS sections with over 100
gating sections utilize less than 0.1 mW of electric energy.
 I2L CIRCUITRY 133

+Via

Input Output

(a) (b)

Figure 4-6 C-MOS Circuit Formation

Power consumption is related to the repetition rate of the input

pulses. As the frequency is raised and the duration of the pulses as well
as the time interval between them are shortened, the average power rises
slightly. For gating frequencies as high as 10 kHz the C-MOS circuit
still dissipates less than | ~W for either gate of the dual-gate system.
A C-MOS system with external components is illustrated in Figure
4—6(B). The input signal may be applied via capacitor C, and resistor R,
may be present during linear-circuit operation for stabilizing circuit bias.
Essentially, R, forms a feedback path that tends to stabilize any bias
drift left at the output. This circuit can be utilized for signal amplifica-
tion or generation. In the latter instance a piezoquartz crystal is often
placed in shunt with R, to improve frequency stability.
The circuits involving C-MOS design are noted for exceptional sig-
nal-transfer characteristics and operational capabilities extending well
into the megahertz region. They have found wide applications in commu-
nications and instrumentation circuits as well as in digital-logic systems.

4-9. ?L CIRCUITRY

A specially designed circuit widely used in bipolar large-scale integration

(LSI) is that termed integrated-injection logic. The symbol is I?L and the
circuit is characterized by design simplicity (minimum number of compo-
nents), low power consumption, and high efficiency. The I?L circuit is
134 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

also useful for the storage of binary signals. The versatility of the I7L in-
cludes its usage in low-cost ICs for electronic watches, digital voltmeter
applications, logic arrays, and digital-logic processing in calculators. The
system is also applicable to linear circuitry in communications systems.
The basic circuit representing integrated-injection logic is shown in
Figure 4-7(A). A signal inversion occurs between the base input and the
multicollector npn transistor. The intertwined circles (in series from the
base terminal to ground) signify a constant-current source for the base-
emitter terminals, as described more fully later in this section.

Input

Q, 4+V

(a) (b)
Figure 4-7 |*L Circuit Formation

The fundamental I*L design for gating purposes utilizes dual tran-
sistors in complementary formation. The multicollector transistor Q, pro-
vides for a signal inversion as well as amplification. As shown, there is
an absence of circuit components such as resistors, capacitors, and in-
ductors. The pnp transistor Q, combines the input terminal (emitter) with
the current-source unit. The latter is one version of the circuitry repre-
sented by the overlapping circles in (A). Resistive components may be
utilized here also as dictated by design requirements (see Sec. 2-22 and
Figure 2-17).

4-10. SCHOTTKY-CLAMPED [?7L

A special np junction forming a diode has been widely used with gating
circuitry. The special unit is termed a Schottky diode and it is capable of
switching function in time intervals much shorter than those obtained by
conventional junction diodes. The Schottky diodes also have a lower in-
ternal resistance and hence also have a decreased voltage drop across
them compared to conventional diode types. The latter characteristic de-
creases power losses.
 DCTL NOR CIRCUITRY 135

A typical Schottky-diode application is shown in Figure 4-8. Here

four diodes are employed to clamp the output signal amplitude from an
PL gate system. These special diodes limit the swing of signal ampli-
tudes of logic gate sections and hence reduce switching delays encoun-
tered with excessive signal swing levels. By using Schottky diodes the
switching speeds can be increased over six times the speed encountered if
the I?L circuit is not clamped. For the system illustrated in Figure 4-8,
the signal-swing amplitudes can be confined to a clamp level less than
one-half of the prevailing peaks for such a circuit.

FE Output
section lines

Input Schottky
diodes

Figure 4—8 |?L with Schottky Clamp

4-11. DCTL NOR CIRCUITRY

In direct-coupled circuitry successive stages are connected sequentially

without intervening resistors, capacitors, or inductors. Thus, reactive
losses are minimized, a higher signal-frequency response is possible, and
circuit design is more simple. Consequently, fabrication techniques in IC
processing are expedited. In digital systems the term direct-coupled logic
(DCL) applies, although on occasion the term is expanded to direct-cou-
pled transistor logic (DCTL).
A typical example of the utilization of direct coupling in IC prac-
tices is the nor circuitry, shown in Figure 4-9. As illustrated in the sche-
matic drawing, transistors Q, and Q, are in parallel and form a nor
circuit with dual inputs. The output represents a negated signal and this
is applied to the base input terminals of both Q, and Q,. Since the output
from the latter two transistors is obtained from the collector circuitry
the resultant phase inversion causes the output signal to revert back to
136 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Output |

Figure 4-9 DCTL nor Circuitry

the same polarity at the input. In addition, independent inputs are avail-
able at the base terminals of transistors Q,and Q,. Since the output from
these two transistors is also obtained from the collector circuitry, the re-
sultant phase inversion produces a negated output for either the C input
or the D input.
The symbolic representation of the DCTL nor system is also
shown in Figure 4—9. Note that the A and B inputy are applied to a sin-
gle nor circuit, the output of which is applied simultaneously to two ad-
ditional nor circuits. The original A+B input from the first nor circuit
becomes A+B. When the latter expression is applied to the input of an-
other nor circuit, the output reverts back to the original expression of
A+B. For the C and D inputs the resultant nor inversion produces C as
well as D.

4-12. MD-MOS ICs

The fabrication in IC structure of multidrain metallic-oxide semiconduc-

tors (MD-MOS) permits the packaging of high-speed logic gates in a
 MD-MOS ICs_ 137

configuration generally comparable to integrated injection logic (I?L).

The MD-MOS system lends itself readily to computer-aided design
(CAD) and has also been utilized for other purposes, such as the nucleus
of speech synthesizer units (see Sec. 11-12).
Multidrain MOS circuitry can be considered akin to the integrated-
injection logic system except for the use of MOSFETs. The basic fabrica-
tion structure is shown in Figure 4-10(A). A p-type substrate is utilized
with multiple drain segments present by creation of the n-zone areas. An
n-channel logic gate of polysilicon is utilized over a thin oxide layer,
with the common gate serving as the input line. The n-channel logic gate
and multiple drain elements are associated with the depletion-mode n-
channel transistor. As shown at (B), the n-channel transistor has a base
input terminal also linked to the base input of Q,. The circuitry inherent-
ly utilizes more power than the I’L sections since it has a static charac-
teristic. The extremely narrow polysilicon gate creates a capacitance
between it and the source terminal which is over twice that encountered
in the I?7L. Constant improvements have resulted in increasingly wider
applications for this device.

Source a
Drains

(a)

Figure 4-10 MD-MOS Fabrication and Basic Circuit

138 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

4-13. V-MOS FACTORS

In IC technology MOSFET units in large-scale integrated circuits origi-

nally were planar (two-dimensional). A later fabrication procedure creat-
ed a vertical dimension to the basic IC chip by positioning the drain and
gate elements above the source element rather than adjacent to them.
The unit formed by this process has been termed V-MOS. The result has
been a semiconductor producing gating speeds in excess of those possible
by I’L systems. The V-MOS units have also found application in a vari-
ety of digital storage systems such as static random-access memory
(SRAM) units with an access time below 100 ns. In addition, erasable
programmable read-only memory (EPROM) and read-only memory
(ROM) sections may be fabricated readily.
The basic structure of the V-MOS is shown in Figure 4-11. Uti-
lizing an n substrate, the V-MOS n-channel transistor is formed by
employing the slopes of a groove as shown. The groove structure is cre-
ated by anisotropically etching it into the surface of the silicon substrate.
The active channel is in the slope area of the V-groove. The latter is
within the epitaxial layer and consists of a p-type layer of less than 1 “wm
covered by a lightly doped p layer. The channel is formed on the slopes
of the groove with the source in the body of the silicon. The drain is the
upper-layer n-type area.

n+ n+ substrate

Figure 4-11 V-MOS Basic Structure

4-14. D-MOS STRUCTURES

The process involving double diffusion in forming a MOSFET in ICs

produces what is termed a D-MOS unit. Such a device minimizes some
voltage-gradient problems experienced with the V-MOS. As shown in
 SILICON ON SAPPHIRE 139

Gate

n— epitaxial layer

n+ substrate

et

Figure 4-12 D-MOS Structure

Figure 4-12, an n-type epitaxial layer is grown on an n+ substrate slab.

Next the p— areas are diffused and within them n+ regions are formed
as shown. Silicon gates are structured within silicon dioxide layers, after
which the source and gate terminals are added by metallization processes
forming an array of p and n regions that create the channels. The term
“D-MOS” has other designations also, including ‘‘Z-MOS” and
“T-MOS.”

4-15. SILICON ON SAPPHIRE

The term describing the silicon-on-sapphire fabrication process is desig-

nated as SOS. The process improves the metal-gate performance of the
MOS. The SOS, using vertical junctions, have decreased areas and hence
lower structural capacitances than component formation fabricated in
bulk silicon. Consequently, the capacitances, such as those between sub-
strate and conductors that would slow down switching speeds, are re-
duced significantly.
These units also have low-power dissipation advantages, particular-
ly when the formation consists of C-MOS on sapphire. The substrate in
the SOS devices is a single crystal (synthetic sapphire). The initial pro-
cess consists of producing an epitaxial growth on the sapphire substrate.
The layer is doped with an n-type infusion. Etching and defusion pro-
cesses are used to build up the structure. Masking and etching proce-
dures are applied to the silicon sections to produce contact openings.
The conductor pattern formation is achieved after depositing a thin alu-
minum film by the evaporation process.
140 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

4-16. H-MOS TYPES

High-performance MOSFETs are designated as H-MOS units. In in-

stances where the H-MOS units are also high-density types utilizing the
C-MOS devices, the designation HD-CMOS applies. The H-MOS de-
vices exhibit rapid switching characteristics because of their particular
structure. Maximum threshold configurations are achieved by utilizing
thicker field oxide. The use of an on-chip negative bias for the substrate
reduces capacitances at the junctions. The formation of thin oxides and
decreased channel widths helps improve gating and switching speeds.
Interconnection resistances that tend to impede conduction have
been reduced by utilization of deeper phosphorus diffusion than used in
other structures prior to the advent of the H-MOS type. These phospho-
rus diffusions under the contact area plus utilization of doped polysilicon
elements contribute to the resistance reduction.
Gating and switching delays are reduced additionally by virtually
exact self-alignment of the gate section with the drain—source areas. The
H-MOS devices also permit the formation of computer-storage memories
in excess of 250 kilobits. The unit is sufficiently versatile in its applica-
tion to permit usage in various areas of electronics.

4-17. LINEAR-CIRCUIT ICs

The linear circuits described in Chap. 2 are also incorporated in ICs as

well as digital circuitry. Generally, direct-coupling circuits are preferred
to minimize the number. The direct-coupled Class B amplifier shown in
Figure 4-13 is a typical example. Here Q, represents the preamplifier and
Q, plus Q, provide the phase inversion process for application to the out-
put transistors Q, and Q.. The latter comprise the complementary-sym-
metry type of output. Such circuits are usually modified so that they
require only a minimum of supply potential for operation. In many in-
stances bipolar transistors are preferred over the field-effect type in the
design of low-voltage linear ICs. Often, however, the FET threshold po-
tential may be equal to that of the bipolar units and hence offer no ad-
vantages. Also, the FET transconductance is less than the bipolar units
and a specific drain-current change may require a gate-source change
equal to the base-emitter voltage of the bipolar transistors. Thus, there
would be no particular advantage for the FET usage. There are in-
 RTL AND ECL CIRCUITS 141

Output

Input

Figure 4-13 Direct-Coupled Class B Amplifier

stances, however, where the FET may be utilized in such applications as

operational amplifiers (see Sec. 2-21).

4-18. RTL AND ECL CIRCUITS

Basic transistor-circuit logic is used to form gating and switching func-

tions and one of the earliest types is resistor—transistor logic (RTL). The
two-transistor type shown in Figure 4—14(A) represents one of the first
such types incorporated into integrated circuitry. For the circuit shown
the digital-logic nor function is obtained. Transistors Q, and Q, receive
the A+B inputs with series resistors R, and R,. Resistor R, is the collec-
tor resistor across which the output signal develops. Standard values for
this circuit are 450 © for R, and R, and 640 12 for R,. With the collec-
tors in parallel, an input signal applied to either gate terminal produces
an output signal. Since there is a phase inversion for a common-emitter
circuit, the nor function is obtained (see Secs. 2-2 and 6-6).
Although the RTL circuit has been superseded by more sophisti-
cated circuits with improved switching characteristics, it is still found in
existing equipment. The more modern versions include the I?L (Sec. 4-
9), the DCTL (Sec. 4-11), and others described in this chapter. When
resistors are utilized they combine with circuit capacitances to introduce
time-constant delays. Also, if gating circuitry involves a saturation mode,
 yh

142 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

=
Output

input Q, input

Output

(b)

Figure 4-14 RTL and ECL Circuits

™,
the turn-off gating time interval is increased. Hence, of particular advan-
tage was the design of emitter-coupled logic (ECL).
The basic circuit of an emitter-coupled logic system is shown in
Figure 4—14(B). In this circuit switching time is reduced because the gat-
ing principle does not depend on current amplitude, but rather on the
direction of the current. For the circuit shown, a common-emitter config-
uration prevails for transistors Q,, Q,, and Q,. An A or B input is pro-
vided at the gate terminals of Q, and Q,. The operating mode is
established by the collector potentials (V, and V,,). The signal appear-
ing at the base of Q, will not undergo phase inversion at the emitter out-
put, thus retaining the or function. This circuit can, of course, be
adapted for the nor function if needed.
 Digital -System Codes

5-1. BASIC BINARY CODE

In digital logic circuitry forming computers, microprocessors, calcula-

tors, and pulse-code modulation systems (see Sec. 8-12) the arithmetic
processes are limited to two numerals, 1 and 0. The 1 value is assigned
to a specific amplitude or polarity as opposed to the O for a different
amplitude or polarity. As an alternative the 1 and O states can be
assigned to the conduction and nonconduction aspects of circuits. All
these methods provide for a degree of precision and accuracy that could
not be achieved by utilizing selected areas of pulse amplitudes or widths
to represent numerals from 1 to 9. Thus, the utilization of 1 and 0 in-
volves base 2 arithmetic rather than the more familiar base 10 (decimal)
system. The base 2 process is a binary type and has full capability re-
garding numerical values, multiplication, division, subtraction, addition
of numbers, and the performance of other mathematical processes.
In the base 2 binary system the power value increases progressively
for digits to the left of the decimal point. Each successive digit to the left
of the decimal point doubles in value. (The number of zeros preceding a
numeral such as 001 or 00010 does not add to the total value but repre-
sents primarily the scope of the number of digits utilized for the expres-
sion.) In binary, 0001 represents the base 10 value 1 and 0010 represents
the base 10 value 2. Similarly, 0100 has the value 4, 10000 has the value
8, and so on. The number 1001 equals 9, 1010 equals 10, and so on. The
power relationships of base 2 binary and their place values are:

143
144 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

sven KO). he eRe The Gy Pay gy ps ah esr

4 OEP VOLE SOR DR OE ke id yl oh NS eae
512 D56n128. 64 #32) eG oA 2 ie Bali

The power relationships given above permit ascertaining the value

of any combination of 0’s and 1’s in a binary expression. The example
1001 given above equals 9 because the right digit has a value of 1 and
the left digit, being in fourth place, has a value of 8. Thus, 1001 com-
bines the 8 with the 1 for a value of 9. Similarly, 10110 has a value of
22, since the second-place numeral at the right has a value of 2, the third
a value of 4, and the fifth a value of 16, for a total of 22. Table 5-1 lists
binary numbers with their base 10 equivalent to a value of 16.

TABLE 5-1. Decimal—Binary Comparison

Binary Binary
Decimal Representation Decimal. Representation

2 O 00000 9 01001
1 00001 10 01010
2 00010 11 OA Oidet
3 00011 12 O1-1,0.0
4 00100 13 01101
5 00101 14 Of o
6 00110 15 O L101
7 COT 16 ; 10000
8 01000

Table 5-1 is easily expanded by observing thg sequential grouping

of the 1’s and 0’s. Note that down the rightmost column the 0’s and 1’s
alternate, and this particular sequence remains the same regardless of
how high the count is extended. In the second vertical column from the
right two 0’s alternate with two 1’s successively. For the third column
four 0’s alternate with four 1’s. The fourth column from the right alter-
nates eight 0’s with eight 1’s successively regardless of the magnitude of
the final number. The fifth column alternates sixteen 0’s with sixteen 1’s.
For a six-column expression, the sixth from the right would alternate
thirty-two 1’s and 0’s, and so on.
Table 5—2 lists other number systems and gives the respective radix
for each.
 BASIC BINARY CODE 145

TABLE 5-2. Various Number Systems

Base of Base of
_ Number System Radix Number System Radix

Binary Two Sextodecimal Sixteen

Ternary Three Septendecimal Seventeen
Quaternary Four Octodenary Eighteen
Quinary Five Novendenary Nineteen
Senary Six Vicenary Twenty
Septenary Seven Tricenary Thirty
Octonary (or octal) Eight Quadragenary Forty
Novenary Nine Quinquagenary Fifty
Decimal Ten Sexagenary Sixty
Undecimal Eleven Septuagenary Seventy
Duodecimal Twelve Octogenary Eighty
Terdenary Thirteen Nonagenary Ninety
Quaterdenary Fourteen Centenary Hundred
Quindenary Fifteen

The binary representation for any base 10 number can be found by

repeated division by 2. If, for instance, the binary number for 695 is de-
sired, the number is repeatedly divided by 2 and each remainder set
down at the right. After the final division that yields a whole number
quotient, the remainders are written out starting from the bottom. The
bottom numeral becomes the leftmost bit of the binary group that re-
sults. In the following process we obtain the binary number 1010110111:

Remainder

695, 4a 347 1
2
347 ee 173 1
bs

173. A 86 1
v1
86 os 43 0
2
43
ae = 21 1
146 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

Remainder

21 = 10 1
2

10 4 5 0
2

E) a 2 1
2

2 = 1 0
2

1 ml 0 1
2

5-2. BINARY-CODED DECIMAL

On many occasions it is convenient to code each decimal number in

terms of its binary equivalent in a system referred to as binary-coded
decimal. This procedure makes a convenient reference for numbers in de-
cade counters since it indicates the true count. For instance, if 46 is writ-
ten in pure binary notation, it is 101110. In a decade counter sequence
where groups of four stages attain 9 as the highest count, the value 46
has the following notation: 0100 0110, thus giving a ‘binary representa-
tion to the individual numbers. Four binary bits (0’s or 1’s) are
employed to represent each decimal digit for uniformity with the 4 bits
required to represent the highest number of a group (9), which is the bi-
nary 1001. Thus, the number 267 would be represented as 0010 0110
0111.
In coding binary numbers into individual groups of 4 bits to repre-
sent decimal values, the first nine digits would, of course, be in pure bi-
nary form. After the ninth numeral, the binary-coded notation converts
to separate 4-bit groups, as shown in Table 5-3.

5-3. HEXADECIMAL CODE

In the binary-coded decimal system described in Sec. 5—2 the highest nu-
merical value of a group of 4 bits is 9, but four 1’s (1111) would have a
base 10 count of 16..Hence, there are six unused values remaining in the
 OCTAL NOTATION 147

co
a re eae
TABLE 5-3. Binary-Coded Decimal

Decimal Number Binary-Coded Decimal Number Binary-Coded

01 0001 10 0001 0000

02 0010 11 0001 0001
03 0011 12 0001 0010
04 0100 13 0001 0011
05 0101 etc.
06 0110 201 0010 0000 0001
07 0111 202 0010 0000 0010
08 1000 etc.
09 1001 457 0100 0101 0111
458 0100 0101 1000

4-bit group of the binary-coded decimal. These additional values are

sometimes assigned alphabetical designations for expanding the total
number identifications available when assigning memory (storage) loca-
tions (also known as addresses). Thus, 1010 represents the letter A, 1011
represents B, 1100)='C, 1101c="D; 1110 = E, and 1111 = F. Thus,.an
address identified as 1100 0110 1001 is C — 69; an address 1110
0101 0110is E — 56. These binary representations are now alphanumer-
ical. Hexadecimal, binary, and decimal values are compared in Table 5—4.

TABLE 5-4. Hexadecimal Code

Decimal Alphanumeric Binary Decimal Alphanumeric Binary

Value Hexadecimal Code Value Hexadecimal Code

0 0) 0000 8 8 1000
1 1 0001 9 o 1001
2 2 0010 10 A 1010
3 3 0011 11 B 1011
4 4 0100 12 (© 1100
3 5) 0101 13 D 1101
6 6 0110 14 E 1110
7 7 0111 15 F 1111

5-4. OCTAL NOTATION

The octal notation system has been widely used for special purposes. It
expedites converting binary representation to their decimal equivalent as
well as the conversion of base 10 numbers to binary. In octal notation a
148 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

binary number, regardless of length, is separated into individual groups

each containing 3 bits, such as 001 or 111. Hence, a binary number such
as 11010011 is written in octal notation as 011 010 011. Since only
three digits comprise a group, the highest numerical value of a group is
7. Consequently, the octal system has a base (radix) of 8 and each 3-bit
group in conventional place sequence from right to left increases by a
power of 8. Each power of 8 that a group or triad place represents can
be designated, as is done for the binary powers illustrated in Sec. 5-1.
The octal-power values are:
7th (6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st Place

000 000 000 000 000 000 000 (Triad Group)

8° 8° 84 83 8? 8! 8° Power

262,144 32,768 4096 512 64 8 1 Value

As an example, the binary number 1010110111 has a decimal value

of 695. The octal expression would be 001 010 110 111. Thus, the octal
representation can be specified as 1267. Table 5—5 shows the octal and
binary form for representative decimal sequences.

TABLE 5-5. Octal Notation

Decimal Octal Binary Decimal Octal Binary

Sequence Sequence Form Sequence Sequence Form

0 00 000 000 11 13 001 011

1 01 000 001 12 14 001 100
2 02 000 010 13 1S 001 101
3 03 000 011 14 “TS 001 110
4 04 000 100 15 17 001 111
5 05 000 101 16 «20 010 000
6 06 000 110 etc:
iH 07 000 111 242 362 011 110 010
8 10 001 000 243 363 011 110 O11
9 11 001 001 244 364 011 110 100
10 12 001 010 etc.

The octal system can also be utilized to ascertain the binary num-
ber of a decimal number. This is done by dividing successively by 8 and
writing down the remainder. The latter represents the octal number,
which then permits us to write the binary equivalent. As an example, the
 GRAY CODE 149

decimal value of 695 was mentioned earlier. To find the octal number,
the following division-by-8 sequence is performed:

Remainder

ee 8
ae
> = 10 = 6
8

10 - 1 a 2
8

Thus, when the remainder is written down, starting from the bot-
tom, we obtain the number 1267, which is the octal representation. This
gives us 001 010 110 111, which, when bunched together, gives us the
binary number 1010110111.

5-5. GRAY CODE

In industrial electronics and computational systems it is often necessary

to convert an analog function to a digital equivalent. When a physical
change (such as a shaft rotation or a lever movement) must be converted
to an equivalent numerical value (such as binary) an analog—digital con-
version is indicated. The latter information can then be applied to a
computer for computational purposes. The procedure is utilized in satel-
lite guidance and tracking systems as well as industrial processes involv-
ing computer control of machine tools, fabrication control, and so on.
When small variables are coded by conversion into a number sys-
tem it is preferable that only a one-digit change occurs during a numeri-
cal procession to minimize errors. In binary several digits may change;
for instance, from 3 to 4 involves a 3-bit change (011 to 100). A code
that has only one digit changing for each numerical increase is highly de-
sirable and such a code is the one invented by Frank Gray and named
the Gray code. This code is often termed a minimum-error code. It has
also been referred to as the cyclic code or the reflected binary. Table 5-6
150 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

lists the Gray code sequence up to the decimal 18 equivalent as well as

the pure binary equivalent.

TABLE 5-6. Gray Code

Decimal Basic Gray Decimal Basic Gray

Sequence Binary Code Sequence Binary Code

0) 0000 0000 10 1010 1111

1 0001 0001 11 1011 1110
2 0010 0011 12 1100 1010
3 0011 0010 13 1101 1011
4 0100 0110 14 1110 1001
5 0101 0111 ts i 1000
6 0110 0101 16 10000 11000
7 0111 0100 by 10001 11001
8 1000 1100 18 10010 11011
9 1001 1101

A specific technique is utilized to form the Gray code numbers.

Initially, the binary number is set down as the addend. Then it is again
set down as the augend but indexed to the right by one place, dropping
the digit that extends beyond the addend. The two numbers are then
added without carry. As an example, assume that the binary number 6
(110) is to be converted to the Gray code. The following process applies:

110 (6)
+11 (6 indexed)
101 (Gray code 6) ~,

5-6. EXCESS-THREE CODE

A variation of the binary-coded decimal system described in Sec. 5—2 has

been devised to simplify the subtraction process in digital computers.
This code is termed the excess-three code and Table 5-7 illustrates repre-
sentations up to the decimal equivalent of 21.
Note that each excess-three number has been raised in value by
three in relation to the decimal equivalent. Note from Table 5—7 that the
excess-three code numbers for the decimal values 0 and 9 are symbolic
 BIQUINARY CODE 151

___ererereoeeeee —_::—_

TABLE 5-7. Excess-Three Code

Decimal Excess-Three Decimal Excess-Three

Sequence Code Sequence Code

0) 0011 12 0100 0101

1 0100 1 0100 0110
2 0101 14 0100 0111
3 0110 15 0100 1000
4 0111 16 0100 1001
5 1000 17 0100 1010
6 1001 18 0100 1011
iT, 1010 19 0100 1100
8 1011 20 0101 0011
9 1100 21 0101 0100
10 0100 0011 etc.
11 0100 0100

opposites: 0011 and 1100. Similarly, the numbers 3 and 6 are symbolic
opposites, as are 2 and 7, and so on. Such complementing features per-
mit simplified subtraction involving 9’s. Any number subtracted from 9
is found by interchanging the 0’s and 1’s in the number to be subtracted.
(If, for instance, 2 is to be subtracted from 9 the excess-three number
0101 is inverted to product 1010. The latter has a decimal value of 7 in
the excess-three code.)

5-7. BIQUINARY CODE

Earlier digital computers often utilized a system referred to as the

biquinary code to reduce the number of counter circuits needed for deci-
mal-coded binary. It is still used in some visual display circuitry. In this
code, dual groups of bits are used, with one group holding the two bits
representing the bi-portion, and the other group containing 5 bits repre-
senting the quinary. The latter uses only a single digit but moves it pro-
gressively to the left as 00001, 00010, and so on. The maximum quinary
number is attained at the count of 01 10000, as shown in Table 5-8.
After that the sequence is repeated except that the 2-bit bi-part now be-
comes 10 and identifies the number of times the five steps (0 through 4)
occur in the quinary part.
152 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

——

TABLE 5-8. Biquinary Code

Decimal Biquinary Decimal Biquinary

Sequence Code Sequence Code

0 01 00001 5 10 00001
1 01 00010 6 10 00010
2 01 00100 Z| 10 00100
3 01 01000 8 10 01000
4 01 10000 9 10 10000

5-8. THE 7, 4, 2, 1 CODE

A special code referred to as the 7, 4, 2, 1 type had been utilized in early

computer types for conservation of electric energy. The design of the
code minimized the number of 1’s in the code group and thus reduced
the signal energy required. In this code the binary numbers up to the
count of 9 contain only two 1’s in any group. In this 7, 4, 2, 1 system
the fourth-place digit has a value of 7 as shown in Table 5—9 in contrast
to pure binary, where the fourth-place digit has a value of 8. (The binary
system is basically an 8, 4, 2, 1 system.)

TABLE 5-9. The 7, 4, 2, 1 Code

Decimal 74.21 Decimal . R424

Sequence Code Sequence Code

0 0000 5 0101
1 0001 6 ~, 0110
Z 0010 7 1000
3 0011 8 1001
4 0100 tll 1010

5-9. ERROR-DETECTION CODES

Several special codes are available for digital computer systems for error-
detecting purposes. They are particularly useful for error sensing in pe-
ripheral equipment such as tape storage, punch cards, disk memory, and
typewriter linkages. One system is to utilize only two digits plus three
 ERROR-DETECTION CODES 153

zeros for numbers from 0 to 9, as shown in Table 5-10. By maintaining

the number of bits that represent 1’s at a minimum the possibility for er-
ror is minimized. On readout, any number containing only one zero, or
more than two, is incorrect.

TABLE 5-10. Error-Detection Code

Decimal Error Decimal Error

Sequence Code Sequence Code

0 00110 5 10010
1 00011 6 01010
2 01100 7 10100
3 10001 8 01001
4 11000 9 00101

The code shown in Table 5S—10 is sometimes referred to as two-out-

of-five code because only two of the five bits are 1’s. The sequence
shown in Table 5-10 is arbitrary and various combinations of three 0’s
and two 1’s can be used as desired.
Parity codes are also utilized for error detection. Parity (the quality
of being equal) can be designed to show either an even number of digits
or an odd number. An additional digit is utilized to achieve the required
parity and such a parity digit may be either a 0 or a 1. Table 5-11 illus-
trates the even-parity code system. In this group, all digits in the binary
representation plus the parity digit produces an even number of 1’s. As

TABLE 5-11. Even-Parity Code

Decimal Parity Binary

Sequence Digit Number

1 1 0001
2 1 0010
3 0) 0011
4 1 0100
5 0 0101
6 0 0110
Ul 1 0111
8 1 1000
9 0 1001
154 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

shown, when the number of digits in the binary number is already even,
the parity digit is 0. Errors are instantly detected because they alter the
parity of a given number. Thus, if an even-parity group of numbers is
processed and an odd-parity number is displayed, an error is indicated.
Table 5-12 illustrates the odd-parity code group. Here, a parity
digit is utilized to form an odd number with the binary number. If the
binary number already contains an odd digit grouping, the parity digit is
zero, aS shown.

TABLE 5-12. Odd-Parity Code

Decimal Parity Binary

Sequence Digit Number

1 0) 0001
2 0 0010
3 1 0011
4 0 0100
5) 1 0101
6 1 0110
7 0 0111
8 (0) 1000
9 1 1001

5-10. GRAY-TO-BINARY CODE CONVERSION

The Gray code can be converted to its equivalent pure binary value in
digital systems. A conversion system using a series of half-adders is
shown in Figure 5-1. The half adders perform the t@gic exclusive-or func-
tion described in Sec. 6-12. A half-adder performs the addition of binary
number 1+1 without carry. Thus, when only a single digit appears at the
input a 1 is produced at the output. For a digit input at each input line,
however, a zero output results. As an example, assume that the Gray
code number is 111011. The latter is applied as a parallel input, that is,
all the bits of the number are applied simultaneously to the input, with
the leftmost number applied to the uppermost half-adder as shown. The
binary output is 101101, setting down the sequence of numbers from top
to bottom in left-to-right formation. As many half-adders as needed can
be utilized to handle the number of bits employed in a code grouping.
 BINARY ENCODER DISK 155

Gray code Binary code

input output
ie l

i: iS. 0

101101

Figure 5-1 Gray Code-to-Binary Code Converter

5-11. BINARY ENCODER DISK

A widely used method for converting an analog function (such as a shaft

rotation) into a digital representation is by using an encoder disk such as
that shown in Figure 5-2. This disk is attached to a shaft and as rota-
tion occurs successive binary representations are available. The disk con-
tains alternate transparent segments or holes (light areas in Figure 5-2).
A light source can be used with a pickup device as shown in Figure 5—
3(A). For any specific disk position, certain segments through which
light passes produce a specific binary number. An alternative method is
shown in (B) using wire feeler brushes that penetrate the holes and per-
mit current flow for number-sensing purposes. Disks in which the seg-
ments are printed-circuit types are also utilized.
For Figure 5-2 a pure binary output number is obtained as the
disk rotates. At the vertical segment identified as the start of rotation,
no holes are present and the output is read as 0000. (For higher binary
156 DIGITAL-SYSTEM CODES

Direction of Start of
disk rotation reading

Figure 5—2 Encoder for Analog-to-Digital Binary

numbers, an increased disk diameter is utilized to accommodate addi-

tional segments.) When the disk moves for one segment clockwise, the
binary number 0001 is sensed (reading from the inside of the disk to-
ward the perimeter). For another one-segment rotation, the number 0010
is sensed, and so on for complete rotation. For a 180° rotation a maxi-
mum count of 15 is obtained for the disk shown. Additional rotation be-
gins the count over again starting at 0000. Each ring can be extended to
contain more segments as needed.

Wire
“sensing”
brushes

Light Binary
SOULCC] Ta /p ee (tle ee output
signals

Encoder
disk Photocells

Shaft

(a) (b)

Figure 5-3 Encoder Sensing Systems

 GRAY ENCODER DISK 157

disk rotation. Start at y for

clockwise rotation. Black
squares are solid.

Figure 5—4 Encoder for Analog-to-Gray Code

5-12. GRAY ENCODER DISK

An encoder disk producing a five-place Gray code representation is

shown in Figure 5—4. The sensing processes can again be as shown in
Figure 5—3. For the disk in Figure 5-4 the starting position consists of a
series of solid segments; hence, the number represented is 00000. As the
disk rotates for one segment clockwise, the number 00001 will be read,
starting from the innermost segment and reading toward the perimeter
of the disk. Successive one-segment rotations produce the Gray code se-
quence of 0001, 0011, 0010, and so on, as shown in Tabvie 5-6. After this
particular disk has rotated 180°, the output Gray code numbers are suc-
cessively repeated.
 Switches, Gates, and
Symbolic Logic

6-1. DIGITAL-LOGIC OR CIRCUIT

In digital electronic systems a group of logic circuits is extensively

employed in various combinations to attain necessary switching and gat-
ing functions in such devices as calculators, computers, control systems,
and other digital units. One such circuit is the logic-or illustrated in both
schematic and symbol forms in Figure 6-1. Here there are three inputs
provided, designated as A, B, and C. A two-input system (or a four or
five) could, of course, also be used. For the circuit shown, the three in-
puts are applied to respective diodes and to the base element of an npn
transistor. The output is obtained from the emitter resistor in typical
emitter-follower fashion as described more fully in Sec. 2-6.
For conduction the potential at the base element of the transistor
must be positive with respect to the emitter. Thus, positive-polarity
pulses are used for this circuit. Obviously, a positive pulse applied to any
(or all) inputs would cause transistor conduction and produce an output.
Hence, this circuit is termed an or circuit because an input at A or B or
C, or all three, will produce an output. For a pnp transistor, negative
pulses would be used at the input to cause conduction.
The or logic function is identified by using the plus (+ ) mathemat-
ical symbol as in A+B, A+B+C+D, and so on. The plus sign used in
this manner is known as the logic connective and it does not indicate an
additive process, only an or function. Several other type or circuits can

158
 LOGIC OR TRUTH TABLES 159

A +V

c A+B+C

a ee
Figure 6-1 Logic or Circuit and Symbols

be formed, although all function in the same logic manner. Series resis-
tors could replace the diodes shown, or several transistors could be used
with separate base-terminal inputs, but sharing the same emitter load re-
sistor for the output line. In all instances the standard symbol is as
shown in Figure 6-1, the only differences being in the number of input
lines shown.
The logic connective is also used when the binary 1 and O numerals
are used, as 1+0 = 1 to show the logic-or process. The letters identify
the input lines and are used to show the resultant output expressions,
but the individual inputs receive only the 0 and 1 representations of the
binary system in digital logic systems.

6-2. LOGIC OR TRUTH TABLES

A listing of input and output values for a given logic function forms
what is termed a truth table. For the three-input or circuit of Figure 6-1,
the truth table is given in Table 6-1. The horizontal row of 0’s under the
alphabetical designations represents the status of the system during the
absence of any input signals representative of logic 1. Every possible
combination of input signals is shown in Table 6-1.
160 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

TABLE 6-1. Three-Input or Circuit

ce wpe Ssgage Wee ail

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

Thus, Table 6-1 shows that an output logic 1 is obtained in every

instance that a logic 1 is applied to one or more of the input lines. For
more input lines, the table would become increasingly longer to accom-
modate all the variations of logic 0 and logic 1 input combinations.

6-3. LOGIC AND GATES

As with the or circuit discussed in Sec. 6-1, the and circuit shown in
Figure 6—2 may have more than two input terminals. Such logic circuits
can be formed by diodes as well as junction or field-effect transistors,
but the basic circuit shown in Figure 6-2 serves to illustrate the princi-
ples involved. The transistors are in series, where the collector of Q, is
connected to the emitter of Q,. For conduction to occur, the input signal
must provide for a forward bias and hence should be positive at the base
terminal. If a positive pulse is applied to the A terminal Q, could con-
duct but is unable to do so because of the series circuit and the
nonconducting Q,. Similarly, an input at the B terminal alone will not
cause conduction. When both inputs have a positive pulse applied, both
transistors conduct and hence a positive signal appears at the output ter-
minal from the emitter of Q,. Consequently, the logic for such a circuit
is A and B produces an output, but not A alone or B alone. Thus, such
a circuit is essentially a coincidence gate since all inputs must occur
coincidentally to obtain an output.
For the or circuit covered in Sec. 6-1 the logical connective was
the arithmetic + sign. The logical connective for the and circuit is the
 LOGIC AND TRUTH TABLES 161

ee
Figure 6—2 Logic and Circuit and Symbols

multiplication sign and hence can take the form A x B, or the placing
together of letters in algebraic form as AB, or use of the raised dot as
A-B. The symbols for the and circuit are also shown in Figure 6-2,
where multiple input lines are indicated. Thus, for a four-input and cir-
cuit the logic is ABCD. (The logical connectives do not represent an ar-
ithmetical multiplication, only a signal coincidence input representation.)

6-4. LOGIC AND TRUTH TABLES

As with the truth tables for the or circuit discussed in Sec. 6-2, similar
tables can be used to illustrate the logic function of the and circuits. For
a three-input and circuit, the truth table is given in Table 6-2. As with
Table 6—1,\the horizontal row of 0’s under the alphabetical designations
represents the status during the absence of any input signals. Every pos-
sible combination of input signals is shown in Table 6-2.
162 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

TABLE 6-2. Three-Input and Circuit

Output

oO

l-A
COK
OF
OC
eRe lo
Of-eRe
O
OO
—-
RK Oo
oO
m=O.
O-o'

Thus, Table 6-2 shows that an output logic 1 is obtained only

when every input terminal of the and circuit has a logic 1 applied to it in
coincidence. For more input lines, the truth table is expanded to accom-
modate all the variations of logic 0 and logic 1 input combinations.

6—5. PHASE-INVERTING NOT LOGIC

Another logic function in digital systems is that termed not logic. Essen-
tially, this relates to the phase inversion process, where the input and
output signals are 180° out of phase (see Secs. 2-2 and 2-3). The basic
function is illustrated in Figure 6-3. In (A) is shown the conventional
triangle symbol for an amplifier. Here a positive pulse or other type of

in (i fl
(a) “ (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6-3 Formation of not Logic

 LOGIC NOR TRUTH TABLES 163

signal at the input produces an in-phase amplified output signal (see also
Secs. 2-6 and 2-7). For the amplifier in (A), a negative-polarity input
signal would produce a negative-signal output. For the common-emitter
circuits, there is a phase inversion as shown in (B). Here a positive input
signal produces a negative-polarity output signal. For a negative-polarity
input, a positive signal output would be obtained. This phase-inverting
system is identified by using a small circle as shown. This circuit is
termed a not circuit because the output phase does not follow that of the
input.
In Figure 6—3(C) is shown an or circuit with the inputs shorted to-
gether to form a single input terminal. Thus, we have a nonamplifying
circuit with identical-polarity input and output signals. In (D) is shown
the inverting or not-circuit version, wherein the output signal is 180° out
of phase with the input. This not logic is applicable to both the or and
and circuits, as discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.

6-6. NOR FUNCTION

Various examples of utilizing the not logic (covered in Sec. 6—5) with or
circuits are shown in Figure 6—4. When the not logic is applied to the or
circuit, it forms a not-or (also termed nor) system. Thus, as shown in
Figure 6—4, a two-input or circuit forms the logic A+B. When we have
an inversion in polarity at the output we obtain a negated A+B and the
negation is identified with an overbar: A+B. Similarly a three-input cir-
cuit with negation gives us: A+B+C. The amplifier symbol with nega-
tion shown in Figure 6—3(B) could also be used to form a zor function.
Thus, as shown in Figure 6—4, the two input or circuit is followed by a
not circuit to produce the negated output. Double negation reverts the
negated expression to its original form as shown in the fifth example in
Figure 6—4. Combinations can also be utilized for more than one output,
as shown in the last example in Figure 6—4. Here the output provides us
with A+B as well as A+B.

6-7. LOGIC NOR TRUTH TABLES

The truth table for the three-input nor circuit shown in the third exam-
ple of Figure 6-4 is given in Table 6-3. As with earlier tables in this
chapter, the horizontal row of 0’s under the alphabetical designations
164 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

A A+B A A+ &S

Figure 6—4 Logic nor Examples

represents an absence of input signals. Below the row of 0’s is every pos-
sible combination of input signals.

TABLE 6-3. Three-Input nor Circuit

Boiste, Bait ave Output.

0 0 0 htebe
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

Note that Table 6-3 has an output sequence opposite to that of

the table for the or circuit (Table 6-1). Thus, the nor logic provides for a
logic 0 output in every instance that a logic 1 is applied to one or more
of the input lines. As with other systems described herein, the truth table
 LOGIC NAND TRUTH TABLES 165

is expanded to accommodate all the variations of logic 0 and logic 1

combinations for tables having four, five, or more inputs.

6-8. NAND FUNCTION

When the xot function described in Sec. 6-6 is utilized in conjunction

with the and gate covered in Sec. 6-3, the logic not-and (also termed
nand) is formed. The applicable logic in symbolic form is illustrated in
Figure 6-5. When the and function AB is negated by the not function,
the output expression is shown with an overbar as AB. Similarly, as
shown by the third example, a three-input nand circuit produces ABC.
The negation can also be performed by the not logic discussed in Sec. 6-
5 and shown in the fourth example of Figure 6-5. The fifth example
shows a three-input system using double negation for producing an out-
put expression ABC, and an additional output line obtained from the
nand circuit to obtain ABC.

s ABC A AB AB
C B

5A ABC ABC
ABC
Cc —_———

Figure 6-5 Logic nand Examples

6-9. LOGIC NAND TRUTH TABLES

As with Table 6-3 the truth table for a three-input and circuit has an
output logic that is opposite to that given in Table 6-2. Thus, the logic
sequence for a nand circuit follows the progression shown in Table 6-4.
Note that no output is obtained when full coincidence prevails.
166 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

—_———

TABLE 6-4. Three-Input nand Circuit

lm
OO
OF
=F ms
OIF
COCO
—e aon

6-10. VARIOUS GATES AND COMBINATIONS

The and and nand circuits can be utilized for gating-in or gating-out
purposes by taking advantage of the necessity for coincidence in produc-
ing an output. Typical examples of the gating function are shown in Fig-
ure 6—6. In a two-input and circuit, either input terminal can be used as
the gating line. For the and system shown in Figure 6—6(A) the lower
line constitutes the gating input. Note that the upper input line has a
pulse train applied to it. For each group of four pulses applied to the up-
per line, three pulses are applied to the gating input as shown. Since co-
incidence occurs for only the first, third, and fourth pulses of the input
train in the upper line, the output pulses consist of the initial pulse
followed by a blank interval and two final pulses as shown. Negative
pulses are shown for the example in (A), although positive pulses could
also be used with identical gating results. ~,
Instead of pulses, de could also be used for gating purposes by ap-
plying a de burst for the time interval wherein a section of a pulse train
is to be obtained at the output. Long-duration pulses could also be used
as shown in (B). Here, coincidence prevails for the two initial pulses of
the input train but not for the third pulse. Consequently, the output
waveform is as shown in Figure 6—6(B). Again, opposite polarity pulses
can be utilized, as was shown at (A) without disturbing the logic gating
functions illustrated. If nand circuits were used at (A) and (B) instead of
and, the output pulses would have a polarity opposite to that shown for
each circuit.
Negations could also be indicated at the input to a nand gate, as
shown at (C). For a dual negated input, the output expression is A-B.
 VARIOUS GATES AND COMBINATIONS 167

Input
pulse 1 ll | ll
train
Output

Gating || |
|||
pulses || |||
|

Output

(b)

A - = zs
ANB: 4 AB

B B

(c)

Figure 6—6 Gating Examples

Note that the logical connective is not negated in this instance. Negation
of the logical connective converts its function. Negating a logical and
multiplication connective converts it to a logical or connective (+). This
factor is expanded in Sec. 6-11. For the second example in Figure 6—
6(C) only one input is negated, producing an output expression of AB.
This gate is sometimes termed an inhibitor, since the negated B input has
an inhibiting effect on the logic.
Gating combinations employing the or and and functions are illus-
trated in Figure 6-7. The first example shows an or circuit that transfers
the A input directly to the output. The B and C inputs can appear at the
168 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

A A + (BC)

A A-(B+C)

(ABC)
+ (D+ E)

Figure 6-7 Gate Combinations

output only if they occur in coincidence. Hence, the output expression is

A, or the combination of B and C, or both as shown. For the second ex-
ample, the A input must have coincidence before an output is obtained;
hence, the A input must be accompanied by either the B, the C, or both.
Since the output is negated the expression becomes A-(B+C). For the
last example, an and circuit is used with two nor ciscuits. Since ABC in
coincidence is produced from the and circuit it could pass through the or
circuit alone and undergo inversion to form ABC. The D or E inputs to
the first nor gate form an independent output, but the expression is also
applied to the second zor circuit, which converts the negated expression
back to its original form. Thus, one output is obtained having the logic
(ABC)+(D+E) and another with the logic D+E.

6-11. DE MORGAN’S THEOREM

The negation factor in digital logic (Sec. 6-4) creates conditions involv-
ing duality. When a negated logic expression involves an and circuit such
as A-B the logic connective is also negated, and hence the multiplication
 EXCLUSIVE OR AND NOR GATES’ 169

A AB
B
Identical
expressions
A Baie
PA tae

A ire
A°B

Identical

A Att B
B

Figure 6—8 De Morgan’s Theorem Logic

logical connective for and becomes an or logical connection (+). Thus,

the expression A-B is equivalent to A+B. Similarly, if a negation of or
logic is involved, such as A+B the or logical connective inverts to an
and logical connective and the expression becomes A-B. These similarities
and comparisons involve De Morgan’s theorem and are illustrated in
Figure 6-8. In the upper illustration the output from an and gate is ne-
gated and the resultant expression is identical to the expression obtained
when the A and B inputs to an or circuit are negated initially, as shown
by the second example. Similarly, if the A and B input to an and circuit
are negated, the resultant expression is identical to that obtained when
the output from an or circuit is negated.

6-12. EXCLUSIVE OR AND NOR GATES

Another logic gate useful in digital application is the exclusive or circuit.

As shown in Figure 6-9, the basic or circuit symbol is utilized with an
additional curved line at the input section. Either or or nor logic can be
utilized. The logic for the exclusive or circuit is that an output is pro-
duced for an input at either A or B, but not both. Thus, the circuit is
170 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

A
A@B a A@B
B B

Figure 6-9 Exclusive or and nor Symbols

useful in the formation of logic circuit combinations for binary addition,

since it follows the logic of 1+1=0, carry 1 (see Sec. 5—1). Instead of
using the or-logic connective (+), the symbol @ is commonly employed.
The second example in Figure 6—9 shows the exclusive nor symbol and
here the output expression is A@B.

6-13. EXCLUSIVE OR LOGIC AND APPLICATIONS

Tables 6—5 and 6-6 indicate the output logic for the exclusive or and the
exclusive nor logic discussed in Sec. 6-12. Note that for Table 6-5 the
exclusive or function provides an output only for a single input to either
A or B. For the exclusive nor function given in Table 6—6, negated out-
puts appear for an input to either A or B, but not both.

TABLE 6-5 TABLE 6-6

A@B A@B
0.0 = 0 0.0.=.1
O1=1 Ole 0)
To] 1] fo20”
i Li |

One application for the exclusive or circuit is illustrated in Figure

6-1, where a series of such circuits is utilized to convert the Gray code
to the binary code. Another application is shown in Figure 6-10, where
the exclusive or circuit forms a comparator that provides a logic output
when all inputs have a logic 1 applied, or if all inputs are in the logic 0
state. For Figure 6-10, an eight-input system is shown using four exclu-
sive nor circuits. The output lines of the four independent gates are
joined together to form one output section at the unit termed a wired
and gate. The latter. represents a connection formed of several outputs,
 IC GATE PACKAGES’ 171

Figure 6-10 Eiight-Bit-Input Comparator

which produce the output and-gate function, referenced by the special

symbol indicated in Figure 6-10.
For the system shown in Figure 6-10 an 8-bit group applied to the
input is compared for equality and an output is obtained only if such a
quality exists. If any one of the inputs to the exclusive nor circuits is log-
ic 0, there is no output. The latter indicates inequality. Additional exclu-
sive nor circuits can be added to the system as needed.

6-14. IC GATE PACKAGES

Numerous combinations of and, or, nor, nand, and exclusive or logic cir-
cuits are combined in integrated-circuit packages to serve specific needs.
Typical examples are illustrated in Figure 6-11 to show the method of
depicting the logic involved and the IC pin connections utilized. Com-
mercial IC logic sections may, of course, utilize many more logic gates in
a single IC chip. Some packages may contain all similar-type gates or ex-
tensive gating-tree formation of the type illustrated in Figure 6-16.
In (A) is shown a dual-gate formation with three inputs to an and
circuit, the output of which is fed to one input of an or circuit as shown.
A three-gate package is illustrated in (B), where a dual-input nand cir-
cuit has its output connected to the inputs of two or circuits as shown.
Additional inputs are available for the or circuits. For the circuit shown
172 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

(b) (c)

Figure 6-11 IC Gate Packages

in Figure 6-11(C), combinations of and and nor circuits are utilized. In

addition to a common and-circuit input from IC terminal 1, individuai
and logic inputs are available at pins 2 and 10. Similarly, additional or-
gate inputs are available at pins 3 and 8. The output lines from the or
circuits are available at pins 5 and 6.

6-15. BASIC FLIP-FLOP SECTIONS

The flip-flop circuit is an important unit in digital systems because of its

switchable dual-state characteristics. The basic flip-flop circuit is illus-
trated in Figure 6-12. As shown, two transistors are utilized, designated
as Q, and Q,. Note the symmetrical circuit configuration having identical
base, emitter, and collector components as well as similar input and out-
put sections. In contrast to the relaxation-type oscillators, such as the
multivibrator and blocking oscillator (see Secs. 2-33 and 2-34), the flip-
 BASIC FLIP-FLOP SECTIONS 173

Output

Set input

“(l
Trigger
input

Figure 6-12 Basic Flip-Flop

flop circuit is not a free-running oscillator. Thus, it does not provide for
a continuous output signal, but produces an output only when an input
signal of proper polarity and amplitude is applied. For the circuit shown
in Figure 6-12, three input lines are present: the set, the trigger, and the
reset. Two output terminals are present, and when an input signal is ap-
plied, the output line designated as Q produces a logic 0 and the Q out-
put produces a logic 1. Thus, one steady-state logic representation has
been achieved by the flip-flop circuit and it remains in this state until an-
other input signal is applied. For a new input signal, logic 0 appears at
the Q output and a logic 1 at the Q output.
For the circuit shown in Figure 6-12, logic 1 is represented by a
positive-polarity pulse. For utilization of a negative-polarity pulse for
logic 1, the transistors would be replaced by npn types and the diodes
and voltage polarities reversed. The input line for the set function is ef-
fective only when Q, is in the conducting state, at which time the posi-
tive-pulse potential at the transistor base terminal overcomes the forward
bias and causes this transistor to go into a nonconducting state. Once
this transistor is in the latter state, an additional positive-polarity input
pulse applied to the set line would be ineffectual. Since Q, conducts when
Q, is nonconducting, a positive pulse at the reset line would retrigger the
flip-flop to its original state. Diodes in the base-terminal lines provide
for a unidirectional positive-pulse signal path. The trigger input is at-
174 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

tached to both base-terminal lines and hence is capable of changing the

state of the flip-flop circuit for each pulse entered.
The pulse applied to the set input at Q, that causes this transistor
to become nonconductive causes the voltage drop across the Q, collector
resistor to decrease to zero and hence the collector becomes negative and
equal to the battery potential. The latter is held at the base terminal of
Q, by the coupling network of resistor and capacitor. The negative po-
tential appearing at the base of Q, forms the forward bias (negative at
the base compared to the positive emitter). Now Q, conducts and the
voltage drop across its collector resistor rises and hence represents a pos-
itive-polarity change. This potential, coupled to the base terminal of Q,,
maintains the latter in its nonconducting state. Now, a reset pulse input
to Q, reverses the status of Q, and Q,, causing the latter to become
nonconducting and Q, conducting.
The flip-flop unit can be designed around logic-or and logic-nor
sections, as shown in Figure 6-13. For the nor circuits, connections are
as shown in (A). Here the reset terminal is applied to one nor circuit and
the set terminal to the other. The output from each zor circuit is also fed
back to the input of the other nor as shown. When the flip-flop is in the
state producing a logic 1 at the Q output, the logic 0 appears at the Q
output. In this state the application of a signal to the S terminal will be

R S

| Ol

(d)
Figure 6-13 Nor and nand FF
 J-K SYSTEMS AND SYMBOLS 175

inverted and represent a logic 0 at the nor output line, thus initiating no
change since the circuit is already in the set mode. Also, with a set line
input the logic 0 is also fed to the input of the upper vor circuit and is
inverted at the output to form a logic 1. Thus, it is evident that once the
circuit is in the set condition, another input signal applied to the set ter-
minal will cause no change. To obtain the change of state a reset input is
required.
When a signal is applied to the R input, the output at the Q line is
negated and produces a logic 0 that is also fed to one of the S terminal
inputs. At the latter nor-circuit output a logic 1 is produced and thus the
state of the flip-flop is changed. Now an input applied to the S line is re-
quired to change the state again. A similar circuit is shown in Figure 6—
13(B), where two nand circuits are used. For either nand gate signal co-
incidence must prevail at the inputs to obtain an output. This nand-type
flip-flop is combined with other circuitry for obtaining specific digital
functions. A typical example is that shown at (C), where a clocked input
line is added to the system by employing two additional nand gates.
Clock pulses are precisely timed signals obtained from frequency-
controlled generators as discussed in Sec. 6-17. The clock pulse system
thus generates the fundamental train of pulses utilized throughout a par-
ticular digital system. For the flip-flop system shown in (C), the clock
pulses with their fixed repetition rate are applied to the clock input line
and hence are present at each initial nand gate (1 and 2) as shown. The
continuous input train places each initial nand gate in readiness for coin-
ciding signals applied to the S or R input line. For an S input, for in-
stance, the coincidence obtained with a clock pulse produces a negated
output at nand gate 1. The negated output appears at the input to nand
gate 3. The logic 0 output from nand gate 4 also appears at nand gate 3
to provide for coincidence. The logic 0 input signals at nand gate 3 are
inverted to produce a logic 1 output.
The flip-flop is sometimes represented by a rectangular symbol as
shown in Figure 6-13(D), instead of using the logic symbols. The three
input lines are the set, clock pulse, and reset modes. Sometimes the clock
pulse input is designated as CP.

6-16. J-K SYSTEMS AND SYMBOLS

A flip-flop system of special design is that termed the J-K flip-flop. The
letters J and K are used to designate the two particular input lines for
this special flip-flop system. A typical example is shown in Figure 6-
176 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

14(A) utilizing two additional and circuits for feeding the J and K inputs
to the clocked R-S flip-flop representing the type illustrated in Figure 6—
13. As shown, the Q and Q output lines are also fed back to the inputs
of the two and circuits. If the J-K flip-flop is in the logic 1 state, logic 0
appears at the Q output. This logic 0 also appears at the input coincid-
ing with the J line and thus inhibiting an input to the set (S) line. When
a logic 1 signal is applied to the K and CP inputs, the reset function is
initiated. The K input produces an output since a logic 1 is fed back
from the Q output to the K and circuit. When a logic 1 is applied to in-
puts J, CP, and K simultaneously, a trigger function is obtained just as
for the trigger input of the flip-flop shown in Figure 6-12. Thus, such
coinciding inputs trigger the J-K flip-flop system consecutively into its
set and reset modes.
Another J-K flip-flop system is shown in Figure 6—14(B). Here
four nand gates, having five inputs, are utilized. As with the system
shown in (A), feedback lines are used to obtain the desired logic func-
tions. If the system shown in (B) is in the set state, the Q output pro-

Figure 6-14 Basic J-K Flip-Flops

 CLOCK PULSE SYSTEMS 177

duces a logic 1 and the Q a logic 0, as with the other flip-flop systems.
Note that the logic 0 on the Q line is fed back to the input of the three-
input J nand gate identified as No. 1. Because this logic 0 inhibits coinci-
dence at the J input, nand gate 1 remains closed.
The flip-flop representations illustrated in Figures 6-13 and 6-14
are conventional system representations. The discrete circuitry includes
numerous additional components often necessary to assure stable opera-
tion and prevent such undesired effects as race around. The latter effect
(produced by inherent signal-delay circuit characteristics) causes a flip-
flop to cycle more than once for a single input reset pulse. The logic
symbols in Figures 6—13 and 6-14 show the interconnections for the log-
ic gates and thus illustrate the logic functions to be performed. Obvious-
ly, supporting circuitry such as power supplies, interfacing, and other
sections not performing logic functions are included.

6-17. CLOCK PULSE SYSTEMS

The circuit referred to as the clock in digital systems originates precisely

timed pulse signals for use through a particular system. The clock is es-
sentially a feedback oscillator utilizing a quartz crystal for frequency-
control purposes, as shown in Figure 6—15(A). The conventional amplifi-
er represented by the triangle symbol has the output line coupled to the
crystal using resistor R,. The crystal unit forms a feedback loop to the
input of the amplifier for sustaining oscillations. Essentially, the crystal
forms a closed loop that feeds back a specific portion of the output sig-
nal in proper phase for regenerative purposes.
Another clock system is shown in Figure 6—15(B). Here a dual out-
put is obtained, each producing a series of pulses at a repetition rate
one-half that of the train produced by the clock pulse generator. Note
that the output train from logic gate 2 is displaced with respect to the
pulse output from gate 1. Thus, this system is also termed a phased clock
system. As shown in Figure 6-15(B), the clock pulse generator output is
applied to the CP input of a J-K flip-flop. The output line from the
clock also branches to one input of logic gate 1 and one input of logic
gate 2. The Q and Q outputs are applied to gate 1 and gate 2, respective-
ly. Because the outputs from the flip-flops are logic 1 and logic 0, these
outputs alternately establish coincidence at the inputs to the and circuit.
The pulse counter applied to the Q output measures the repetition rate.
178 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

Clock
pulse
generator

(b)

Figure 6-15 Clock Pulse Systems

By appropriate selection of signal inputs to J, Kxor both, the output

pulse timing and quantity can be regulated as desired (see Sec. 6-16).
When an output clock pulse is applied to the CP input, the initia-
tion of a set condition produces a logic 1 from the Q output. For nega-
tive-polarity clock pulses, coincidence prevails at logic gate 1 and an
inverted signal (now positive) appears at the output. For the next
clocked pulse at CP, the output from the Q line becomes positive and
does not provide for a coincidence, but the Q line is now negative to
produce coincidence at logic gate 2. Thus, the two sets of output pulses
alternate in time. This system could, of course, be designed so that the
clock applies positive pulses to the J-K input when negative-polarity out-
put pulses are required.
 GATING TREE 179

6-18. GATING TREE

When successive logic circuits have several outputs supplied to other log-
ic gates, as shown in Figure 6-16, a configuration termed a gating tree is
formed. Thus, the three or circuits shown could have their inputs sup-
plied to another or circuit with three inputs, for a single output. For the
system shown, however, the flip-flop circuits have the Q and Q outputs
applied to individual and circuits that, in turn, feed an or circuit. Coinci-
dence prevails only if a pulse is applied either to the complementary gate
line or the true gate line. Thus, if a pulse is applied to the complementa-
ry gate line to provide for coincidence with the Q output, the or circuits
would provide for a complement binary reading, that is, the inverse of
the binary number. Similarly, if a pulse is applied to a true gate line to
coincide with the Q output pulse polarity, the true binary representation
would be obtained.
As an example, assume that the three flip-flops contain the binary
number 101. A pulse applied to the true gate line would find coincidence
for the first and third flip-flop stages. However, since the second flip-flop
represents logic symbol 0, the Q line does not provide for coincidence
with the true gate line pulse and hence there is no output from the sec-
ond or circuit. Since the complement gate input is not applied, no Q
lines are coincident. Hence, the output reading from the or circuits is
101. If a complement gate pulse is applied, however, coincidence occurs

Figure 6-16 Gating Tree

180 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

only for the Q output line of the second flip-flop. Thus, the output num-
ber would be 010, the complement of 101.

6-19. SINGLE-SHOT MULTIVIBRATOR

The single-shot multivibrator is one of several special-purpose units uti-

lized in digital electronics. Although termed a multivibrator, it is not a
free-running signal generator as is the case for the unit described in Sec.
2-33. Instead, the single-shot type produces an output signal only when
a signal is injected into its input terminal, as with the flip-flop circuit
discussed in Sec. 6-15. The basic circuit for the single-shot unit is shown
in Figure 6-17. This device is sometimes referred to as a start—stop
multivibrator. The latter term defines its basic characteristics as a
monostable multivibrator as opposed to the astable types of relaxation
oscillators discussed in Secs. 2-33 and 2-34.
For the circuit shown in Figure 6-17, a positive input pulse is re-
quired. For a negative-polarity input signal the transistors would be
changed to pnp types and the voltage-supply polarities reversed. When
the positive pulse is applied to the trigger input lines, the base terminal
of Q, now conducts and the consequent current flow through collector
resistor R, produces a voltage drop that decreases the collector potential

ap ——__—_—__—_—_}
Trigger
signal R,
input

Ki =

ile
Figure 6-17 Single-Shot Multivibrator
 SCHMITT TRIGGER 181

toward the ground-level state (negative with respect to the collector).

The voltage change that occurs at the collector of Q, is coupled via C, to
the base terminal of transistor Q,. Thus, the forward bias for Q, is re-
duced sufficiently to cause nonconduction. Now the voltage drop across
R, decreases, causing the collector potential of Q, to rise, hence augment-
ing the potential applied by the input signal. Thus, within a short time
interval Q, conduction is cut off while Q, conducts fully.
Since the input pulse that initiates the conduction cycles is of short
duration the forward bias established at Q, is removed when the input
pulse amplitude drops to zero. Now capacitor C, changes to its original
charge level, permitting Q, to resume conduction. Thus, the original state
is again obtained. In the absence of an input trigger, the voltage supply
V, holds Q, in its nonconducting state because of the reverse bias poten-
tials applied. During the momentary conduction of Q, an output pulse is
produced (via C,) that has a fixed duration as determined by the selec-
tion of components during design. Thus, when such a fixed-duration
pulse is required it can be procured from the multivibrator for a wide
latitude of input pulse characteristics.

6-20. SCHMITT TRIGGER

The Schmitt trigger is another special circuit used in digital electronics in

addition to the flip-flop system covered in Sec. 6-15 and the single-shot
multivibrator discussed in Sec. 6-19. The Schmitt trigger is useful be-
cause its switching sensitivity is related to the amplitude of the input
pulse. Hence, this trigger system is useful for reshaping pulse or square-
wave signals when the latter undergo distortion in their travel through
specific sections. The circuit is also useful for the attenuation of noise
signals. If the latter are present between the pulses of a pulse train or ap-
pear as transient overshoots, the signal group can be applied to the
Schmitt trigger and a pure distortionless output waveform produced hav-
ing the same repetition rate.
The basic Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in Figure 6-18. As with
multivibrator circuits, two transistors are utilized. A positive input pulse
is needed for the circuit shown, although the selection of pnp transistors
and a reversal of supply potential polarities can be used for negative in-
put signals. As with the one-shot multivibrator discussed in Sec. 6-19,
the Schmitt trigger remains in a stable state when no input signal is
present. Since no forward bias is present for Q, this transistor does not
182 SWITCHES, GATES, AND SYMBOLIC LOGIC

Output

Figure 6-18 Schmitt Trigger

conduct. For Q,, however, the voltage drop across R, supplies the neces-
sary forward bias for conduction.
When a positive-polarity input pulse is applied to the Schmitt trig-
ger as shown in Figure 6-18, the base terminal of Q, attains a positive
amplitude that is sufficiently high to overcome the reverse bias existing
between the base and emitter. (The latter has a positive potential applied
to it because it taps R,.) When Q, conducts, the collector resistor R, de-
velops a voltage drop across it that causes the potential at the collector
to decrease. The drop in collector potential is felt at the base of Q, and
causes a decrease in forward bias, reducing reduction for Q,. The process
is rapid and continues until Q, no longer conducts and Q, conducts fully.
At the time that Q, goes into nonconduction, the collector potential rises
as the voltage drop across R, declines. This amplitude change of collec-
tor potential thus produces an output signal. ™!
When the input pulse amplitude drops to zero the Schmitt trigger
circuit rapidly changes to its original state wherein transistor Q, conducts
again. The interval required for Q, to revert to its conducting state deter-
mines the duration of the output pulse. The duration of conduction as
well as the amplitude change in the collector circuit is established by se-
lection of specific component values. Thus, when the input pulse has
reached an amplitude sufficient to trigger the Schmitt circuit, an output
pulse is produced that is uneffected by any additional input pulse ampli-
tude change (such as a transient or for any other changes below the trig-
ger amplitude).
 Various Tables and
Miscellaneous Data

7-1. DECIBEL RATIOS

A description of decibels is given in Sec. 1-7. Table 7-1 lists the decibel
comparisons of voltage, current, and power ratios for decibel values
ranging from 0.5 to 30. As explained in Sec. 1-7, the decibel system is
basically a comparison of voltage, current, or power values and is related
to discrete quantities only by providing for a direct reference level. A
doubling of power (power ratio equals 2) provides a 3-dB reference re-
gardless of the respective amounts of the two powers forming the ratio.
Thus, a ratio of 4 W to 2 W = 3 dB, as does a ratio of 1000 W/500 W.
For voltage ratios as well as current ratios a doubling (where the ratio is
2) produces 6 dB, as shown in Table 7-1.

7-2. PREFIXES AND THEIR SYMBOLS

Various prefixes relating to the powers of 10 have been standardized for

convenience in expressing electric and electronic quantities. Table 7—2
lists representative prefixes plus their letter symbols and values ranging
from 1 X 10-'8to 1 x 10!2. Note that the letter symbols are all lower-
case except for the last three, involving mega, giga, and tera. Relating
these to electric-electronic quantities permits us to write kilovolts as kV,
megavolts as MV, milliamperes as mA, microamperes as “A, picofarad
as pF, and so on. Utilization of the standard prefixes and letter symbols

183
184 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

shown in Table 7-2 avoids the confusion resulting from usage of words
such as trillion, billion, and so on, which have different numerical values
in various countries, as shown in Sec. 7-3.

eee
TABLE 7-1. Decibel Comparisons of E, I, and P Ratios

ee Decibel Current or Voltage Ratio c __ Power Ratio _

0.5 1.06
1 1.12 1.26
ES 1.19
2 1.26 1.58
Das) 1.33
3 1.41 2
35 1.49
4 1.58 Ds
4.5 1.67
5) 1.78 : 3.16
SYS) 1.89
6 2 3.98
6.5 Dail
7 2.24 5
WS 225
8 25 6.31
9 2.82 7.94
10 3.16 : 10
11 3.55 12.6
12 3.98 15.8
KS, 4.47 20
14 5 ~, 25
15 5.62 31.6
16 6.31 39.8
17 7.08 ; 50.1
18 7.94 63.1
19 8.91 79.4
20 10 100
A) 17.8 316
30 31.6 1000
 SYSTEM DIFFERENCES 185

Ceee
C —

TABLE 7-2. Standard Prefixes and Letter Symbols

Submultiples
Prefix Symbol Value and Multiples
atto a ee Ome
femto f ISOs
pico p one-millionth millionth aOR?
nano n 1000 of a millionth IalOs?
micro be one-millionth I SCUOe©
milli m one-thousandth OOF
centi c one-hundredth al Ome
deci d one-tenth I elOm:
deca da ten UST!
hecto h one hundred 1x10
kilo k one thousand <0?
mega M one million 1<a105
giga G one-thousand million 1x 10°
tera T one-million million ISaloz

7-3. SYSTEM DIFFERENCES

Table 7-3 shows the system differences in various countries. As indicat-

ed, a billion represents 1000 million in the United States and France, but
in Great Britain or Germany a billion equals a million millions. A giga
equals a standard 1000 millions even though it may be referred to as a
billion in the United States or in France but not in Great Britain or Ger-
many. Thus, the standard prefixes refer to specific quantities even
though atto is referred to as a quintillionth in the United States but
would be referred to as a trillionth in Great Britain.

TABLE 7-3. System Differences

eeesigraton=—— 2 1S ahd Frenhs _— Fower British

and German 2)” Power
million 1000 thousands 10° 1000 thousands 10°
milliard 1000 millions 10° 1000 millions 10°
billion 1000 millions 10° 1 million millions 10”
trillion 1000 billions 10 1 million billions OL
(a million millions)
quadrillion 1000 trillions 10° 1 million trillions 10%
quintillion 1000 quadrillions 10% 1 million quadrillions 10°
186 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

7—4. TIME CONSTANTS

The time-constant characteristics of resistance and capacitance or induc-

tance are covered in Sec. 1-9. A convenient time-constant listing for
quick reference is given in Table 7—4 from values of 0.001 through 5 as
shown.

TABLE 7-4. Time Constants

Percentage of Capacitor
Discharge Voltage or
Charge Current; also Percentage of Capacitor
Percentage of Inductor Charge Voltage or
Time Charge Voltage or Percentage of Inductor
Constant __Discharge Current _
nore
0.001 99:9 0.1
0.002 99.8 0.2
0.003 OOF 0.3
0.004 99.6 0.4
0.005 99.5 0.5
0.006 99.4 0.6
0.007 99.3 0.7
0.008 99.2 0.8
0.009 99.1 0.9
0.01 99 Frinteed
0.02 98 2
0.03 97 3
0.04 96 , 4
0.05 95 ™, S
0.06 94 6
0.07 93 ¥ u/
0.08 92 8
0.09 91 9
0.10 90 10
0.15 86 14
0.20 82 18
0.25 78 22
0.30 74 26
0.35 70 30
0.40 67 33
0.45 64 36
0.5 61 39
 POWERS OF 2. 187

See

TABLE 7-4. continued

aR eee eee see 68S ed ge te
Percentage of Capacitor
Discharge Voltage or
Charge Current; also Percentage of Capacitor
Percentage of Inductor Charge Voltage or
Time Charge Voltage or Percentage of Inductor
Constant Discharge Current Charge Current

0.6 55 45
0.7 50 50
0.8 45 35
0.9 40 60
1 37 63
2 14 86
3 5 95
4 98
5) 0.7 99.3

7-5. POWERS OF 2

A listing of the successive doubling of numerical values is shown in Ta-

ble 7-5. It indicates the progression of place values for powers of 2 (bi-
nary numbers) (see also Sec. 5-1). Table 7—5 thus illustrates successive
values, such as binary 0001 = 1, 0010 = 2, 0100 = 4, 1000 = 8, and
so on.

TABLE 7-5. Powers of 2

a sO io ody n pasts Sete

1 2 Dd) OMNIS
2) 4 Wp) 4,194,304
3 8 23 8,388,608
4 16 24 16,777,216
5 32 25 33,554,432
6 64 26 67,108,864
7 128 27 134,217,728
8 256 28 268,435,456
wy) Si, 29 536,870,912
10 1,024 30 1,073,741,824
= X SS& oo w— 2,147,483,648
188 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

TABLE 7-5. continued

n ae Ni i capbieiwtie6
12 4,096 32 4,294,967,296
13 8,192 33 8,589,934,592
14 16,384 34 17,179,869, 184
15 32,768 35 34,359,738,368
16 65,536 36 68,719,476,736
17 131,072 37 137,438,953,472
18 262,144 38 274,877,906,944
19 524,288 39 549,755,813,888
20 1,048,576 40 1,099,511,627,776

7-6. MUSICAL-TONE FREQUENCIES

The progressive frequency of musical tones (in hertz) is shown in

Table 7-6. Twelve notes are shown, from C to B, as the fundamental
lowest tones shown in the table. Progressive octaves for each tone are

TABLE 7-6. Frequencies of Musical Tones: Progressive Octaves

Cc & D D* as
Se tee
0032.703 0034.648 0036.708 0038.891 004 1:203 0043.654
0065.406 0069.296 0073.416 0077.782 0082.407 0087.307
0130.813 0138.591 0146.832 0155.563 0164.814 0174.614
0261.626 0277.183 0293.665 0311.127 0329.628 0349.228
0523.251 0554.365 0587.330 0622.254 ‘Q659.255 0698.456
1046.502 1108.731 1174.659 1244.508 1318.510 1396.913
2093.005 2217.461 2349.318 2489.016 2637.021 2793.826
4186.009 4434.922 4698.636 4978.032 5274.042 5587.652

0046.249 0048.999 0051.913 0055.000 0058.270 0061.735

0092.499 0097.999 0103.830 0110.000 0116.540 0123.470
0184.997 0195.998 0207.652 0220.000 0233.082 0246.942
0369.994 0391.955 0415.305 0440.000 0466. 164 0493.883
0739.989 0783.991 0830.609 0880.000 0932.328 0987.767
1479.978 1567.982 1661.219 1760.000 1864.655 19755533
2959.99) 3135.964 3322.438 3520.000 3729.310 3951.066
5919.910 6271.928 6644.876 7040.000 7458.620 7902.132
 BESSEL FUNCTIONS 189

given below the alphabetical designations. Thus, the musical tone A at

440 Hz becomes 880 Hz for the same tone at an octave higher. For an
octave lower, the frequency would be 220 Hz, and so on.

7-7. BESSEL FUNCTIONS

The Bessel functions shown in Table 7-7 are of importance in frequency-

modulation communication systems. The table shows the relationship of
a number of significant sidebands generated during the modulation pro-
cess as determined by the modulation index (see Secs. 8-3 and 8-4). The
modulation index (m) is found by dividing the frequency deviation of
the carrier by the frequency of the modulating signal. Only a specific
number of sidebands are considered significant in relation to the ampli-
tude. Hence, Table 7-7 has blank sections wherein sideband amplitudes
are no longer relevant. For an unmodulated waveform the carrier ampli-
tude is 1.0, although the algebraic addition of the amplitudes of carriers
and sidebands for various values of the modulation index does not pro-
duce 1.0 as the sum because vector addition is necessary when ac wave-
forms are involved.

TABLE 7-7. Bessel Functions

Modulation Carrier
Index, Amplitude, Relative Amplitude of Sidebands
m J (x) J (x) J (x) J (x) J x) IC) J (x) J (x) I(x) J,(x)

0 1.000
0.01 1.000 0.005
0.02 0.999 0.010
0.05 0.999 0.025
0.1 0.998 0.050
Or 0.990 0.100
0.5 0.938 0.242 0.310
1.0 0.765 0.440 0.115 0.003
2.0 0.224 0.577 0.353 0.129 0.034
3.0 —0.260 0.339 0.486 0.309 0.132 0.043 0.012
4.0 —0.397 —0.066 0.364 0.430 0.281 0.132 0.049 0.015
5.0 —0.178 —0.328 0.047 0.365 0.391 0.261 0.131 0.053 0.018
6.0 0.151 —0.277 —0.243 0.115 0.358 0.362 0.246 0.130 0.057 0.021
190 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

7—8. FREQUENCIES FOR LC PRODUCTS

When the reactances of capacitance and inductance are equal, the oppos-
ing characteristics of each cancels the net reactance and the state known
as resonance has been achieved. Hence, the only opposition to ac energy
is resistance. The resonance is achieved only for a specific frequency since
either an increase or decrease of frequency alters both capacitive reac-
tance X, and inductive reactance X, (see Sec. 1-6). At resonance the
product of LC is a constant for a given frequency. Thus, respective val-
ues of inductance and capacitance can change, but resonance kept at a
certain frequency (the inductance value can be increased, for instance, as
the capacitance value is decreased). As long as the product is not altered,
the same frequency prevails. Table 7-8 lists resonant frequencies in kilo-
hertz and wavelength in meters for various LC products ranging from 1
meter to 1000 meters and for frequencies from 300 MHz to 300 kHz.

TABLE 7-8. Resonant Frequency or Wavelength for a Given LC Product

EXeCc RN ©
Wavelength Frequency (f= ee Wavelength Frequency (L = 2H)
__
meters) Ka) NC See) | _imeters ey ee
1 300,000 0.0000003 110 2,727 0.00341
2 150,000 0.0000111
3 100,000 0.0000018 120 2,500 0.00405
4 75,000 0.0000045 130 2,308 0.00476
5 60,000 0.000005 7 140 2,143 0.00552
150 2,000 0.00633
6 50,000 0.0000101 160 1,875 0.00721

‘
8
Metco
37,500
Geet emer
0.0000180
170 “$1,764
;
~——0,00813
9 33,333 0.0000228 180 1,667 0.00912
10 30,000 0.0000282 190 smrel579 0.01015
200 1,500 0.01126
20 15,000 0.0001129 210 1,429 0.01241
30 10,000 0.0002530
40 7,500 0.0004500 220 1,364 0.01362
50 6,000 0.0007040 230 1,304 0.01489
60 5,000 0.0010140 240 1,250 0.01621
250 1,200 0.01759
70 4,290 0.0013780 260 1,154 0.01903
80 3,750 0.0018010
90 3,333 0.0022800 270 1,111 0.0205
280 1,071 0.0221
100 3,000 0.00282
 FREQUENCIES FOR LC PRODUCTS 191

TABLE 7-8. continued

IGS LE LXxXc
Wavelength Frequency (Li= 2H) Wavelength Frequency (L = uH)
praia ters) ETE) Ge) aE) Se
tmneters) | aN
(hit2) fC iF) *
290 1,034 0.0237 570 SP] 0.0915
300 1,000 0.0253 aD 522 0.0931
310 968 0.0270 580 S17 0.0947

320 938 0.0288 585 513 0.0963

330 909 0.0306 590 509 0.0980
340 883 0.0325 595 504 0.0996
350 857 0.0345 600 500 0.1013
360 834 0.0365 605 496 0.1030

370 811 0.0385 610 492 0.1047

380 790 0.0406 615 488 0.1065
390 769 0.0428 620 484 0.1082
400 750 0.0450 625 480 0.1100
410 732 0.0473 630 476 Oa AG,

420 715 0.0496 635 472 0.1135

430 698 0.0520 640 469 0.1153
440 682 0.0545 645 465 0.1171
450 667 0.0570 650 462 0.1189
460 652 0.0596 655 458 0.1208

470 639 0.0622 660 455 0.1226

480 625 0.0649 665 451 0.1245
490 612 0.0676 670 448 0.1264
500 600 0.0704 675 444 0.1283
505 594 0.0718 680 44] 0.1302

510 588 0.0732 685 438 0.1321

S15 583 0.0747 690 435 0.1340
520 577 0.0761 695 432 0.1360
Sy45) STZ 0.0776 700 429 0.1379
530 566 0.0791 705 426 0.1399

5))5) 561 0.0806 710 423 0.1419

540 556 0.0821 715 420 0.1439
545 551 0.0836 720 417 0.1459
550 546 0.0852 725 414 0.1479
555 541 0.0867 730 411 0.1500

560 536 0.0883 35 408 Onls21

565 531 0.0899 740 405 0.1541
 192 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

a
TABLE 7-8. continued

IKE EXEC:
Wavelength Frequency (L = 1H) Wavelength Frequency (L = w4H)
’ (meters) (kHz) (C = pF) (meters) (kHz) (C = uF)
745 403 0.1562 875 343 0.216
750 400 0.1583 880 341 0.218
755, 397 0.1604 885 339 0.220
760 395 0.1626 890 337 0.223
765 392 0.1647 895 335 0.225
770 390 0.1669 900 333 0.228
YS 387 0.1690 905 331 0.231
780 385 0.1712 910 330 0.233
785 382 0.1734 915 328 0.236
790 380 0.1756 920 326 0.238
795 377 0.1779 925 324 0.241
800 375 0.1801 930 : 323 0.243
805 Bis 0.1824 935 321 0.246
810 370 0.1847 940 319 0.249
815 368 0.1870 945 317 0.251
820 366 0.1893 950 316 0.254
825 364 0.1916 955 314 0.257
830 361 0.1939 960 313 0.259
835 359 0.1962 965 - 311 0.262
840 357 0.1986 970 - 309 0.265
845 355) 0.201 975 308 0.268
850 353 0.203 980 306 0.270
ene eo as 985 “S 305 0.273
860 349 0.208 990 303 0.276
865 347 0.211 995 x 302 0.279
870 345 0.213 1000
a 300 0.282

7-9. METERS-KILOHERTZ CONVERSION

As indicated in Sec. 7-8, waveforms of a specific

frequency have a fixed
wavelength in meters when propagated into free
space (see Sec. 1-14).
Table 7-9 lists conversions showing the relationships
between the fre-
quency in kilohertz and the wavelength in meters.
TABLE 7-9. Conversion Table: Kilohertz to Meters (or Meters to Kilohertz)*

kHz meters kHz m or kHz m or

(meters) kHz orm kHz orm kHz

10 29,982.0 360 832.8 710 422.3

20 14,991.0 370 810.3 720 416.4
30 9,994.0 380 789.0 730 410.7
40 7,496.0 390 768.8 740 405.2
50 5,996.0 400 749.6 750 399.8

60 4,997.0 410 TMS 760 394.5

70 4,283.0 420 713.9 770 389.4
80 3,748.0 430 697.3 780 384.4
90 333310 440 681.4 790 SEED
100 2,998.0 450 666.3 800 374.8

110 2,726.0 460 651.8 810 370.2

120 2,499.0 470 637.9 820 365.6
130 2,306.0 480 624.6 830 361.2
140 2,142.0 490 611.9 840 356.9
150 19990 500 599.6 850 So 2e/

160 1,874.0 510 587.9 860 348.6

170 1,764.0 520 576.6 870 344.6
180 1,666.0 530 So) / 880 340.7
190 1,578.0 540 Doo, 890 336.9
200 1,499.0 550 545.1 900 333.1

210 1,428.0 560 535.4 910 329)5

220 1,363.0 570 526.0 920 325.9
230 1,304.0 580 516.9 930 322.4
240 1,249.0 590 508.2 940 319.0
250 1,199.0 600 499.7 950 315.6

260 1,153.0 610 491.5 960 312.3

270 1,110.0 620 483.6 970 309.1
280 1,071.0 630 475.9 980 303.9
290 1,034.0 640 468.5 990 302.8
300 ti 999.4 650 461.3 1000 299.8

310 967.2 660 454.3

320 967.9 670 447.5
330 908.6 680 440.9
340 881.8 690 434.5
350 856.6 700 428.3
——
« Higher values can be obtained by shifting the decimal point. For every zero added to the
first column, the decimal place in the second column is moved one place to the /eft. Thus,
where 190 kHz=1578 m, for instance, 1900 kHz would be 157 m, or 19,000 kHz=15.78
m. Similarly, 10,000 kHz=29.98 m.

193
194 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

7-10. CONVERSIONS INVOLVING LENGTH

The relationships between measurements of length involving inches, feet,

and miles as opposed to meters, centimeters, and kilometers are listed in
Table 7-10 (see Sec. 7-12). Reference should also be made to Table 7-11
for velocity and speed relationships.

TABLE 7-10. Conversion Factors Involving Length

Multiply Number of by To Obtain Number of

inches 2.540 centimeters

inches 0.02540 meters
feet 30.48 centimeters
feet 0.3048 meters
miles 5280.0 feet
miles 1.6093 kilometers
miles 1609.3 meters
centimeters 0.3937 inches
centimeters 0.01 meters
centimeters 10.0 millimeters
meters 100.0 centimeters
meters 3.2808 feet
meters 39.37 inches
meters 1000.0 kilometers
microns Ome i meters
microns 10-4 centimeters
millimicrons 1Ox? centimeters
angstroms 10=*% meters
angstroms loz := centimeters

7-11. SPEED OR VELOCITY CONVERSIONS .

Conversion factors relating to speed and velocity are given in Table 7—

11. Reference should also be made to Table 7-10 and Sec. 7-12.

7-12. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Table 7-12 includes the differences in unit values for certain weights, as
well as metric equivalents. The table also includes circular and cubic
measurement values as well as dry and linear units.
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES’ 195

———
TABLE 7-11. Conversion Factors Involving Velocity or Speed

Multiply Number of By To Obtain Number of

feet /second 1.097 kilometers /hour
feet /second 0.6818 miles/hour
feet /second 0.01136 miles/minute
centimeters /second 1.969 feet /minute
centimeters /second 0.036 kilometers /hour
centimeters /second 0.02237 miles /hour
miles /hour 44.70 centimeters /second
miles /hour 88.0 feet /minute
miles/hour 1.467 feet /second
miles/hour 26.82 meters/minute

TABLE 7-12. Weights and Measures

Apothecaries’ Weight

20 grains=1 scruple
3 scruples=1 dram=60 grains
8 drams=1 ounce=24 scruples=480 grains
12 ounces=1 pound= 96 drams=288 scruples= 5760 grains

Avoirdupois Weight

27 11/32 grains=1 dram

16 drams=1 ounce=437% grains
16 ounces=1 pound =256 drams=7000 grains
100 pounds=1 hundredweight= 1600 ounces
20 hundredweight=1 short ton=2000 pounds
112 pounds=1 long hundredweight
20 long hundredweight
= 1 long ton= 2240 pounds

Metric Equivalents
1 gram=0.03527 ounce
1 ounce= 28.35 grams
1 kilogram =2.2046 pounds
1 pound =0.4536 kilogram
1 metric ton=0.98421 English ton
1 English ton=1.016 metric ton
196 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

2
eeet 3 a
TABLE 7-12. continued

Troy Weight

(Used for gold, silver, and jewels)

24 grains=1 pennyweight
20 pennyweights=1 ounce=480 grains
12 ounces=1 pound =240 pennyweights = 5760 grains

Circular Measure

60 seconds (”)=1 minute (’)

60 minutes=1 degree (°)
90 degrees=1 quadrant
4 quadrants=1 circle of circumference

Cubic Measure

1728 cubic inches=1 cubic foot

27 cubic feet=1 cubic yard
128 cubic feet=1 cord (wood)
40 cubic feet=1 ton (shipping)
2150.42 cubic inches=1 standard bushel
231 cubic inches=1 standard gallon (U-S.)

Dry Measure

2 pints=1 quart ‘
8 quarts=1 peck= 16 pints **,
4 pecks=1 bushel =32 quarts= 64 pints
105 quarts=1 barrel=7056 cubic inches

Linear Measure

12 inches=1 foot
3 feet=1 yard=36 inches
5% yards=1 rod=16™% feet
40 rods=1 furlong=220 yards=660 feet='% mile
8 furlongs=1 statute mile=1760 yards=5280 feet
3 miles=1 league=5280 yards= 15,840 feet
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 197

ee
ee ree
TABLE 7-12. continued
ae
i Aa a a
Metric Equivalents
1 centimeter =0.3937 inch
1 inch=2.54 centimeters
1 decimeter
= 3.937 inches=0.328 foot
1 foot=3.048 decimeters
1 meter
=39.37 inches= 1.0936 yards
1 yard=0.9144 meter
1 dekameter= 1.9884 rods
1 rod=0.5029 dekameter
1 kilometer =0.62137 mile
1 mile=1.6093 kilometers

Liquid Measure

4 gills=1 pint
2 pints=1 quart=8 gills
4 quarts=1 gallon=8 pints
31% gallons=1 barrel=126 quarts
2 barrels=1 hogshead=63 gallons=252 quarts

Square Measure

144 square inches=1 square foot

9 square feet=1 square yard= 1296 square inches
30% square yards=1 square rod=272% square feet
160 square rods=1 acre=4840 square yards
640 acres=1 square mile= 3,097,600 square yards

Metric Equivalents

1 square centimeter =0.1550 square inch

1 square inch=6.452 square centimeters
1 square decimeter =0.1076 square foot
1 square foot=9.2903 square decimeters
1 square meter= 1.196 square yards
1 square yard=0.8361 meter
1 acre=4047 square meters
1 square kilometer =0.386 square mile
1 square mile=2.59 square kilometers
eS
Dennen eee eee ee ee
198 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

7-13. DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS

The dielectric constants for various materials is important in electronics

since utilization of such materials in capacitor or other components has a
significant bearing on characteristics. The dielectric constant has for its
symbol k. For air, the dielectric constant is considered to be 1, while all
other materials have a higher k value. The word constant in relation to
dielectrics is misleading because the k value may vary in some materials
for temperature changes, frequency differences, and a change of the ap-
plied voltage, and so on. Table 7-13 lists approximate k values for a
number of materials.

TABLE 7-13. Dielectric-Constants of Various Materials

Air 1.0 Nylon : 3.00

Aluminum silicate 58) i@'ake. Paper Sto
Bakelite Sed Paraffin 2 to 3
Beeswax (yellow) oe Polyethylene 22
Butyl rubber 2.4 Polystyrene 2S
Formica XX 4.00 Porcelain 5 to 7
Glass 4 to 10 Quartz 3.7 to 4.5
Gutta-percha 2.6 Steatite 5.31406:5
Halowax oil 4.8 Teflon 72s|
Kel-F 2.6 Tenite 2.9 to 4.5
Lucite 2.8 Vaseline 2.16
Mica 4 to 8 Water (distilled) 76.7 to 78.2
Micarta 254 3.4 to 5.4 Wood is L202)

7-14. MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS AND CONSTANTS

Various mathematical symbols and basic constants are given in Table 7—

14. Common practice in expressing quantities in mathematical equations
or references is the usage of a, b, and c for known quantities, and x, y,
and z for unknowns. Relationships to electricity and electronics are indi-
cated in Chap. 1.
TABLE 7-14. Mathematical Symbols

xX or: Multiplied by
ao (Olh Divided by
Positive. Plus. Add
Negative. Minus. Subtract
Positive or negative. Plus or minus
Negative or positive. Minus or plus
= OF :: Equals
Identity
Is approximately equal to
Does not equal
Greater than
Is much greater than
Less than
Is much less than
Greater than or equal to
Less than or equal to
Therefore
Angle
Increment or decrement
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Absolute value of n
Square root
Cube root

Bae (5
>
(27)? =39.5 (All are V2=141
=12.6 rounded off) V3=1.73
| 20707
f2
1 _9577
V3
logar =0.497

log =0.196
2
loga’?=0.994
logV
7 =0.248
Base of natural logs €=2.718
1 radian=180° /7=57.3°
360°= 27radians

199
200 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

mC

TABLE 7-15. Greek Alphabet

Capital
Letter Lowercase Name Commonly Designates

A a Alpha Angles, attenuation constant, transis-

tor characteristics
B B Beta Angles, coefficients, transistor charac-
teristics
T y Gamma Propagation constant
A 6 Delta Increment or decrement of a quantity
(capital or lowercase), angles
18, € Epsilon Base of natural logarithms (2.71828),
electric intensity
G Zeta Coordinates, coefficients
cu n Eta Efficiency, surface charge density,
hysteresis, coordinates
7) Theta Phase angle
L Iota Unit vector
K Kappa Coupling coefficient, susceptibility
A Lambda Wavelength, attenuation constant
ays. fn Mu Permeability, amplification factor
(tubes)
v Nu Reluctivity, frequency
é Xi Coordinates
oO Omicron
7 Pi 3.1416
p Rho Resistivity, coordinates
ez
[Ch
Ye)
ts)
tae)
Nal o Sigma Summation (cap), complex propaga-
tion constant, leakage coefficient
F Tau Time constaat, time-phase displace-
ment, transmission factor
v Upsilon
b Phi Angles, magnetic flux, scalar poten-
tial (cap)
me Chi Electric susceptibility
WU Psi Dielectric flux, phase difference,
coordinates
a Omega Resistance in ohms (capital), angular
velocity (6.28) (lowercase)
 SOUND FREQUENCIES AND LEVELS 201

7-15. GREEK ALPHABET

Both capital and lowercase letters of the Greek alphabet are extensively
used in electronics as well as in related mathematics for designating
quantities and identifying specific units. Thus, the lowercase Greek letter
# (mu) denotes micro and is used as a prefix for microfarads, as 0.002
HF. Similarly, the lowercase letter w (omega) is utilized to identify angu-
lar velocity (6.28/). The capital letter 2 indicates ohms, while7 (lower-
case pi) denotes 3.1416, and so on. Table 7-15 lists the complete Greek
alphabet plus common designations that apply.

7-16. SOUND FREQUENCIES AND LEVELS

Typical frequency ranges for various sound levels are given in Table 7-
16. The approximate range in hertz is shown. The approximate levels of
various sounds utilizing decibel (dB) comparisons is shown in Table 7—
17 (see Secs. 1-7 and 1-8).

TABLE 7-16. Typical Frequency Range of Various Sounds

Approximate Frequency
Type of Sound Span (Hz)

Desirable range for good speech intelligibility 300 to 4,000

Audibility range (normal hearing, young person) 16 to 20,000
Piano 26 to 4,000
Baritone 100 to 375
Tenor 125to 475
Soprano 225 to 675
Cello 64 to 650
Violin 192 to 3,000
Piccolo 512 to 4,600
Harmonics of sound 32 to 20,000
202 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

TABLE 7-17. Sound Levels

Relative Intensity
Type of Sound (dB)
Reference level 0
Threshold of average hearing 10
Soft whisper; faint rustle of leaves 20
Normal whisper; average sound in home 30
Faint speech; softly playing radio 40
Muted string instrument; softly spoken words (at a 50
distance of 3 ft)
Normal conversational level; radio at average 60
loudness
Group conversation; orchestra slightly below 70
average volume
Average orchestral volume; very loud radio 80
Loud orchestra volume; brass band 90
Noise of low-flying airplane; noisy machine shop : 100
Roar of overhead jet-propelled plane; loud brass 110
band close by
Nearby airplane roar; beginning of hearing 120
discomfort
Threshold of pain from abnormally loud sounds 130

7-17. EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY ON L, C, AND R

As mentioned in Sec. 7-8, a change of frequency of the electric energy

applied to circuits containing L, C, and R alters.geactance. Since imped-
ance (Z) is a combination of reactance and resistance, there is also a cor-
responding impedance change. Table 7-18 lists the effects of circuitry
containing L, C, and R either in single units or in combination.

7-18. RESISTOR COLOR CODES

The ohmic value of resistors is indicated by imprinting colored bands on

the resistor casing. For resistors of the molded composition type shown
in Figure 7-1, the color coding is read from left to right from the end
wherein the color bands are grouped. Generally, there are four color
 RESISTOR COLOR CODES 203

Se

TABLE 7-18. Effects of Frequency on L-C-R Circuits

a SS a a ea ee eee

Effect of Frequency
Component Increase Decrease
Resistance (R) None None
Capacitance (C) None None
Capacitive reactance (X.) Lowers X. Raises X
Inductance (L) None None
Inductive reactance (X, ) Raises X, Lowers X,
Series capacitor—resistor combination (Z) Lowers Z Raises Z
Series inductance-resistor combination (Z) Raises Z Lowers Z
Parallel capacitor—resistor combination (Z) Lowers Z Raises Z
Parallel inductance-resistor combination (Z) Raises Z Lowers Z
Series resonance (Z) Raises Z Raises Z
Parallel resonance (Z) Lowers Z Lowers Z

bands used on the carbon-composition resistors and five bands for the
film type. In both instances the last color band refers to the tolerance
that applies to the ohmic value indicated. Thus, if a resistor is rated at
500 2 and had a tolerance of 10%, its actual value could range from 450

Second Multiplier Second

Digits
Significant Tolerance
digits Multiplier

Blue Red
Green Silver

))))
Example —,_

10%
SeOm
Ome OS

Figure 7-1 Resistor Color Codes

204 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

to 550 . Table 7-19 gives the color-coded values and tolerances apply-
ing to the types of resistors shown in Figure 7-1. The letters GMV indi-
cates guaranteed minimum value. Also, if a value is marked (alt.) it
indicates alternate. Generally, in modern practice, a value may be
marked (pref.) for preferred.

TABLE 7-19. Ohmic Values of Color Bands

Carbon + Film-Type
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance Tolerance

Black (0) 1 207% 0

Brown 1 10 1% 1%
Red 7) 100 27% 2%
Orange 3 1,000 3%
Yellow 4 10,000 GMV
Green 5 100,000 5%(alt.) 0.5%
Blue 6 1,000,000 6% 0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 12.5% 0.1%
Gray 8 0.01 (alt.) 30% 0.05%
White 9 0.1 (alt.) 10%(alt.)
Silver 0.01 (pref.) 10% (pref.) 10%
Gold 0.1 (pref.) 5%(pref.) 5%
No color 20%

7-19. CAPACITOR COLOR CODES

The capacitance value of capacitors is indicated by imprinting colored

bands on the capacitor casing. As with the resisters discussed in Sec. 7—
18, the colored bands indicate unit values and certain tolerances plus
other factors. For the tubular-type capacitors shown in Figure 7—2 the
leads may consist of axial types connected through the ends, or radial
types connected at right angles to the capacitor length. Again, as with
resistors, the identification starts at the end of the capacitor, where the
color bands are grouped.
Unit values obtained from the digit color bands are in picofarads
(pF). Besides the digit bands, a temperature-coefficient band and a toler-
ance band are also used. The temperature coefficient of ceramic capaci-
tors is given in parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C). A letter N
precedes the value to indicate a negative-temperature coefficient (a capaci-
tance decrease for an increase in operating temperature). A P designation
 CAPACITOR COLOR CODES 205

Temperature Multiplier Temperature Second

coefficient Totenuce coefficient First Multiplier
Tolerance

First Second

Digits

Digits

First Second

Multiplier

Temperature Tolerance
coefficient

Figure 7—2 Color Codes for ac/de Capacitors

indicates a positive-temperature coefficient and a MPO designation indi-

cates a negative—positive—zero coefficient. The NPO-rated capacitors are
stable units having negligible temperature effects on capacitance values.
As shown in Figure 7-2, five identification markings are used for
such capacitors. The first band indicate temperature coefficient and the
next two bands indicate the significant digits. Often axial-type capacitors
have a wider first band to identify the initial coating. For the five-dot
disk types shown, the lower left dot is the temperature coefficient and
the other dots (in clockwise sequence) are coded the same as the axial or
radial types. The button-silver mica, the button ceramic, and the feed-
through capacitors are shown in Figure 7-3. The related color coding for
all the capacitors discussed in this section is given in Table 7—20.
The extended-range temperature coefficient ceramic capacitors and
the molded mica types are shown in Figure 7-4. For the extended-range
capacitors the first color area identifies the temperature coefficient as
with the five-dot types. The second color area, however, represents the
temperature-coefficient multiplier. For the flat rectangular-shaped mold-
ed mica (extensively used at one time) an arrow is imprinted on the flat
face to indicate the color-coding sequence direction. The lower left-hand
color dot identifies a specific type for clarification of the particular ca-
pacitor according to the manufacturer’s specifications regarding tem-
perature coefficient, Q factor, and related characteristics.
206 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

Digits

First Second ;
yY Multiplier

i
Digits:
Class
type First

Tolerance Second
Multiplier Third

Digits
First Second Multipli Feed-through
einer capacitor

Chassis
Temperature Tolerance
coefficient

Figure 7-3. Mica and Ceramic Capacitors (Button and Feed-Through)

TABLE 7-20. Picofarad Values of Color Bands

J5-dot
Temp. Extended Range
10 pF Over Coeff. Significant
Color Digit Multiplier or less 10 pF iKS, Digits Multiplier

Black 0) 1 2.0 pF 20% NPO- 0.0 —1

Brown 1 10 O1pF 1% NO33™ ~10
Red 2 100 2% NO75 1.0 — 100
Orange 3 1000 3% N1S50 15 — 1000
Yellow 4 10,000 N220 22 — 10,000
Green 5 0.5 pF 5% N330 3.3 teal
Blue 6 N470 4.7 atahO
Violet t/ N750 Led +100
Gray 8 0.01 (alt.) 0.25 pF : : +1000
White y) 0.1 (alt.) 1.0 pF 10% : + 10,000
Silver 0.01 (pref.)
Gold 0.1 (pref.)
@ General-purpose types with a TC ranging from P150 to N1500.
* Coupling, decoupling, and general bypass types with a TC ranging from P100 to N750.
¢ Tf the first band (TC) is*black, the range is N1000 to N5000.
 MKS AND CGS UNIT SYSTEMS 207

Digits Digits
ae First Second EIA STD. First Second
eget’ Digital multiplier
Temperature
tas Tolerance
coefficient

Type Multiplier
Tolerance

Figure 7-4 Temperature Coefficient and Mica Types

7-20. MKS AND CGS UNIT SYSTEMS

Standard units and symbols used in various branches of science have un-
dergone significant changes over the years in an effort to make them uni-
versally standard for simplification purposes. Early systems included the
mks (meter-kilogram-second) and the cgs (centimeter-gram-second). These
two systems, although still found in literature, have been superseded by
the International System of Units (SI) described and listed in Sec. 7-21.
Table 7-21 on page 208 lists the quantities and symbols for basic units
in both the mks and cgs systems.

7-21. SI UNIT SYSTEM

The International System of Units has the official abbreviation of S7 and

represents the modernized version of the metric system. Adopted by in-
ternational agreement, it is the basis for all measurements throughout
the world and integrates such measurements for science, industry, and
commerce. Throughout this system only one unit is used for a particular
quantity, whether thermal, electrical, or mechanical. The system can be
considered an absolute one, using absolute units for simplicity in engi-
neering practices.
In the SI system the unit of force is defined by the acceleration of
mass (kg-m/s?) and is unrelated to gravity. The SI system was devised
with a foundation of six base units: /ength, mass, time, temperature, elec-
tric current, and luminous intensity. Four of these units are independent:
length, mass, time, and temperature, while the other two require usage of
208 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

a De eee ne re Bee A
TABLE 7-21. Comparisons between mks and cgs

Quantity Symbol mks Unit cgs Unit

Capacitance Cc farad farad

Conductance G mho mho
Current I ampere ampere
Electric charge Q coulomb coulomb
Electric potential V(E) volt volt
Flux density B weber/square meter gauss
Force F newton dyne
Inductance iE henry henry
Length 1 meter (m) centimeter (cm)
Magnetic field intensity H ampere-turn /meter oersted
Magnetic flux b weber maxwell
Magnetization M weber /square meter
Magnetomotive force mmf ampere-turn gilbert
Mass m kilogram gram
Permeability be henry/ meter gauss/oersted
Permeance 122 weber /amp-turn maxwell /gilbert
Power 5 watt watt
Resistance R ohm ohm
Reluctance R amp-turn /weber gilbert /maxwell
Time t second second
Energy—work W(J) joule joule

other units for definition. Two supplementary units are also used: the ra-
dian (for measurement of plane angles) and the -eradian (for measure-
ment of solid angles). These are supplemental because they are not based
on physical standards but on mathematical concepts. The standards for
the six base units are defined by international agreement. The prototype
for mass is the only basic unit still defined by a rigid physical device. As
an example, the kilogram is a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy housed
at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France with a
duplicate in the National Bureau of Standards in the United States.
The meter is a specific wavelength in a vacuum of the orange-red
line of the spectrum of krypton 86. The time second is defined as the du-
ration of specific periods of radiation corresponding to the transition be-
tween two levels of cesium 133. For temperature, the degree Kelvin is
 SI UNIT SYSTEM 209

established as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple

point of water (the latter is approximately 32.02°F). The ampere of cur-
rent is that amount flowing into infinitely long parallel wires (in vacuum)
separated by 1 meter and producing a force of 2 x 10-7 neutrons per
meter of length between the wires. The candella (luminous intensity) is
the intensity of 1/600,000 square meter of a perfect radiator at the
freezing temperature of platinum, 2024 K.
Table 7—22 lists the basic units in the SI system as well as the sup-
plementary and derived units. The latter are produced without having to
use conversion factors. As an example, a force of 1 N acting for a length
of 1 m produces 1 J of energy. If such a force is maintained for 1 s, the
power is 1 W.

TABLE 7-22. SI Units and Symbols

Quantity Symbol ST Unit Derivation

Base Units
Length m meter
Mass kg kilogram
Time S second
Temperature K degree Kelvin
Electric current A ampere
Luminous intensity cd candela
Supplementary Units
Plane angle rad radian
Solid angle sr steradian
Derived Units
Area m? square meter
Acceleration m/s? meter per second
squared
Angular acceleration rad/s? radian per second
squared
Angular velocity rad/s radian per second
Conductance S) siemens A/V
Density kg/m? kilogram per cubic
meter
Electric capacitance F farad A:s/V
Electric charge C coulomb A‘s
Electric field
strength V/m volt per meter
210 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

TABLE 7-22. continued

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Derivation

Electric resistance D ohm V/A

Energy, work,
quantity of heat J joule N-m
Flux of light Im lumen cd-sr
Force N newton kg-m/s?
Frequency Hz hertz gut
Illumination Ix lux Im/m?
Inductance H henry V-s/A
Luminance cd/m? candela per
square meter
Magnetic field
strength A/m ampere per meter
Magnetic flux Wb weber V's
Magnetic flux density T tesla Wb/m?
Magnetomotive force A ampere
Power W watt J/s
Pressure N/m? newton per
square meter
Velocity m/s meter per second
Voltage, potential
difference,
electromotive force V volt W/A
Volume m? cubic meter

7-22. PUBLIC-ENTERTAINMENT BROADCAST ALLOCATIONS

Amplitude-modulated radio stations broadcasting public entertainment

transmit at specific frequencies within the range 550 to 1600 kHz. The
bandwidth per station is nominally 10 kHz, although this span varies
depending on interference factors. The preferred intermediate frequency
(IF) is 455 kHz.
Frequency-modulated radio stations broadcasting public entertain-
ment transmit at specific frequencies within a range extending from 88 to
108 MHz. Each station is allocated a 200-kHz bandwidih. The preferred
intermediate frequency (IF) is 10.7 MHz. Television stations broadcast-
ing public entertainment (both VHF and UHF) transmit at specific fre-
quencies as shown in Tables 7-23 and 7-24. Each station utilizes a
 PUBLIC-ENTERTAINMENT BROADCAST ALLOCATIONS 211

6-MHz total bandwidth, including video and audio. The video portion
uses amplitude modulation and the audio-portion frequency modulation
(see also Chaps. 8 and 11). Preferred intermediate frequencies (IF) are
45.75 MHz for the picture carrier and 41.25 MHz for the sound carrier.
Both picture and sound IF signals are heterodyned in the receiver for the
production of a final sound IF of 4.5 MHz.

TABLE 7-23. VHF Television Station Allocations

(U.S.)
Channel Frequency Video Sound
NBIADST neAAAIae ECaTriere” yes
Carrier
1 Not used
2 54-60 DDI) hs
3 60-66 61.25 65.75
4 66-72 67.25 TAGTS
5 76-82 Wi?) SETS
6 82-88 83.25 87.75
FM band (88 to 108 MHz)
7 174-180 WS 25 OST
8 180-186 181.25 185.75
9 186-192 187.25 NO teas)
10 192-198 193225 OFeTS
11 198-204 19925 203.75
12 204-210 205.25 209.75
13 210-216 ZA 25 ZS si5

TABLE 7-24. UHF Television Station Allocations (U.S.)

Channel Frequency Picture Sound

Number Range (MHz) Carrier (MHZ) Carrier (MHz)
14 470-476 471.25 475.75
15) 476-482 477.25 481.75
16 482-488 483.25 487.75
17 488-494 489.25 493.75
18 494-500 495.25 499.75
19 500-506 501.25 505.75
20 506-512 507.25 ale Ws)
21 512-518 S1s25 Sian
Mp 518-524 519.25 23,13)
23 524-530 525.25 5295/5
212 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

TABLE 7-24. continued

Channel Frequency Picture Sound

Number Range (MHz) Carrier (MHZ) Carrier (MHz)

24 530-536 PN EPP) SIDS

Mp) 536-542 537.25 541.75
26 542-548 543.25 547.75
Di 548-554 549.25 ; Rees,
28 554-560 355225 5951 5
29 560-566 561.25 565.75
30 566-572 567.25 STA
etfs)
31 572-578 IISL5 7 AT eS
32 578-584 SI9.25 583.75
33 584-590 585.25 589.75
34 590-596 591.25 595-15
3S 596-602 S925 601.75
36 602-608 603.25 607.75
37 608-614 609.25 : 613.75
38 614-620 615.25 619.75
39 620-626 621.25 625.75
40 626-632 627.25 631.75
41 632-638 633.25 637.75
42 638-644 639.25 643.75
43 644-650 645.25 649.75
44 650-656 651.25 655.75
45 656-662 657.25 . 661.75
46 662-668 663.25 667.75
47 668-674 669.25 673.75
48 674-680 675.25 679.75
49 680-686 681.25 ~, 685.75
50 686-692 687.25 691.75
51 692-698 693.25 697.75
Sy 698-704 699.25. 703.75
53 704-710 705.25 709.75
54 710-716 FTIT25 715.75
Bp) 716-722 TA Ress) PATE
56 722-728 123.25 727.75
57 728-734 T2925 WSS
58 734-740 13925 T3975
59 740-746 741.25 745.75
60 746-752 747.25 751.75
61 752-758 d0v2D es
62 758-764 YSIS 763.75
 MISCELLANEOUS BROADCAST ALLOCATIONS 213

ee
ee a ee
TABLE 7-24. continued
OE eee

Channel Frequency Picture Sound

Number Range (MHz) Carrier (MHZ) Carrier (MHz)

63 764-770 765.25 769.75

64 770-776 Ve) TS
65 776-782 FIV25 781.75
66 782-788 783.25 787.75
67 788-794 789.25 EBS
68 794-800 MID EES
69 800-806 801.25 805.75
70 806-812 807.25 811.75
al 812-818 813.25 817.75
1? 818-824 819.25 823.75
73 824-830 825.25 829.75
74 830-836 831.25 835.75
Uf 836-842 837.25 841.75
76 842-848 843.25 847.75
hi 848-854 849.25 853.75
78 854-860 855.25 859.75
ie 860-866 861.25 865.75
80 866-872 867.25 871.75
81 872-878 873.25 877.75
82 878-884 87925 883.75
83 884-890 885.25 889.75

7-23. MISCELLANEOUS BROADCAST ALLOCATIONS

Tables 7-25 through 7-29 indicate frequency allocations for citizens’

band, amateur, general frequency designation, military designations, and
the International Morse Code. Additional data are given in Chaps. 8 and
11 regarding modulation types and general characteristics.
The citizens’ band (CB) radio station listing in Table 7-25 shows
the 40 channels allocated between 26.965 and 27.405 MHz. Note that
Channel 22 is followed by 24, and 25 precedes 23. This procedure keeps
the frequency change at a progressive sequency as it rises. Manu-
facturered CB units, however, indicate a proper sequence on tuning dials.
The channel number designations have been omitted from the rules by
the FCC and channel identification is solely by the designated center fre-
quency. The altered sequence in Table 7-25 occurred because the prior
214 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

station allocations were changed by the addition of two channels be-

tween the previous 22 and 23. The EJA suggested the new channels be
designated as 24 and 25, with a sequence as shown in the table.

TABLE 7-25. Citizens’ Band Listing

Channel Frequency (MHz) Channel Frequency (MHz)

1 26.965 21 27.215
2 26.975 22 21.225
3 26.985 24 LISS
4 27.005 25 27.245
5 27.015 23 Dihe2 SS
6 27.025 26 27.265
7 27.035 27 2e2TS
8 27.055 28 27.285
g) 27.065 2S ZI2I5
10 27.075 ) 30 27.305
11 27.085 31 2I-315
12 DiglOS 32 21.325
13 Da VAS 33 29.335
14 PFA 225) 34 27.345
15 27.135 35 21395
16 PH IB)S 36 27.365
NG 27.165 Si) = De fe fs
18 2h MWS 38 27.385
19 27.185 39 27.395
20 27.205 40 27.405

aa

TABLE 7-26. Amateur-Radio Bands

160-meter band 1.8 to 2.0MHz

80-meter band 3:5; to 4.0MHz
40-meter band 2ROVato 7.3 MHz
20-meter band 14.0 to 14.35 MHz
15-meter band 21.0 to 21.45 MHz
10-meter band 28.0 to 29.7 MHz
6-meter band 50.0 to 54.0 MHz
2-meter band 144.0 to 148.0MHz
———
eeeeeeeeeeSeSSSeeeeeeSSSFSse
 MISCELLANEOUS BROADCAST ALLOCATIONS 215

TABLE 7-27. General Frequency Designations

VLF (very low frequencies) 3 Hz to kHz

LF (low frequencies) 30 kHz to kHz
MF (medium frequencies) 300 kHz to MHz
HF (high frequencies) 3 MHz to MHz
VHF (very high frequencies) 30 MHz to MHz
UHF (ultrahigh frequencies) 300 MHz to MHz
SHF (superhigh frequencies) 3 GHz to GHz
EHF (extra-high frequencies) 30 GHz to GHz

TABLE 7-28. Military Frequency Designations

P band 225 MHz to 390 MHz

L band 390 MHz to 1,550 MHz
S band 1,550 MHz to 5,200 MHz
X band 5,200 MHz to 10,900 MHz
K band 10,900 MHz to 36,000 MHz
Q band 36 GHz to 46 GHz
V band 46 GHz to 56 GHz

TABLE 7-29. International Morse Code

A.- N-.
Bia saa O---
C-.-. P.--.
D-.. Q-=.-
BS R.-
F..- S
Gee T-
H U..-
I A
See
J ieee W.--
K-.- DO a
L.- 2. a
M -- La

Period (.)
Comma (,)
Interrogation (?)
216 VARIOUS TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA

TABLE 7-29. continued

Quotation mark (”’)

Colon (:)
Semicolon (;)
Parenthesis ()
Zero (0) is often transmitted as a long dash. The following letter
combinations are transmitted without any space between:
Wait sign (AS)
Double dash (break)
Error (erase sign)
Fraction bar (/)
End of message (AR)
End of transmission (SK)
International distress signal (SOS) .seme =.

7-24. TELEVISION TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Table 7-30 lists the most common television technical standards of to-
day.

TABLE 7-30. Television Technical Standards

Function Data

One horizontal sweep cycle (start of one 63.5 us

horizontal line trace to start of next)
Horizontal blanking interval 10.1880 11.4 us
Horizontal trace (without blanking time) 53.34 us
One frame 33,334 us
One field 16,667 us
Horizontal sync pulse duration 5.08 to 5.68 us
Vertical sync pulse interval (total of six vertical 190.5 ys
blocks)
Vertical blanking interval 833 to 1300 ws for each field
Vertical scan frequency (B/W) 60 Hz
Verical scan frequency (color) 59.94 Hz
Horizontal scan frequency (B/W) 15,750 Hz
Horizontal scan frequency (color) 15,734.264 Hz
Total frequency span for an individual station 6 MHz
(B/W or color)
 TELEVISION TECHNICAL STANDARDS 217

TABLE 7-30. continued

Function Data

Picture carrier is nominally above the lower 1.25 MHz

end of the channel (B/W or color)
Aspect ratio of B/W or color picture (picture 4.3
width versus height)
Scan lines per frame (B/W or color) 525 (interlaced)
Scan lines per field (B/W or color) 262.5
The frequency-modulated sound carrier is 4.5 MHz
above the picture-carrier frequency (B/W or
color)
Maximum deviation of sound carrier each side 25 kHz
of center frequency
The effective radiated power of the audio 50 to 70
expressed as the percent of the peak power
of the picture-signal carrier
Color-picture carrier frequency 3.579 MHz (3.58 MHz)
Transmitted burst signal sync Eight cycles minimum
Brightness (luminance) portion of color 0.59 green, 0.30 red, 0.11 blue
transmission, symbol Y
I (in-phase) signal combines portions of B-Y —0.27B less the Y signal,
and R-Y and 0.74R less the Y
The Q (quadrature) signal combines portions 0.41B less the Y, and 0.48R
of B-Y and R-Y less the Y
Blue signal combines portions of Y, Q, and J (Y plus 1.72Q) less 1.11 of I
Green signal combines portions of Y, Q, and J (¥less 0.64Q) less 0.28 of J
Red signal combines portions of Y, Q, and J (Y plus 0.63Q) pluse 0.96 of J
 Transmission Principles

8-1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

In the broadcasting of audio, video, or other information signals, the

transmitted RF signal is modified so that the information signals can be
reformed at the receiver. The RF signal is termed the carrier and the
low-frequency signals modify (modulate) the RF carrier. There are sever-
al modulation methods as described in this chapter. One of these is am-
plitude modulation and the basic principle is illustrated in Figure 8-1. As
with other modulation methods, the carrier modification process pro-
duces additional signals termed sidebands, which accompany the trans-
mitted carrier to form a composite signal. The circuitry illustrated in
Figure 8-1 consists of push-pull Class C RF amplifiers and push-pull
modulators. Single-ended stages can also be used.“
The modulator output is applied across a transformer primary (L,
and L,) and appears in the secondary winding (L,). The latter is in series
with the power-supply feedline to the center tap RF transformer consist-
ing of L, and L,. When there is no modulator signal the carrier output at
L, has a constant amplitude as shown. When the modulator transistors
Q,and Q, process an audio or video signal, an amplified version appears
across transformer windings L,and L,, and hence across L, secondary. If
the modulating signal consisted of a pure sine wave as shown, a positive
alternation across the secondary winding L, produces a peak positive
voltage that aids the power-supply potential. Consequently, the voltage
applied to the collectors of Q, and Q, increases over that which normally
prevails. The potential increase causes a corresponding rise in the ampli-

218
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 219

Class C final
RF amp

RF signal
from earlier
stages

Modulator
circuitry

Modulating]
Audio or EG
video signal
from earlier
stages

Figure 8-1 Amplitude Modulation

tude of the RF carrier output as shown. When the modulating signal ap-
pearing across L, changes to a negative alternation, it opposes the power-
supply potential and consequently the Class C amplifier amplitude also
drops. Now, the power output of the carrier declines and the amplitude
can drop almost to zero as shown. For a positive alternation the carrier
again increases as shown.
With circuitry having a fairly constant resistive value, carrier power
varies as the square of the applied voltage. Since full modulation causes
a carrier amplitude increase and proportionate decrease as illustrated, the
peak output power of the carrier reaches a value that is quadruple that
of the unmodulated RF carrier. Hence, for full modulation, the carrier
signal amplitude varies between almost zero and twice the amplitude of
the unmodulated carrier. The average Q, and Q, collector-current flow
from the power supply remains constant because successive collector-cur-
rent increases are balanced by proportionate decreases. For AM, full
modulation is defined as 100% modulation and represents the conditions
where the modulator output power is one-half the Class C input power
220 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

from the dc supply system. (Class C input power is defined as the prod-
uct of the collector’s direct current and voltage.)
If too great a modulating signal is utilized, the condition of the
modulated carrier deteriorates because the overmodulation causes the
carrier to drop to zero periodically as shown in Figure 8-2(A). Such
modulation causes distortion when demodulated. When the modulator
output power drops substantially, the change in carrier signal amplitude
is affected to a lesser degree as shown in (B). Thus, the modulation is
less than 1007.

8-2. SIDEBAND FACTORS

An RF carrier signal consisting of pure sine waves has only a single fre-
quency. For any waveform distortion, additional signals are generated
having frequencies above and below the fundamental carrier frequencies
(see Secs. 8-1 and 11-1). The nature and numberof sidebands that are
produced, however, are related to the type of modulation employed
(AM, FM, etc.) as well as the frequency of the modulating signal. For

aoe

Reactance Class C
Variable-freq.
control final
osc. and amps
RF amp

FM*
carrier

Crystal
oscillator
and amps

Audio : Audio
input amplifiers

Modulating
signal

Figure 8—2 Percentages and Sidebands

 SIDEBAND FACTORS 221

amplitude modulation two sidebands are produced for each single-fre-

quency signal as shown in Figure 8—-2(C) and (D). Hence, if the RF car-
rier frequency is 2000 kHz and the modulating signal is 500 Hz, one
sideband occurs 500 Hz above the carrier frequency and hence would be
2000.5 kHz. The second sideband would be 500 Hz below the carrier
frequency and hence would be 1999.5 kHz. If the carrier were modulated
by a signal of 1 kHz, the upper sideband would have a frequency of
2001 kHz and the lower 1999 kHz. If both the 500-Hz and the 1-kHz
signals were simultaneously used for modulation purposes, there would
be four sidebands present in addition to the carrier signal. For AM, the
variations in the carrier amplitude during modulation represents the
composite carrier signal and therefore includes the carrier plus the side-
bands. During AM, the amplitude of the basic carrier (single frequency)
does not vary. The power of the sideband signals, however, changes in
proportion to the amplitude variations of the modulating signals. If the
sideband signals were removed from the modulated carrier shown in Fig-
ure 8-1, the basic carrier would have a constant amplitude in similar
fashion to the two sidebands illustrated in Figure 8-2(C) and (D).
For the frequency-modulation process discussed in Sec. 8-3, many
more sidebands are produced for a given modulating signal than is the
case for AM. The sideband factors relating to frequency modulation are
covered in Sec. 8—4. All the sidebands are not always transmitted when
it is desired to save spectrum space. Filter networks can be utilized to
suppress one of the sidebands in AM. Reception is still possible at the
receiver when only one sideband accompanies the carrier, although sig-
nal strength would be somewhat lower than when the full complement
of sidebands is present. Such transmission using a single sideband is des-
ignated as SSB. The designations LSB (lower sideband) and USB (upper
sideband) are also used on occasion. Single-sideband transmission is pop-
ular with citizens’-band radio as well as many commercial transmitters
for interference reduction and spectrum space conservation. In television
transmission (public entertainment) most of the lower sidebands are
eliminated and during color transmission the color carrier is also sup-
pressed. In the latter instance it is necessary to generate the missing car-
rier at the receiver for demodulation processes (see Secs. 8-5 and 11-9).
Obviously, the modulation process increases the necessary bandwidth for
the transmitted signal to accommodate the additional sidebands. A nom-
inal bandpass utilized in public-entertainment AM is 10 kHz. Since
many more sidebands are generated for FM, public-entertainment FM
has a 200-kHz allocation for each FM station.
222 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

8-3. FREQUENCY MODULATION

During frequency modulation, the audio-modulating signal is made to

shift the RF carrier signal in frequency. Thus the unmodulated-signal
frequency (also termed resting frequency) is shifted above and below at a
rate identical to the modulating-signal frequency. Hence, if a 600-Hz au-
dio signal modulates the FM carrier, the latter deviates from its resting
frequency 600 times per second (both above and below the carrier rest-
ing frequency). The degree by which the carrier shifts in frequency from
the resting, point is controlled by the amplitude of the modulating signal.
To illustrate, if the 600-Hz audio signal causes the carrier to deviate 10
kHz above and below the resting frequency, an increase in the amplitude
of the audio-modulating signal may create a deviation of 18 kHz each
side of the resting frequency even though the identical 600-Hz deviation
rate prevails. If the audio-modulating signal is increased additionally, the
deviation of the carrier may extend to 26 kHz or more each side of the
resting frequency. For an 800-Hz modulating signal, the deviation would
occur 800 times per second with the extent of the deviation again estab-
lished by the amplitude of the 800-Hz signal.
There are several methods for frequency modulating a carrier and a
representative system is shown in Figure 8-3 (see also Chap. 11). Here

Over 100% 50%

(a) (b),

Lower sideband only Upper sideband only

(without either upper (without either lower
sideband or carrier) sideband or carrier)

(Cc) (d)

Figure 8-3 Frequency Modulation

 FM SIDEBAND FACTORS 223

two oscillators are utilized: one, a fixed-frequency oscillator, to establish

frequency stability and another, a variable-frequency oscillator, for carri-
er generation. After the carrier has been generated it is amplified and its
frequency multiplied as required for application to the final Class C am-
plifier. A mixer stage samples the frequency of the signal of the Class C
final amplifier and also the frequency of the signal generated by the crys-
tal oscillator. If the carrier is at its proper resting frequency the phase
detector has zero output. If, however, the Class C amplifier frequency
deviates, a signal change is felt by the phase detector and a correction
voltage is applied to the reactance control circuit (see Secs. 2-30 through
2-32). The result is a correction of the Class C signal frequency. The cir-
cuitry forms a continuous loop (phase-locked loop) for precise FM rest-
ing frequency control. The audio amplifier again forms a modulator that
is fed to the reactance control. Audio signals cause the reactance control
circuit to shift the frequency of the variable oscillator and thus the carri-
er as shown in Figure 8-3. For this particular system a rise in the audio
amplitude causes an increase in FM carrier frequency while a decline
(negative) causes a decrease in carrier frequency. The frequency-shifting
process produces sideband components as discussed in Sec. 8—4 (see also
Sec. 11-2).

8—4. FM SIDEBAND FACTORS

In frequency modulation, a number of sideband signals are created for

each single-frequency audio signal. These sidebands are spaced apart by
a frequency that coincides with that of the modulating signal. Hence, if a
900-Hz modulating signal is employed, the first two sidebands will be
spaced 900 Hz from the carrier, one sideband above the resting frequen-
cy and the other sideband below. The additional sidebands would all be
spaced 900 Hz from each other. Those sidebands having a frequency
nearer the resting frequency of the carrier have the highest amplitude
while those beyond that immediate grouping have insignificant ampli-
tudes. Thus, only a few sidebands above and below the carrier frequency
are of sufficient amplitude to be significant during detection. In public-
entertainment FM (88 to 108 MHz) eight significant sidebands are creat-
ed above and below the resting frequency at the time of maximum per-
missible modulation.
The permissible modulation factors are related to the extent of car-
rier deviation and audio-signal ratios. The ratio of the carrier frequency
224 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

shift to the frequency of the modulating signal that causes such carrier
deviation is termed the modulation index. The latter is designated as m;;:

m,= ae (8-1)

where df. is a given deviation in carrier frequency

df, is the frequency of the modulating signal

The deviation ratio involves maximum values rather than the in-
stantaneous ones utilized to solve modulation index:

Deviation ratio — ™@ximum frequency deviation of carrier (g_5)

highest frequency of modulation signal

For any modulation index between 1 and 10, the number of signifi-
cant sidebands produced can be found by the following table:

Modulation Number of Sidebands

inex _ Bach Side ofCarrie
1 2
2 4
3 6
a 7
5) 8
6 9
7 10
8 12 :
g 13 i,
10 14

8-5. TELEVISION BANDPASS REQUIREMENTS

Since black-and-white television transmission preceded the advent of col-

or television by over a decade, the transmission and reception standards
in force had to accommodate the additional signals encountered in color
television. The composite video signal used to amplitude-modulate the
RF carrier for black-and-white television consisted of the picture signal
information, the retrace blanking pulses, the sync pulses, and the equal-
 TELEVISION BANDPASS REQUIREMENTS 225

izing pulses utilized for maintaining horizontal scan during vertical re-
trace. This composite video signal that modulates the carrier produces
numerous sideband signals that tend to bunch around the frequencies of
the harmonics of the horizontal sweep signals. In color transmission this
tendency for sideband signals to cluster around the harmonics of the
sweep signal permits the insertion of the color signals into the gaps be-
tween the sideband groups. The early standards for black-and-white did
not have provisions for accommodating the additional carrier required
for the color signals, hence the color carrier (termed the subcarrier) is
suppressed at the transmitter. Since the subcarrier’s frequency determines
the exact placement of the color sidebands, the subcarrier frequency
should be an odd multiple of one-half the horizontal sweep-signal fre-
quency for proper color sideband frequency positioning. If the color
subcarrier is too high in frequency it would encroach on the 4-MHz
span from the primary carrier. Such crowding results in restricted color
bandwidth and fine-detail attenuation. If the color subcarrier is too low
in frequency, heterodyne interference could occur between the primary
carrier and the color sidebands.
A compromise for the frequency selection of the subcarrier was
made by multiplying one-half of the horizontal sweep frequency by 455
(there are 525 scan lines per frame, or 262.5 scan lines per field (see Sec.
11-9). The conventional 15,750 Hz in black-and-white horizontal sweep
frequency is unsuitable because the desired harmonic relationship be-
tween sound carrier and the video signal cannot be maintained. Hence,
the horizontal sweep for color receivers is 15,734.264 Hz and when mul-
tiplied by 455 results in a color subcarrier frequency of 3.579545 MHz
usually designated as 3.58 MHz. The vertical scan becomes 59.95 Hz.
The color vertical and horizontal scan frequencies are sufficiently close
to those for black and white to avoid loss of synchronization when re-
ceiving a black-and-white transmission and then switching to a color
transmission.
By utilization of design factors just outlined, the bandpass of color
signals has the same total span as black and white and hence achieves
compatibility. For fine detail the video signals extend far beyond the au-
dio range to several megacycles and hence amplitude modulation would
produce an enormous spectrum span. Consequently, lower sidebands are
suppressed and only a 1.25-MHz vestigial section remains below the pic-
ture carrier frequency as shown in Figure 8-4. The color picture-tube
screen has the same width-to-height ratio of four to three as black and
white and the vertical scan down the picture-tube face is still interlaced
226 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

Color subcarrier
| (3.579545 MHz)
| :
|,— Picture carrier | Sound carrier

ls al | |
1.25 MHz 1.48 MHz |
ccentteerst
lege Sseted
st secr ee ee

Figure 8—4 Color Television Bandpass

two to one. Similarly, the FM sound carrier for black-and-white or color

video is situated 4.5 MHz above the picture carrier, with a permissible
deviation of 25 kHz each side of center.
In the additive color principle that must be utilized, three primary
colors are involved: red, blue, and green. Again, a compromise must be
undertaken since three color signals would produce an excessive number
of sidebands that cannot be accommodated in the spectrum space avail-
able. The compromise consists of using a matrix system for blending the
three colors to produce two identified as the J signal (in phase) and the
Q signal (quadature, or out of phase). Basically, the process is initiated
in the pickup camera section as shown in Figure 8-5. Here three sepa-
rate pickup camera tubes are used with a special filter system. A con-
denser lens picks up the televised images and the filters (consisting of
dichroic mirrors) reflect light of only one color (Bad C in Figure 8-5).
Front-surface mirrors (identified as A and D) channel the red and blue
signals to the respective cameras as shown. Thus, blue images are reflect-
ed by mirror B to the front-surface mirror D and thence to the blue
pickup camera. Red images are reflected by mirror C and directed by
front-surface mirror A to the red pickup camera, too. Green images
transfer through the C and D mirrors and thence to the green pickup
camera. The pickup camera tubes feed the signals into amplifiers, sweep
circuits, and synchronization sections. From there the primary color sig-
nals are applied to a matrix network as shown. The matrix obtains a lu-
minance signal (Y) corresponding to the black-and-white transmission.
As shown, the luminance signal samples the red, green, and blue signals,
to the proportions of 0.30 red, 0.59 green, and 0.11 blue. Such propor-
 TELEVISION BANDPASS REQUIREMENTS 227

A Condenser
lens
Amplifiers,
Image-
beam—sweep
reflected
circuitry,
— light

O:30R 0°596 0.uNB

, Matrix units

een a —0.60R + 0.28G + 0.32B

4 “QO” signal
Mie ex 0.21R + 0.31B —0.52G

aie
Phase
inverter

Figure 8-5 TV Color Camera Sections

tions must be used to achieve the color density as perceived by the hu-
man eye. If the luminance signal consisted of equal-amplitude red, blue,
and green signals, some colors would appear to have greater intensity to
the human eye than they actually possess in proportion to others.
The matrix system combines proper portions of the three primary
colors for the formation of the J and Q signals (relative amplitudes are
given in Table 7-30). The J and Q signals are then utilized to modulate
228 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

the color subcarrier as described more fully in Chap. 11. At the receiver,
a special oscillator must reproduce a suitable subcarrier to mix with the
incoming sidebands for demodulation purposes. Such an oscillator, how-
ever, must be precisely synchronized with the subcarrier frequency sup-
pressed at the transmitter. To assure frequency and phase synchron-
ization, a minimum of eight cycles having a frequency of 3.58 MHz are
transmitted in conjunction with the horizontal blanking as shown in Fig-
ure 8-6 (see also Sec. 11-8).

Horizontal sync pulse

Min. of 8 cycles of 3.58 MHz

Horizontal blanking

Video signal

Figure 8—6 Burst Signal Mounted on Blanking

At the receiver a complex process and demodulation system must

be utilized to retrieve the video signals and color information. In con-
trast to public-entertainment AM and FM radio where only a single in-
termediate frequency (IF) is encountered, dual IFs are present (picture
and sound). In addition, the two IF signals are heterodyned at the video
detector to produce a new sound IF signal of 4.5 MHz (see Sec. 11-9).
Once the picture and sound signals have been mixed in the tuner, the re-
sultant IF have a fixed frequency as with AM and FM receivers. Figure
8—7 is a representative breakdown of the frequency involved when Chan-
nel 9 is being received. Although other stations would have different car-
rier frequencies, the corresponding change of the tuner oscillator
frequency still produces the same intermediate frequencies. A typical
television IF bandpass for Channel 9 is shown in Figure 8-8. The dips
are attenuation points for signals that may cause interference if not
diminished.
 TELEVISION BANDPASS REQUIREMENTS 229

(Lower) [! Channelbeing | ~+(Upper)

adjacent received adjacent
channel #9 channel
(8) (10)

SS

!
| | |
et oles Sa N
onges
5! x! =4 Be
w | = | = | = |

et eS sinh
fon ates
oa)

"| 3 i | ts
i |
E | cal +5Sal | 2co |
SSiat3 gilts| O ||
} =

| | =
5| al = | |
Fh| ee | Seen
wn) |
al

433.00 233.00: Puner 233.00 233.00

195.75 —187.25 2 scillator _191.75 —193.25
saa eee ee

47.25 MHz 45.75 MHz 41.25 MHz 39.75 MHz

Figure 8-7 TV Signal Mixing in Tuner

(Ps Ta eee B
Channel being
| received Is
ie 9 \| a
m_
a | #
BI |%
5 = ne
5 | x 1s
eee NS
Sle
als es
o |e 19
| 13
ats 5
LG
a
1”
Jt \

39.75 41.25 45n15. 47.

Figure 8-8 TV Response Curve for IF

230 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

8-6. COLOR PHASE FACTORS

The relative portions of luminance and color signals are given in Table
7-30. The color phase relationships are illustrated in Figure 8-9. Here,
the phase differences regarding the R-Y, B-Y the J signal as well as the
Q. As shown, the B-Y signals are displaced clockwise 33° from the Q
signal, and the R-Y signals are displaced clockwise 33° from the J signal.
Dashed lines indicate the relative phase positions and placements of the
primary colors for the additive color television system. The lower section
of Figure 8-9 is emphasized in the drawing in Figure 8-10. The latter il-
lustrates how the same color signal is produced for signal voltages of ei-
ther J/Q, or R-Y/B-Y. Saturated green is used as an _ illustrative
example. If a signal amplitude of —0.52 is referenced along the — Q axis
and an amplitude of —0.28 is taken along the —/J axis as shown, a par-
allelogram drawn by dashed lines along the reference points gives us the
vector addition of the two —@Q and —/J amplitudes. The resultant is
0.596 and indicates the amplitude of the saturated green signal. This
identical green-signal amplitude is also obtained by taking the amplitude
of 0.29 along the —B-Y axis and taking an amplitude of —0.517 on the
—R-Y axis. Using these two points to form a parallelogram produces
the same amplitude that had been obtained for the J/Q parallelogram.
For any other color, identical vectors are obtained for specific values of J

[Red|
Sreea |

Magenta

Fcc nies
i snaast
CED
Figure 8—9 Color Television Signal Phasing
 CW AND ICW PRINCIPLES 231

rid Uae geo (a)

(BY)

SU =e)

Figure 8-10 Green Signal Derivations

and Q or R-Y and B-Y. When the R-Y and B-Y signals are obtained by
a matrix network as shown in Figure 2-35. In some instances the letters
X and Y are arbitrarily selected to designate a particular phase relation-
ship for a design variation utilized by a particular manufacturer. In most
instances, the demodulation axes are phased 105° apart as shown in Fig-
ure 8-9.

8-7. CW AND ICW PRINCIPLES

When an RF unmodulated carrier signal is broken up so that there are

short and long bursts of transmission, the process is termed the continu-
ous-wave (CW) mode. The continuous-wave terminology refers to the
constant or continuous amplitude of the RM signal. For a listing of the
International Morse code, see Table 7-29. A basic method for CW is
shown in Figure 8-11(A), where the emitter circuit of a crystal oscillator
is opened and closed to produce the coded segments of RF signal carrier
transmission. As shown, a telegraph key input line is present and if open
there is no dc conduction for electron flow from emitter to collector.
When the telegraph key is depressed, the emitter circuit is closed and
current flow through the emitter-collector circuitry forms a segment of
the carrier signal. Capacitor C,is for minimizing transients caused by the
232 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

Buffer
ss and
@rystabesS ae anives
oscillator amplifiers

CW
Output RF = et =

‘ power
amplifier a = =
Dash Dot Dot

=D
Telegraph
key

(a)

Output RF
power
amplifier

Modulator

(b)

Figure 8-11 Basic CW Transmitter System

e

abrupt on and off switching by the telegraph key. The transistor conduc-
tion could, of course, be interrupted in the collectas, as well as the base
circuits if desired. The coded carrier is applied to a buffer and driver RF
amplifier and to an output power amplifier as shown. For the coded out-
put illustrated, the dash—dot-—dot representation indicates the Morse code
letter,.D.
On occasion a modulated RF carrier is utilized for the production
of code as shown in Figure 8-11(B). Here, an amplitude-modulated sig-
nal is broken up and again represents the letter D. Such transmission is
referred to as interrupted continuous wave (ICW). This term denotes that
the carrier no longer has a continuous amplitude but that the latter is
interrupted by the increasing and decreasing levels. The ICW code trans-
mission permits the use of a conventional receiver for reception purposes
since the modulation produces a tone output from the receiver in the
 PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION 233

form of long and short durations. For CW demodulation, however, an

oscillatory detector (regenerative) or a separate oscillator must be used
to generate a signal in the receiver that can be mixed with the incoming
CW signal for audibility. If the incoming CW signal is 2500 kHz, for in-
stance, and the heterodyning oscillator is 2505 kHz, a 5-kHz tone is
produced.
The CW signals have the advantage of narrow-band transmission
since modulation and its accompanying sidebands are absent. The disad-
vantage is the need for a heterodyne receiver. The advantage of the ICW
is the ease of reception by conventional receivers while the disadvantage
is occupancy of a broader spectrum space.

8-8. PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Pulse-amplitude modulation is one of several systems wherein the wave-

forms in pulse trains are modified in amplitude, width, or position to
conform to the configuration of the modulating signal. In the pulse-am-
plitude modulation system the peak level of a pulse train is increased or
decreased to conform to the modulating signal as shown in Figure 8-12.

Modulating
signal

RWAYVQRDos Wn
(b)

84AAQQAHH

Mv

_RMSE
SSPQQQAE_HHOOo
MAGE

Figure 8-12 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation Process

234 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

For a sine-wave modulating signal as shown in (A), the pulse-amplitude

modulation can take two forms: both positive and negative pulses can be
utilized as shown in (B), or pulses of one polarity can be used as shown
in (C). For the system in (A) a positive pulse peak is reached at the
highest amplitude of the positive alternation of the modulating signals
and a negative peak is obtained for the second alternation of the modu-
lating signal as shown. For the unipolarity pulse train shown in (C),
maximum pulse amplitude is attained at the positive peak of the modu-
lating signal, while the lowest pulse level prevails at the negative peak of
the second alternation of the modulating signal.
The pulse amplitude-modulation technique is also used in a special
high-efficiency amplifier designated as Class D. With Class D amplifica-
tion a high degree of efficiency is achieved and signals can be driven into
higher peak-current amplitudes than are possible with conventional am-
plifiers such as Class A and B. A typical Class D system is shown in
Figure 8-13(A) and the pulses have amplitudes related to the modulat-
ing sine-wave signal. An alternative method is to utilize the single-polari-
ty pulses as was shown in Figure 8—12(C).

Integrator

Ler
(a) ~,

Figure 8-13 Class D Factors

 PULSE-POSITION MODULATION 235

For the Class D amplifying system shown in Figure 8-13, the in-
put modulating signal is applied to a pulse modulator fed by a pulse
generator. The modulator then forms an amplitude-modulated pulse
train as shown. In practical applications the modulating signal would
consist of complex audio waveforms. After the modulated signal is am-
plified it tends to have sawtooth characteristics due to the space between
pulses and the amplitude-changing level of the individual pulses. Thus,
an integrator section can be employed to build up a charge from pulse to
pulse as shown in (B). The latter process restores the waveshape to that
of the original modulating signal in all aspects except amplitude. The lat-
ter depends on the degree of amplification utilized.
The integration principle is also employed for the alternate pulse-
modulation system. In the system where the pulse amplitude remains
constant but the widths are varied (see Sec. 8-11) most of the circuitry is
similar to that shown in Figure 8-13, although a pulse-width modulator
is used.

8-9. PULSE-POSITION MODULATION

The pulse-position modulation (PPM) system modifies the pulse train as

shown in Figure 8-14. This system is also referred to as pulse-time mod-
ulation (PTM) because a change in the modulating signal causes a corre-
sponding change in the pulse position in time. The time change can
relate to the time interval between pulses as shown or to the time a pulse
appears relative to a fixed marker position. When a fixed marker pulse

Modulating
signal

(a)

(b)

Figure 8-14 Pulse-Position Modulation Process

236 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

position is utilized, one of each pair of pulses remains in a fixed position

and the other pulse shifts in relation to such a fixed position. The pulse
having a fixed position can be selected to have a time relationship direct-
ly below the dashed vertical position lines shown in Figure 8-14.

8-10. PULSE-DURATION MODULATION

The pulse-duration modulation system is also known as the pulse-width-

modulation (PWM) system. As shown in Figure 8-15, the width of each
pulse of the train is gradually altered to conform to the changing ampli-
tude of the modulating signal as shown in (A) and (B). The advantage of
this system is its ability to diminish noise signals and other undesired
transients. Since the pulses have a fixed amplitude, any noise signals ac-
companying the transmitted modulated signal can be removed by ampli-
tude limiters or clippers in the receiver circuitry.
As with other pulse-modulation systems, pulses are selected that
have very short durations so that the narrow pulses permit the use of a
greater number for a given alternation of the modulating signal. The us-
age of very narrow pulses also permits the insertion of additional pulse
transmissions into the original train. This permits the increase of infor-
mation channels and aids in the reduction of spectrum space. The pulses

Modulating signal

WK ZDKCDC“?'{S---—
-—
- WGB{Bp@eBb
IAA
(b)

|
| |
| !
| | |
| |
|
(c)
ro) =)
)
=)
S oS
000i S =)
= ===S
iQ. S 00001<—---—----
01000<—}+———————
sss

Figure 8-15 Pulse-Width and Pulse-Code Modulation Process

 TELEMETRY AND MULTIPLEXING 237

illustrated in Figure 8-14(B) are wider than those normally used in prac-
tical systems for convenience in depicting the pulse-duration system.
For such pulse-duration modulating systems, the process can alter
either the initial edge (leading) of the pulse or the trailing edge. When
the pulse train is applied to an integrator circuit, the demodulation pro-
cess occurs as was shown earlier in Figure 8-13.

8-11. PULSE-CODE MODULATION

Another form of modulation involves the conversion of amplitude varia-

tions of the modulating signal to a set of pulses that, in binary form,
represents a specific amplitude. The process is illustrated in Figure 8—
15(C). Note that the numbers shown below the vertical dashed lines are
binary representations (see Sec. 5-1). These binary numbers identify spe-
cific pulse positions. This modulation system necessitates utilization of
several sequential operations. The modulating signal must be sampled at
a predetermined rate and the significance of the amplitude must also
be a factor in accordance with the amplitude changes of the modulating
signal.
For the pulse-code-modulating system the amplitude of the pulse
train is compared to a selected scale of discrete levels. Each pulse is then
assigned a value corresponding to the closest indicated by the compari-
son process. This quantizing method yields values that are translated
into a pulse code such as binary (base 2). The system has a low noise-
prone characteristic as well as a minimum of signal attenuation; hence,
the PCM has been found to be a valuable system and is widely used.
The number of amplitude levels that can be sampled in the PCM
process for a single alternation of the modulating signal is limited by the
maximum number of pulses selected for the code group. Obviously, with
a selection of a three-pulse maximum, only seven amplitude variations
can be referenced (001 through 111). The three-pulse selection can be
expanded to eight amplitude variations by utilizing 000. For a code
group employing four pulses, 16 levels can be sampled (from 000 to
PET).

8-12. TELEMETRY AND MULTIPLEXING

Telemetry is a process whereby several special modulating systems are

combined into a single system for the transmission of data. Basically, the
238 TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES

gathering of information includes the measurement and sensing of the

data by transducers (speed sensors, temperature-reading devices, light-
sensitive components, pressure-sensitive devices, microphones, etc.). The
data sensed are analog functions that must be converted to a representa-
tive quantity that can be used for modulation purposes. The telemetry
process involves multiplexing (usage of several frequency bands to trans-
mit two or more information signals).
Multiplexing permits the transmission of such data as voice infor-
mation, industrial-control data, space exploration information, and other
similar information. Frequency-deviation multiplexing (FDM) utilizes
several bands for the transmission of several modulations. Thus, a pri-
mary RF carrier is involved, with separate subcarriers that may, in turn,
modulate the final carrier. Such a process is employed in public-enter-
tainment stereo frequency-modulation transmission wherein a subcarrier
is utilized for multiplexing, after which the subcarrier is suppressed. At
the receiver a signal-generating oscillator must produce a subcarrier hav-
ing the same frequency as the original before suppression. This generated
subcarrier is then combined with the sideband signal prior to demodula-
tion. A similar process occurs in color television transmission, where a
color subcarrier is modulated to form the color signals. This subcarrier is
then suppressed but the sidebands are transmitted. Again, as with stereo
FM, a subcarrier coinciding in frequency with the original must be gen-
erated and combined with the sideband signal (see Secs. 8-5 and 11-8).
The frequency-division multiplexing system is widely used for
expanding the signal-carrying capacities of cables or radio-linked devices
in international telephone processes. This system, however, is susceptible
to intermodulation distortion and the encroachment of unwanted noise
signals. Consequently, the preferred systems aréwthe pulse-modulation
types described in Secs. 8—8 through 8-11.
An additional multiplexing system is the time-division multiplexing
(TDM). This process has the capability of transmitting two or more sig-
nals at the same time because it allocates each signal a finite time inter-
val. Instantaneous amplitudes of the signals are sampled and then
transmitted in a time sequence. After the last signal has been sampled,
the process is repeated. Any of the pulse-modulating systems described
in Secs. 8-8 through 8-11 can be used. With a sampling rate in the
range 8000 per second or higher, very little signal information is attenu-
ated. Each channel transmission is subsequently decoded separately to
obtain the equivalent of the original modulating signal data.
 Fundamental Principles
of Instrumentation

9-1. ANALOG CURRENT METERS

A common practice in the design of analog instruments is to utilize a

current-reading meter as the fundamental unit for ammeters, voltmeters,
ohmmeters and so on. The basic meter movement utilizes the principle
invented by D’Arsonval in 1880. The basic device is illustrated in Figure
9-1(A). Here an aluminum form is utilized on which a coil is wound.
The assembly is pivoted in dual jeweled bearings (sapphire) within a
field generated by a permanent magnet connected to soft-iron pole
pieces. The coil assembly has a pointer arm that indicates the amount of
current to be read on a calibrated scale on the meter dial face. The pivot
unit contains coil springs at each pivot end. These springs are wound in
opposite fashion to provide a counterforce against the coil-form move-
ment in either the right or left direction. These springs are also used as
conductors for channeling the current through the coil. The current flow
creates an electromagnet of the coil and the poles of the electromagnet
either aid or oppose the fixed-strength fields of the permanent magnet.
For a proper polarity current, the torque so developed moves the pointer
toward the right to read the amount of current flow. The aluminum coil
form produces damper characteristics and prevents oscillations of the
pointer. Thus, it aids in bringing the pointer to a quick stop because cur-
rent induced into the aluminum form establishes a counterelectromotive
force.
A current-reading meter is placed in series with the circuit or de-
vice to be measured. An ammeter has a low internal resistance and the

239
240 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Pointer O
Coil O

Test
probes
Counterweight

(a) (b)

Test
probes

(c)

Figure 9-1 Current-Meter Factors

better-quality meter contributes only a negligible amount of resistance to

the circuit under measurement. (In special meters, current measurements
are made by utilizing inductive principles to eliminate the necessity for
opening a circuit, as described in Sec. 9-15.) Many basic current-reading
meters read fractional values because of their high sensitivity. The latter
include types having a maximum meter range of 10 mA, 1 mA, 50 wA,
and so on. Any of these can read higher currents by utilizing shunt resis-
tors to bypass that amount of current above the value that would dam-
age the meter movement. As shown in Figure 9-1(B), shunting resistors
can be switched across the meter movement to provide the current-read-
ing range desired. Additional resistors are utilized as needed. Regardless
of the resistor selected, the current flow through the internal meter coil
must not exceed its rating. If, for instance, the milliammeter movement
had a full-scale deflection of 1 mA but a 10-mA range was needed, the
shunt resistor must pass 9 mA to avoid exceeding the 1-mA rating of the
meter when the maximum current is read.
 ANALOG VOLTMETERS 241

The value of the required shunt resistor for a desired full-scale

’ reading can be found by using

R,, = = = ; (9-1)

where R,, is the ohmic value of the shunt resistor

R,,, is the internal resistance of the meter
N is the number by which the meter scale is to be increased

Note that the N value in Eq. 9-1 is the number by which the scale
is to be increased. Thus, if a 1-mA movement has an internal resistance
of 45 2 and the scale is to be increased for a full-scale deflection of 10
mA, the ohmic value by Eq. 9-1 for the shunt is

The ammeter shown in Figure 9-1(B) is for direct current only,

and polarity of the test probes must be correct to get proper direction of
movement with the pointer. For alternating-current measurements the ac
must be rectified by either the half-wave or full-wave principles discussed
in Chap. 2. The bridge rectifier system is shown in Figure 9-1(C) for an
ac ammeter [see also Sec. 2-39 and Figure 2—29(A)]. The meter is cali-
brated to display root-mean-square (rms) values (also termed effective
values, as discussed in Sec. 1-13). For the rectifying-type ac meters that
are to be used to read alternating current, design problems occur in
areas of calibration, sensitivity, and current-carrying capacity. Hence, the
rectifying-type meter design is primarily used in ac applications to con-
struct voltmeters.

9-2. ANALOG VOLTMETERS

The analog voltmeter measures the amplitude of a voltage drop across a

circuit component as opposed to the current-reading meter discussed in
Sec. 9-1, where the meter is placed in series with the current flow. Since
the voltmeter bridges a circuit component it should have as high an in-
ternal resistance as feasible so that it does not load down the circuit un-
242 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

der test by introducing a shunt resistance across the component being

measured.
The analog-type voltmeter utilizes a current meter as the founda-
tion unit as shown in Figure 9-2. To increase the scale, various series re-
sistors are utilized, depending on the variety of ranges needed. As shown
for the four series resistors in Figure 9-2, a selector switch is utilized.
With the switch connected to the junction of R, and R, the lowest volt-
age scale is obtained. When connected to the junctions of resistors R,
and R, resistors R, and R, are in series, and consequently the higher re-
sistance provides for a higher scale reading. As with the basic ammeter,
the current flow through the meter movement must not exceed the rated
amount. The ohmic value of the external resistance needed to achieve a
specific meter range can be ascertained by using

R,= R,(N — 1) (9-2)

where R, is the ohmic value of the series multiplier resistor
R_,is the internal resistance of the meter coil
N is the number by which the meter voltage scale is to be
increased

As with the ammeter discussed in Sec. 9-1, the N factor must be

properly utilized. Thus, if the meter is to read 5 V at full-scale deflection,
the full-scale reading desired is divided by the voltage necessary to cause
such a deflection. Assume that the basic meter movement has 100 2
of internal resistance and that the full-scale deflection is 0.1 V. Thus,
5/0.1 = SO and the latter is utilized in Eq. 9-2 with the meter resistance
of 100 2: R,= 100(50 — 1) = 4.9kN. .
™,

Selector

Figure 9-2 Basic Voltmeter System

 ANALOG OHMMETERS 243

As mentioned earlier in this section, the higher the voltmeter resis-

tance, the less loading effect shunting the component across which the
meter is placed. Consequently, the sensitivity of the voltmeter is rated in
ohms per volt and the phrase denotes the ohmic value by which the mul-
tiplier resistor must be raised to increase the meter scale by 1 V. Essen-
tially, voltmeter sensitivity represents the ratio of a multiplier resistor
and the meter coil resistance to the voltage deflection of the meter. Thus,
if a 50-QA meter movement has a sensitivity of 20 kQ./V as compared
to only 1 k{1/V, the first would have considerably less loading effect on
the circuit when used for voltage measurements.
The ohms-per-volt sensitivity can be calculated by using Eq. 9-2
initially to solve for the ohmic value of the series resistance required for a
1-V full-scale reading. Assume that R,for a particular meter was found to
be 18 kf. Also, for the same meter, an increase to a 2-V full-scale read-
ing would provide a resistance of 38 kM. Thus, for a 1-V difference in
full-scale deflection the series resistor change was from 18 kf to 38 kN,
or 20,000 2/V (20 kQ/V).

9-3. ANALOG OHMMETERS

The ohmic values of circuit components are measured by an ohmmeter

that utilizes the basic current-reading meter as was the case for the units
discussed in Secs. 9-1 and 9-2. The basic circuit and typical scale are
shown in Figure 9-3. As shown in (A), two resistors can be used in a se-
ries circuit with a battery. Resistor R, is a current-limiting unit that
establishes the range of the scale in conjunction with resistor R,. The lat-
ter is a variable type that permits adjusting the current flow so that full-
scale deflection is obtained when the test probes are shorted together.
Under this condition there is a minimum of resistance at the test probes
and hence the full-scale needle deflection indicates a zero point on the
scale as shown at (B). The scale is nonlinear as shown, with crowding at
the high-resistance reading section at the left. As with the voltmeter and
ohmmeter units, the ohmmeter is usually combined with the others in a
single volt-ohmmeter designated as VOM and discussed in Sec. 9-4. In
some transistorized units the ohms scale can be designed to read increas-
ing values from left to right as shown later in Figure 9-6(A).
For accurate results, the ohmic value of resistors and other circuit
components should be read while one side of the measured unit is dis-
244 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

(b)

Figure 9-3. Ohmmeter Circuit and Scale

connected. (Circuit power should be off.) This procedure avoids the

shunting effect of other parallel resistances. In a number of electronic
circuits, resistors may have a tolerance value of 10 to 20%. Thus, at 10%
a reading of 800 to 2200 2 for a 2000-29 resistor gan often be assumed
to be within the normal range. In some circuitry, however, critical toler-
ances are essential. Often schematics for a system will give tolerance fac-
tors. Ohmmeters are also useful for test procedures such as continuity
checking. Thus, the ohmmeter will indicate the presence of short circuits,
open circuits, and so on. In continuity checking it is usually unnecessary
to ascertain exact ohmic values since the purpose is merely to test for
continuity from one circuit to another regarding power distribution and
signal handling. With continuity checking, the electric power is again
disconnected from the circuits under test, as is the case with general
ohmmeter reading procedures.
 VOM TYPES 245

9-4. VOM TYPES

Although individual meters are widely used for rating current, voltage,
and other amplitudes in stationery equipment, the combination of such
meters in a single unit provides for a portable testing device in design,
maintenance, and servicing of electronic devices. Combinational meters
are sometimes referred to as volt-ohmmeters (VOM) or, when digital, as
digital multimeters (DMM). With a single meter unit performing a num-
ber of tasks, the switching circuitry becomes involved. The basic design
factors of the multimeters are shown in Figure 9-4, in which the voltme-
ter, ohmmeter, and ammeter functions are indicated. For reading ac val-
ues, rectifier systems would have to be utilized and for extended scale
readings more complex circuitry would be involved.
A representative front panel of a VOM showing the variety of con-
trols is illustrated in Figure 9-5. Although this is representative, there
are numerous variations among the many manufacturers. Pushbutton se-
lections are utilized for this meter and the one marked +/— reverses
the polarity input of the probes for reading negative values. As with oth-
er ohmmeters, in the < 1 position the meter scale is read directly to in-

Test
probes

Selector
switch

Ohms section

Figure 9-4 Basic Design of the Multimeter

246 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Zero pointerset
_—-S
1000 1 Xm
500
X 10 kQ2
X1kQ
x 100 (+)

x 10
Input

X12

0.5
[ma 100
10

Figure 9-5 Representative VOM Controls

dicate the ohmic value being measured. Thus, for the dial shown in
Figure 9-3(B) the range is from 0 2 to approximately 2000 9. For
higher readings, changing the selector position selects various multiplier
ranges, so that if the dial is set at x 1 kQ, each wqimber on the dial of
Figure 9—-3(B) is multiplied by 1 kQ.
Most multimeters have accessory devices for special measurement
purposes. Many units have RF probes available for reading amplitudes
of ac with frequency ranges into the megacycles. Similarly, high-voltage
probes are available for measuring voltage amplitudes to several dozen
kilovolts. Some VOM units utilize transistorized circuitry for improved
sensitivity and accuracy. The field-effect transistors have been widely
used to provide a high probe impedance, with some units providing as
much as 15 MQ) during dc measurements. Other types include the digital
units described in Sec. 9-6.
 DECIBEL AND VU SCALES 247

9-5. DECIBEL AND VU SCALES

A typical multimeter scale is shown in Figure 9-6(A). The two upper

scales are utilized for reading ohmic values as well as for current and
voltage in various ranges. The lower scale is for reading decibels (dB)
(see Sec. 1-7 and Table 7-1). For the decibel dial shown in (A) the scale
is read directly when measurements are made across a 600-2 resistance.
In the representation of power ratios, many meters use for a reference
zero dB = 1 mW of power across a 600-12 load. This reference then rep-
resents the 0.7746 V of ac (rms) across the 600-2 load.
Some manufacturers use a reference based on 0 dB = 6 mW at
500 2, where the 0-dB point is at 1.732 V on the voltage scale. Still an-
other reference that has been utilized is 0 dB = 6 mW across a 600-2

(b)

Figure 9-6 Decibel and VU Scales

248 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

load with the 0-dB point at 1.897 V. In comparing decibel differences

between the signals present at the input and output of an electronic sys-
tem, the ohmic values of the input and output resistances must be identi-
cal for obtaining accurate readings. Decibel measurements should be
made utilizing sine-wave signals. For complex waveshapes, including
composite audio types made up of multiple signal combinations (or
square waves, etc.), the volume unit measurements areindicated.
The volume unit (VU) is useful for audio testing and measurement.
Basically, the VU is a decibel-oriented unit. Cassette decks, tape record-
ers, and eight-track units usually contain two VU meters to indicate on-
going recording levels to minimize the distortion that occurs during
overload conditions. For volume-unit measurements, the zero level is as-
sumed to represent 0.001 W across 600 2 of impedance (Z). In equation
form this is

VU = 30 log,,P (9-3)

The dial for a representative volume-unit meter is shown in Figure

9-6(B). Here, the upper scale ranges from —20 to +3 VU. The lower
scale represents percentage of voltage, with 100% located beneath the
zero in the upper scale. In many meters the numbers and scale markings
to the left of the zero in the upper scale are imprinted in black and to
the right of the zero in red. Normal volume level is considered to be at
the zero point on the upper scale representing 100% (located at approxi-
mately 70% of full-scale deflection).
In observing readings on the VU meter it is preferable to note
readings over a short time interval to check for peak excursions of the
signal so that controls can be adjusted to keep the peaks below the over-
load point. The volume-unit meter design incorporates full-wave rectifi-
cation (see Sec. 2-36). Thus, the scale indications are approximate rms
values of the complex audio-signal waveform. In contrast to the use of
sine-wave test signals that are maintained at a constant amplitude during
measurement procedures, the volume-unit measurements involve signals
of varying frequencies and amplitudes making up a composite signal. The
VU reading is actually an arbitrary value and has no fixed value as in
the case of dBm, which is used to designate the decibel based on zero
decibel = 1 mW across a 600-2 load.
 DIGITAL METERS 249

9-6. DIGITAL METERS

Since the advent of liquid-crystal and light-emitting diode displays, digi-

tal-readout meters have come into wide use. They present a high degree
of accuracy and are available for reading ac or dc, usually with selector
switch convenience. Typical display types include the reading of fraction-
al values, as shown in Figure 9-7(A). Multiple range switches as well as
select switches for ac and dc are present as with transistorized
multimeters. Many digital multimeters (DMMs) are designed for auto-
matic sensing and displays of the polarity without the necessity for ob-
serving probe polarities. Thus, the probes are placed across a unit to
read voltages, and the reading will show a +-or — sign in addition to
the digital display. It is not uncommon for accuracy to range from +0.1
to +0.5% of the reading, plus one digit.
As shown in Figure 9-7(B), hand-held digital meters equipped with
a fixed probe and a flexible negative line are also available for conve-
nience in testing and measuring electronic circuitry. For the DMM units
input resistance can exceed 50 MQ, presenting a minimum of circuit

Figure 9-7 Digital Meters

250 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

loading during measurement. Since the digital meters display the reading
in less than a few seconds, they provide for rapid voltage reading as
compared to the analog types, where the pointer must swing from the
zero position to some higher value.

9-7. BRIDGE SYSTEMS

In Figure 9-8(A) is shown the basic bridge circuit configuration. Here,

there is a symmetrical arrangement of four resistors, R,, R,, R; and R,.
For finding the value of unknown units, a voltage is applied across the
junctions shown, and a meter reading is obtained from across the oppo-
site two junctions. Such a bridge circuit can also be composed of induc-
tors, capacitors, and capacitors in conjunction with resistors in various
test instruments. The basic circuit is sometimes referred to as the Wheat-
stone bridge after the English physicist who initially brought attention to
the value of the balanced bridge circuit. For finding values of unknown
resistance, the resistors R, and R, are usually of fixed value; R_is a stan-
dard resistor of known value; and R, is the unknown resistor to be mea-
sured. A galvanometer, consisting of a zero-center scale with positive
and negative readings each side can be used to show a balanced bridge
as well as an unbalance in either direction. A micrometer can also be
used.
When the resistance bridge achieves a balanced: circuit condition,
there will be no potential difference across the galvanometer. Under
these conditions the resistor relationships in equation form are

R x

R,= R,—
x ™ (9-4)
R,

In similar fashion the utilization of inductance and capacitance can

form bridge circuits for the measurement of reactance and impedance
values as well as capacitance values in fractional farads and inductance
values in henrys or fractional values thereof. Commercial meters have in-
corporated within the units standard-value components having a high
degree of accuracy. Some have provisions for connecting standard values
externally for comparison measurement purposes. A typical capacitance
bridge is shown in Figure 9-8(B). Here, the standard ratio-arm resistors
R, and R, are again used as with the resistance bridge in (A). Capacitor
 BRIDGE SYSTEMS 251

(b)

(c) (d)

Figure 9-8 Bridge-Circuit Meter Systems

unit and C, is the unknown unit to be mea-

C, is the standard-value
sured. For this bridge, an ac meter is required.
In equation form the capacitance value of Cis given as

R (9-5)
C=C
x Ss

R,
252 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Note the inverse function between the ratio-arm resistors R, and R,

of Eqs. 9-4 and 9-5. This difference occurs because the reactance of a
capacitor decreases for larger-value capacitors. For inductors, however,
the reactance increases for higher values of inductance. Thus, for the in-
ductance bridge circuit shown in Figure 9-8(C) the equation for finding
the inductance value of L, has the ratio arm resistors the same as for the
resistance bridge given in Eq. 9-4:

R
L.=L (9-6)

Inductors and capacitors can be put in series for forming resonant

bridge circuits. In addition, bridge circuits can also be used for signal
frequency measurement. A typical type is the Wein bridge circuit shown
in Figure 9-8(D). The equation that follows applies if C, is equal to C., if
Ris equal to R,, and if R, is half the resistance value of R,. When these
conditions prevail the frequency is found using the equation

roped (9-7)
WER C

9-8. SIGNAL GENERATORS

A signal generator, as the name implies, produces a signal for injection

into electronic circuitry during tests, measurements~and troubleshooting.
The basic signal generator is capable of supplying a sine-wave signal of
variable frequency, as well as pulse signals of different repetition rates.
In addition, controls are present for varying the output level, and
switching from RF to AF (radio-frequency to audio-frequency ranges) as
shown in Figure 9-9. The signal generator is also a useful instrument for
signal-tracing purposes to localize defective or inoperative states in a suc-
cessive group of circuits. The signal from the generator is injected into a
circuit and its presence is verified by an oscilloscope or other sensing de-
vice in subsequent stages. Thus, the stage that does not pass the injected
signal is then indicated as the defective one.
 SIGNAL GENERATORS 253

On
@,
Se Indicate

<i
af
Output
level
400 Hz
modulation Gabe

Freq
select

Power switch
on Jor
Output

Figure 9-9 Basic Signal Generator Controls

The pulse or square-wave signals that are obtained from the gener-
ator can be utilized for determining whether or not harmonic compo-
nents are attenuated in circuits. Since square waves and pulses consist of
a fundamental frequency plus a number of higher harmonics, any loss of
the latter will result in a distortion of the signal (see also Sec. 9-10).
Where a high degree of frequency stability is required, piezoelectric crys-
tals are incorporated within the generator for precision frequency con-
trol. Close-tolerance frequencies are essential during the alignment of IF
stages or in the tracking of tuners where the simultaneous tuning of the
mixer and oscillator stages of the tuner require a maintenance of the
same frequency difference between the two.
Signal generators usually have provisions for modulating the RF
signal by an audio signal (often a 400-Hz signal). Such a modulated sig-
nal output is useful for testing detector stages or when a visual display
of the modulated signal is useful for test purposes. The single-signal gen-
erator is also useful to provide a marker for sweep generators (see
Sec. 9-9).
254 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

9-9. SWEEP GENERATORS

In frequency-modulated communication systems a useful instrument is a

signal generator having the ability to vary the frequency of the output
signal. By increasing and decreasing the frequency above and below a
given value, a fixed rate of signal-frequency sweep is available. Such
sweep generators come in a variety of models designed for specific appli-
cations. Typical controls and basic layout of the front panel are shown
in Figure 9-10(A). The sweep generator is useful for producing on an os-
cilloscope.a visual display of the bandpass of IF or tuner stages. If the
generator applies a sweep signal to the initial stages of an intermediate-
frequency section, the oscilloscope pattern would appear as shown in
Figure 9—-10(B).

\ Tuning Dial (MHz) T

GINUS 4
Range Tuning

ari Sweep Phasing Marker Marker

width width amplitude
Sweep Off

oe oa ay a sis ea a
©) Marker Freq (MHz) Select
marker ’ (0)

(a)

Response
curve
/
Marker pip

(b)

Figure 9-10 Sweep Generator and Marker Pip

 OSCILLOSCOPES 255

The sweep generator function displays the bandpass characteristics

because at any instant it displays the relative gain of the amplifier at the
frequency prevailing at that instant. As the sweeping signal frequency
encompasses regions below and above resonance the gain is low, while
through the resonant frequency the gain rises sharply. For a constant
gain over the resonant span, a substantially flat top prevails for the reso-
nant curve. The marker pip is generated by an independent single-signal
generator, incorporated either within the sweep generator housing or by
an external generator. The single-frequency output signal imposes the
marker pip on the response curve at the precise frequency generated.
Thus, the marker pip can be moved along the response curve by manual-
ly varying the frequency of the single-signal generator. Thus, the marker
pip location can determine the frequency span of the bandpass.

9-10. OSCILLOSCOPES

The oscilloscope is a visual-display instrument utilizing a cathode-ray

tube. It has the ability to display the waveshape and amplitude of vari-
ous signals utilized in electronic circuitry. The visual indication is a valu-
able means for evaluating signal waveforms, for ascertaining the presence
of distortion, and for the measurement of amplitudes and phase between
different signals. It also provides for a display of bandpass characteris-
tics of IF and RF amplifier stages in various communication circuitry.
There are numerous types of oscilloscopes available from various manu-
facturers. Some types are basic units with fundamental display character-
istics only, whereas others provide for dual displays and triggered sweep
functions, as discussed later in this section.
A typical front-panel system is shown in Figure 9-11. The signal
to be displayed is generally applied to the vertical input terminals (V in-
put) shown and hence reaches a vertical amplifying system. Ultimately,
the amplified signal appears across the vertical deflection plates of the
cathode-ray tube. The signal causes the internal beam of the tube to
move up and down at a rate corresponding to the frequency of the input
signal. The amplitude of the display as well as its position are set by the
controls. Within the oscilloscope is a sawtooth-signal generator that pro-
duces a sweep signal for application to the horizontal deflection plates of
the display tube. The sawtooth waveshape sweeps the beam across the
face of the tube at a rapid rate until the sawtooth amplitude drops
256 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Intensity

OD
Bea
=|

Test Sig H Input

Figure 9-11 Scope Panel— Basic Controls

abruptly, at which time the beam retraces very rapidly to the left. Thus,
if a sine-wave signal is applied to the vertical input, and the horizontal
sweep frequency pulls the beam across the tube face once for each cycle
of the input signal, a single cycle of the sine wave would be displayed.
For displaying several cycles, the horizontal sweep would be at a slower
rate.
The controls shown in Figure 9-11 permit total adjustment of the
displayed image. (The location of the controls shown would, of course,
vary for different instruments.) The intensity control varies the bias be-
tween the control grid and cathode of the cathode-ray tube to alter the
brightness of the display signal. The focus control adjusts voltages on
the anode portion of the display tube to adjust the pinpointing of the
 OSCILLOSCOPES 257

beam’s trace. The switch marked SW. AMP maintains horizontal sweep
when in the SW position. When placed in the AMP position, an external
sweep signal can be utilized and will be amplified when applied to the
horizontal input terminals. Variable controls are available for synchroni-
zation purposes including a fine-tuning control for precise adjustment of
the sweep frequency after an approximate setting by the frequency
control.
Vertical and horizontal positioning controls permit shifting the dis-
play image either vertically or horizontally for proper placement. The
vertical and horizontal amplifier control permits expansion or contrac-
tion of the displayed signal as required. The phase and frequency of two
sine-wave signals can be determined by switching off the internal hori-
zontal sweep signal and applying one signal to the horizontal input and
the other to the vertical input. One of these signals can be obtained from
a calibrated signal generator for precise evaluation. With both the verti-
cal and horizontal input signals applied and the scope controls adjusted
for equal amplitudes, pattern changes occur when phase differences exist
between the two input signals. The sequence of patterns for a phase dif-
ference between zero and 180° is shown in Figure 9-12. These phase dis-
plays are termed Lissajous patterns after the French scientist who first
observed them experimentally.

a (a)
NSS 180°

(b) (c)

Figure 9-12 Lissajous Patterns

258 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

If both input signals are locked in a specific frequency the particu-

lar phase display will also be locked into a stationary pattern. If either
signal (or both) drift in frequency the patterns shown in Figure 9-12(A)
will be progressively displayed in sequence. A difference in amplitude be-
tween the applied signals causes an elongation of the display. When one
input signal is twice the frequency of the other, the display is a figure-8
type of pattern, as shown in Figure 9-12(B). Thus, one signal could be
200 kHz and the other 400 kHz. A three-to-one frequency ratio of the
signals produces the pattern shown in Figure 9-12(C).
By shutting off the scope’s horizontal sweep, the resultant single
vertical line can be utilized to measure for peak-to-peak voltages as
shown in Figure 9-13. Here a sine wave has a peak-to-peak value of 10
V and hence the scope pattern display is calibrated to represent 10 V.
Consequently, a decline in the length of the vertical line would permit
the reading of successively smaller amplitudes. Peak-to-peak values are
often indicated in the schematics of many electronic devices and systems.
Dual-trace oscilloscopes permit the display of two different signals
simultaneously, as shown in Figure 9-14. Here one signal consists of
square waves and the other sine waves. Some distortion appears in the
square waves, indicating higher harmonic signal losses. In such oscillo-
scopes, dual-channel amplifiers and synchronizing systems are used to
process the individual signals for display on a single cathode-ray tube.
The dual trace is useful for signal comparison purposes. It can be uti-
lized to observe the individual outputs from a stereo-system for testing
purposes. With a single signal applied simultaneously to both inputs, the

—— rms value =~

Peak-to-peak
value H
U4
a
LOVED gual, AN
Oo)
Gi
Scope L|
ey pattern H

= 10 V pp*— Feb
Nisfaieiete]

Figure 9-13 Peak-to-Peak Measurements

 OSCILLOSCOPES 259

Figure 9-14 Dual-Trace Signals

output signals from the stereo system should be equal in amplitude and
waveshape, and any deviation can be ascertained by the display. The
dual-trace instrument is also useful for observation of phase differences
between signals.
Besides dual trace, other features available include memory, where
an observed waveform can be put into storage. Upon retrieval, repeated
scan of the signal from memory presents a stationary pattern on the
screen. Another feature is the triggered sweep, which permits improved
stability of sweep synchronization by using the input signal to initiate
the trigger for the horizontal sweep. Such synchronization is a precision
system and far superior to the basic sweep system that uses a free-run-
ning oscillator that must be tuned manually for synchronization.
The recurrent sweep is less advantageous than the triggered sweep
because the recurrent mode requires sync readjustment for changes in
amplitude or frequency of the vertical input signal being viewed. When
triggered sweep is used, the synchronization latches on automatically be-
cause the input signal initiates the trigger that controls the horizontal
sweep mode. In scopes using triggered sweep, provisions are usually
available for selecting either the free-running mode for recurrent sweep
operation or the triggered mode. For the latter, the horizontal sweep is
replaced by the triggered mode in coincidence with the application of an
input signal.
 260 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

9-11. CROSSHATCH AND BAR GENERATORS

An instrument particularly applicable for adjusting television systems is

shown in Figure 9-15. This is a generator of complex waveforms that
can produce vertical or horizontal bars on a television screen as well as a
crosshatch pattern. Also available are dot patterns and color-bar pat-
terns for adjustments of color receivers. The vertical and horizontal lines
as well as the crosshatch patterns are obtained by depressing switches
A,
B, and C in the generator illustrated in Figure 9-15. For the vertical pat-

Selector
buttons

Output

Figure 9-15 Crosshatch and Bar Generator

 CROSSHATCH AND BAR GENERATORS 261

tern illustrated in (A) adjustments are made to the horizontal sweep lin-
earity of the television receiver until the vertical bars are equally spaced
across the screen. Similarly, the horizontal bars produced with push-
button B permit adjustments of vertical linearity. A typical pattern of
this type is illustrated in Figure 9-16. Here, the linearity at the bottom
of the screen requires adjustment since the horizontal lines are thicker
and farther apart than those at the top of the screen. With the cross-
hatch pattern obtained by pushbutton C, simultaneous adjustments can
be made to correct both the vertical and horizontal linearity.
On occasion a single line (either horizontal or vertical) is useful
and is available by pushbuttons G and H. On some instruments these
single bars can be positioned to either side for testing linearity distortion
(where curvature would occur). The vertical and horizontal linearity ad-
justments apply to either black-and-white or color receivers, while the
other patterns available (the dot patterns and the color bar patterns) are
utilized for color receivers exclusively.
In color television systems a televised scene undergoes a special
process that filters the images into three primary colors (additive color
principle) of red, blue, and green. In the color television receiver, the
three-color significant signals initiate electron beams which impinge on
phosphor dots of red, blue, and green. For perfect color rendition as well
as for the production of a pure white segment of a scene, the electron
beams must converge precisely on the respective phosphor dots. Adjust-
ments or corrections are made by utilizing the dot pattern obtained by

Figure 9-16 Bar Pattern

262 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

depressing pushbutton D in Figure 9-15. When alignment and conver-

gence is satisfactory all dots appear white. For any visible color fringing,
convergence controls are adjusted to correct the convergence errors. As
with the crossbars, a single pattern is available utilizing pushbutton F.
Again, the single dot can be moved around the screen to check for con-
vergence differences.
Vertical bars of color are obtainable on the screen by depressing
pushbutton E for the generator shown in Figure 9-15. These fixed color
bars permit testing the phase relationship between the several color sig-
nals and also facilitate adjustments of signal amplitude. The color bars
are produced in the generator by shifting the phase of the color
subcarrier (3.579545 MHz) with respect to the burst signal. When the
phase of the subcarrier signal is continuously changed through 360° for a
time interval equal to one horizontal line sweep, and repeated for succes-
sive horizontal lines, color-bar patterns are produced on the television
screen. Sometimes an instrument producing such color bars is called a
rainbow generator.

9-12. VECTORSCOPES

In Sec. 9-10 reference was made to the types of signals obtained for dif-
ferences in phase and frequency between vertical and horizontal input
signals. The Lissajous pattern production principle is also utilized in the
vectorscope, another test instrument for color television receivers. Essen-
tially, this instrument embodies the oscilloscope principle but utilizes a
special display-tube faceplate that produces a petal-shaped diagram with
10 extensions corresponding to the 10 color bars-groduced by the rain-
bow generator. This system is shown in Figure 9-17 and is utilized in
conjunction with a color-bar generator. Some commercial units include
the rainbow generator within the vectorscope system. As shown in Fig-
ure 9-17, the R-Y color signal output from the color detectors is applied
to the vertical input of the vectorscope, with the B-Y signal applied to
the horizontal input for sweep purposes. The keyed color-bar generator
is applied to the television receiver tuner as shown. An ideal representa-
tion of the petal formation is illustrated in Figure 9-18. The phase rela-
tionships of the signals are shown in (A), while the vectorscope faceplate
pattern is illustrated in (B). Such a perfect petal formation does not ap-
pear because of circuit factors, and that shown in Figure 9-17 is more
representative. The vectorgram display facilitates adjustments and main-
 VECTORSCOPES 263

Keyed
color ToTV
bar tuner
generator

To R-Y
detector

To B-Y
detector

Figure 9-17 Vectorscope Applications

tenance procedures since color problems are displayed by the petal for-
mation. Nonlinear distortion appears as uneven amplitudes of petals.
When petal tops appear flattened instead of rounded, circuit overloading
in the receiver is indicated. Other checks are also possible for the
vectorscope for localization of defective circuits, maladjusted sections in
the color system as well as inoperative stages. Thus, loss of the B-Y sig-

ANS:
| Vee B-Y signal applied
to horizontal
deflection plates

R-Y signal applied Horiz. blanking

to vertical interval
deflection plates

(a) (b)

Figure 9-18 Vectorgram Petals (Formation)

264 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

nals causes a collapse of the petal formation and only a vertical line is
visible.

9-13. TRANSISTOR TESTERS

Transistor checking instruments are available in a variety of models,

with the higher-priced units having extended facilities. The basic types
provide for general readings, indicating good or defective transistor indi-
cation ranges as shown in Figure 9-19. One scale indicates the gain ca-
pabilities of the transistor and another scale provides for measurement of
resistive leakages between elements.
For the junction transistors the forward-current transfer ratio in-
volves the ratio of a change in collector current (/,) to base current (J,).
This characteristic is known as beta (8), as indicated by Eq. 9-8. This
beta range involves the upper gain scale of the dial shown in Figure 9-19
and is calibrated in micro units.

Figure 9-19 Representative Transistor Test Meter Dial

 CLAMP-AROUND AC METERS 265

B= — (9-8)

The second gain scale is for measurement of field-effect transistors.

The transconductance measurement, also in micro units, is of value and
indicates the following relationship:

¢,— — (9-9)

where dJ, is the small change in drain current

dE, is the small change in gate voltage

The better-quality transistor testers include features such as testing

transistors without removing them from the circuit, identifying transistor
leads automatically, and indicating whether the junction transistor is an
npn or pnp type as well as showing whether the FET is an n-channel or
p-channel unit. Such testers also identify the anode terminal of diodes
and reads the front-to-back current ratio.

9-14. CLAMP-AROUND AC METERS

When it is necessary to read current values in electric systems it is incon-

venient to open the circuit for insertion of a current-reading meter. When
the meter must be placed in series with the load, connections must be
firm and adequate to carry currents involved. Hence, the clamp-around
type ac meter has been widely used since it permits current readings
without disturbing the circuit. As shown in Figure 9-20, the meter struc-
ture utilizes a curved metal section with a swival joint. This curved loop
section thus can be opened, placed around a single conductor, and
closed for obtaining a reading. Current flow through the conductor cre-
ates magnetic lines of force which are intercepted by the curved loop of
the meter. Thus, the magnetic fields induce a voltage in the single-turn
metal loop. This loop forms the primary of a transformer, with the sec-
ondary winding connected to the meter. Since induced voltage is propor-
tional to current flow in the conductor, current readings are indicated on
the calibrated meter scale. A rotary switch is provided for selecting the
266 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Interleaved
swivel
joint

Voltage
probes

Insulated
handle

Figure 9-20 Clamp-Around ac Meter

desired meter scale range. Two terminals are also available on the meter
for taking voltage measurements.

-
,
9-15. WATT-HOUR AND POWER-FACTOR METERS

The kilowatt hour refers to the practical unit of electric energy where
electric power consumption is related to elapsed time. Thus, the product
of elapsed time and power is a measurement of electric energy with re-
spect to watt hours. A common-type watt-hour meter extensively utilized
in residential installations is shown in Figure 9-21(A). This meter gives a
continuous indication of the amplitude of power consumed in relation to
elapsed time. As shown, four dial faces are utilized to register the kilo-
watt hours of the electric energy used. Such meters are read periodically
by power company employees for billing purposes.
 WATT-HOUR AND POWER-FACTOR METERS 267

Kilowatt hours

Motor mechanism

Glass cover
Aluminum disk

(a)

(b)
Figure 9-21 Watt-Hour Meter and Power-Factor Dial

The watt-hour meter utilizes an induction-type unit in which cur-

rent is induced into an aluminum disk. The latter obtains torque because
of the energy induced by two electromagnets. One of the latter is con-
structed of heavy wire in series with the line and provides for an in-
phase flux condition. The second electromagnet is made up of fine wire
and connected across the line with an additional coil for obtaining a 90°
phase shift (current lag). The two coils in combination provide the rotat-
ing magnetic field for turning the disk. Basically, the assembly is similar
to a motor with the torque in the rotating disk proportional to the pow-
268 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

er. Permanent magnets are mounted in close proximity to the rotating

disk. When the magnetic fields are picked up by the disk, eddy currents
are produced within the disk and hence create a torque opposed to the
disk rotation.
The retarding torque produced by the magnetic currents is directly
proportional to the speed of the rotating disk. Hence, the speed of the
rotation is proportional to the power consumed by the load. The dials
are thus calibrated to provide for kilowatt-hour readings. The amount of
power consumed by the load is indicated by the difference in meter read-
ings taken over a fixed period of elapsed time.
The dial face of a power-factor (PF) meter is shown in Figure 9-
21(B). Such a meter is useful in testing industrial electrical installations
for deviations in power factor. When the power factor is less than 1 it
should be corrected to reduce excessive currents. When the power-con-
suming load (such as a motor) is not purely resistive, phase-angle chang-
es occur between voltage and current. An inductive effect, for instance,
causes additional current to circulate even though there is no increase in
power. (Pure inductors or capacitors have reactance but do not consume
electric energy.) The increased current circulating through reactors is re-
turned to the generator, but the generator must still provide for the ad-
ditional currents. In addition, larger conductors are necessary to carry
the additional current (see Sec. 1-1 and Eq. 1-5).
The meter shown in Figure 9—21(B) is placed in series with the line
and the load. The degree of lag or lead is then read directly on the dial.
A switch is provided for bypassing the meter movement and applying
the line input directly to the load. In many meters a dial pointer remains
at a given reading until another measurement is made. The lack of
spring return for the dial pointer provides for a fixed reading, even when
the switch is in the off position for the meter movement. Thus, power-
factor corrections can be compared to previous readings.

9-16. FUNCTION GENERATORS

We with other instruments, function generators are available in a variety

of models. These generators are useful in design and test applications be-
cause they furnish precisely formed signals that can be strictly controlled
in frequency and time. The signals available include sine waves, square
waves, and triangle waveforms. Depending on the capabilities of the in-
strument, various degrees of signal modification are provided. A substan-
 FREQUENCY COUNTERS 269

tially flat response is present, often ranging to 3 MHz with less than
0.5-dB variation. The frequency range for some instruments extends
from 0.003 Hz through 3 MHz, with adjustments permitted throughout.
The square-wave signals have a high harmonic content, permitting a
waveshape that has a rise and fall time of less than 75 ns. Distortion for
the sine-wave signals is often substantially less than 1%. The triangle
waveform may have a linearity that does not deviate more than 1% be-
yond 300 kHz for many instruments. Such instruments often provide a
50-dB switch-type attenuator that is variable between ranges with an ad-
justable waveshape symmetry from a few percentage points to a value
below 100.

9-17. DISTORTION METERS

Distortion meters are sometimes referred to as distortion analyzers and

are useful for measuring the percentage of distortion present in wave-
forms. Some instruments measure total harmonic distortion values of less
than 0.5% within a range up to 100 kHz. Some instruments of this type
are also designed to test for intermodulation distortion (see Table 12-4).

9-18. FREQUENCY COUNTERS

The frequency counter devices provide for an accurate reading of the fre-
quency signals by displaying them in digital form. Some instruments
have a range extending between a low of 15 Hz to well over 200 MHz.
Most have provisions for a direct connection to sample the signals to be
measured as well as having optional connection for an antenna for inter-
ception of a broadcast signal. Such frequency counters utilize a crystal-
controlled time base to provide for measurement accuracy and circuit
stability. Accuracy can be established to have a variation of less than 1
or 2 Hz around the range of 200 MHz.
Portable hand-held frequency counters are also available. With
over a half-dozen LED display digits present and automatic decimal
placement built in, extreme accuracy is available. Such portable units op-
erate on a few low-voltage batteries, and some have rechargable battery
provisions.
 10 Graphic Symbols
of Basic Components

10-1. BASIC DIODE TYPES

Solid-state sections termed zones are fabricated into negative (mn) and
positive (p) units which can be formed into junctions creating diodes
and transistors (see also Sec. 10-5). A p-n junction has a low-resistance
conducting path for current flow in one direction but a high-resistance
barrier in the opposite direction. Thus, these devices are useful for rectifi-
cation purposes (see Sec. 2-35) and for the detection of modulated sig-
nals (see Sec. 2-42).
A typical diode symbol is shown in Figure 10-1(A). An alternative
symbol is that shown in (B) using a circle. As shown in (A), the triangu-
lar section of the symbol represents the anode (cogforming to the solid-
state p zone) and the straight-line section identifies the cathode (con-
forming to the n zone). When the applied voltage connects the positive
battery terminal to the anode and the negative to the cathode as at (C),
the term forward bias is used to identify the coincidence of connecting
the positive battery terminal to the p zone and negative battery terminal
to the n zone. Under this condition current flows to the degree estab-
lished by electric pressure and the amount of circuit resistance. If the
battery polarity is reversed as shown in (D), the term reverse bias is used
to indicate a negative battery polarity to the p zone and a positive bat-
tery polarity to the n zone. For this circuit there is little or no current
flow, depending on the design factors of the p-n junction.

270
 PHOTODIODES 271

Baers Cathode

Electron flow

(a) (b)

Le -

Forward Reverse
bias bias

(c) (d)

Figure 10-1 Basic Diode Factors

10-2. PHOTODIODES

Photodiode and light-emitting diode symbols are shown in Figure 10-

2(A) and (B). The symbol shown in (A) utilizes the arrows that point to-
ward the diode as representative of light input. Such a photodiode con-
verts light energy into electric signals by utilization of a p-n junction
designed for sensitivity to light photons impinging on the junction.
When the output terminals of the photodiode are connected to a closed

ven OY
(a) (b)

Light (eS xe EMF EMF eepows) Light

input output output output

(Cc) (d)

Figure 10—2 Photodiodes and LEDs

272 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

circuit the light energy is converted to electron flow. The physical struc-
ture may appear as shown at (C) and these diodes are utilized for alarm
systems, industrial control, and counting systems based on the interrup-
tion of light reaching the photodiode.
The light-emitting diode (LED) is shown in (B). In this device the
application of forward bias to the p-n junction structure converts electric
energy to light. The latter is produced with a minimum of heat genera-
tion. The LED units are useful for indicator lights, backlight for elec-
tronic watches, readout devices for test instruments, and other similar
functions.

10-3. SWITCHING DIODES

A number of diodes are utilized for gating and switching purposes in

digital circuits, combining circuits and power supplies that need be
turned on only at specific times. The tunnel diode symbol shown in Fig-
ure 10—3(A) has negative-resistance characteristics that permit it to be
used for special gating and switching functions. Switching is more rapid
than junction transistors by a ratio of over 100 to 1. Also, the tunnel di-
odes are less sensitive to temperature changes than average transistors
and thus more stable in many applications where temperature changes
prevail. The tunnel diodes also have greater immunity to the adverse ef-
fects of nuclear radiation and hence are useful for gating applications in
this area. '
The tunnel diode is so named because of the tunnel effect prevail-
ing at the p-n junction because of the presence of an extremely narrow
potential barrier. In essence, electric particles reaching the potential bar-
rier between the p-n junction disappear and reappear almost instantly at
the other side, as though they tunneled under the barrier instead of pene-
trating it. The electron particle transfer at the speed of light constitutes
the rapidity of the switching mode.
The symbol for a Schottky diode is shown in Figure 10—3(B). This
diode is far superior to the conventional junction diode in the speed by
which it can be switched on or off. It has a lower voltage drop across it
than the junction diodes and hence less power loss. It has been exten-
sively utilized for digital functions in integrated circuitry (also see Figure
4-8). Once current flow is initiated in the Schottky diode the conductivi-
ty is limited only by the unit’s very low internal resistance.
 ¢ é SWITCHING DIODES 273

e °
Tunnel diode Schottky

(a) (b)

Gate 2
Gate |

; 8
Silicon-controlled SES
rectifier (SCR) or (Silicon-controlled
thyristor switch)

(c) (d)

Gate
DIAC Triac

(e) (f)

Figure 10-3 Switching Diodes

Within the solid-state structure of the Schottky diode a positive-

charge hole flow is inhibited; hence, the diode is a majority-carrier unit
utilizing only electron flow. Consequently, recovery time is limited only
by the internal capacitance. Since the junction diode has a recovery time
related to the minority-carrier (hole) charge storage, it has a lower recov-
ery time. The Schottky is superior by a ratio of over 100 to 1.
The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) symbol is shown in Figure 10—
3(C). This unit has conductive characteristics similar to the p-n diode de-
scribed in Sec. 10-1. As a switching and gating unit it permits the con-
trol of high electric power by a small potential of negligible power. With
an applied potential of dc, the diode presents an open circuit. When a
trigger voltage is applied between the gate and cathode terminals, the
unit conducts fully. Once the unit is switched into conduction the re-
moval of the gate potential has no effect on current reduction. Thus,
274 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

when the SCR has latched on when triggered by a gating pulse, conduc-
tion can only be stopped by removal of the anode voltage or by revers-
ing the polarity of the voltage between anode and cathode (see
Sec. 2-41).
A silicon-controlled switch (SCS) is illustrated in Figure 10-3(D).
This unit has an additional gate element and can be triggered into con-
duction by either a positive- or a negative-polarity pulse. Unlike the
SCR, the SCS can be turned off by gate control (see Sec. 2-41).
The dual-diode unit termed the Diac is shown in Figure 10—3(E).
The two diodes are joined in opposite-polarity configuration so that spe-
cial gating characteristics can be achieved. The Diac remains in a
nonconducting state until a specific breakdown voltage is applied. At
that time conduction occurs and the unit can pass current in either di-
rection. Such devices are rated at specific breakover (gating) potentials.
If the Diac is identified as a 6-V type, the application of any lower volt-
age does not cause conduction and the Diac maintains a high resistance
with virtually no current flow. When the 6-V breakover potential is ap-
plied, both diodes have the ability to conduct (depending on the bias
polarity).
The Diac shown in (E) can be designed with a gate terminal to
form a Triac as shown in Figure 10—3(F). Thus, the three-terminal unit
becomes an electronic switch similar in characteristics to the silicon-con-
trolled rectifier except that the Triac can conduct in both directions.
Thus, the Triac can process ac signals without rectification.

10—4. REGULATING AND REACTIVE DIODES

; f yi Se ;
The diode that has voltage-regulating characteristics is shown in symbol
form in Figure 10—4(A). This diode is termed a zener and is used in
power supplies for maintaining a fairly constant voltage level during cur-
rent-drain variations on the power supply. This diode, a silicon type,
conducts current when it is forward biased as with the basic diodes. The
zener region, however, exists for a specific range of reverse-bias poten-
tials. For a low reverse-bias voltage the internal resistance is high and re-
mains so until the reverse-bias potential is raised to the critical point
(called the zener region). During the latter the internal resistance drops
sharply and conductivity occurs. Once the zener region is achieved the
voltage drop across the unit remains constant within specified limits for
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 275

ee Zener
Os Zener (alt.)

(a) (b)

Varactor Varactor
(alt.)

(c) (d)

Figure 10—4 Regulating and Reactive Diodes

regulation purposes, as described more fully in Sec. 2-40. An alternative

symbol for the zener diode is shown in (B).
A diode having reactive characteristics that can be altered for tun-
ing purposes is illustrated in Figure 10—4(C). An alternative symbol is
illustrated in (D). This unit is termed a varactor diode and exhibits ca-
pacitance characteristics proportional to the applied reverse-bias
potentials. Thus, the varactor diode can be placed across an inductor to
form a parallel resonant circuit, or in series to form a series-resonant cir-
cuit. The resonant frequency can be altered for tuning purposes by regu-
lating the amount of reverse-bias potential applied to the diode, as
discussed in Sec. 2-32 and illustrated in Figure 2-24(C).

10-5. JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Various junction transistor symbols are shown in Figure 10-5. In (A)

the pnp type is illustrated with the emitter arrow pointing inward to des-
ignate the pnp design. For these transistors the elements are the base, the
collector, and the emitter. On occasion the transistor symbol is shown
without the circle as in (B). For the pnp transistor the forward bias ap-
plied at the input would be a positive polarity at the emitter with respect
to a negative base. On the output side reverse bias would place a nega-
tive polarity at the collector with respect to a positive emitter. Bias con-
276 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

Collector C

Base B

Emitter iE
pnp type pnp (alt.)

(a) (b)

GC

E
npn type npn (alt.)

(c) (d)

E 2 E B,

1 B
n type p type

(e) (f)

Figure 10-5 Junction Transistors

siderations depend on circuit configurations and reference should be

made to Secs. 2-2, 2-4, and 2-6, where circuit applications are illustrat-
ed and discussed.
The npn transistor is shown in Figure 10—S(C) with the alternate in
(D). The unijunction transistor is shown in (E) and (F). These preceded
the field-effect transistors and were also formed ain-p junctions as with
transistors. The n type is shown in (E) and the p type in (F). Two base
terminals plus an emitter are illustrated for these types.

10-6. JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TYPES

Symbols for the junction field-effect transistors (JFET) are shown in Fig-
ure 10-6. For the FET units the terms gate, drain, and source are
substituted for the base, collector, and emitter designations for the junc-
tion transistor. The n-channel type is shown in Figure 10-6(A) with the
gate arrow pointing inward. The p-channel shown in (B) has the gate ar-
row pointing outward. Dual-gate types are also widely used and are use-
 METAL-OXIDE FIELD-EFFECT TYPES 277

Drain
Gate
Source

n channel p channel

(a) (b)

D D
G, G, G, G,

S S
n dualgate p channel

(c) (d)

G, D G, D
G, Ss G, Ss
n dualgate p dualgate

(e) (f)

Figure 10—6 Junction Field-Effect Transistors

ful in switching systems. For the dual-gate type shown in (C) the gate
terminal (G,) at the left is retained and another gate terminal (G,) is
shown on the drain-source elements side. When the arrows point inward
the n type is indicated. For the p-channel type shown in (D), the gate ar-
rows point outward.
Dual-gate FET units are also shown in (E) and (F), with the gate
inputs both at the left. For the n-channel type the gate arrows again
point inward, as for the dual-gate type shown in (C). For the p-channel
type, the gate arrows point outward, as for the unit in (D). Circuits and
applications for the FET units are covered in Secs. 2-2, 2-5, and 2-7
(see also Figure 2-11).

10-7. METAL-OXIDE FIELD-EFFECT TYPES

Symbols for the metal-oxide field-effect transistors (MOSFETS) are

shown in Figure 10-7. Terminal depletion types are illustrated in (A)
through (D), with both the n and p types depicted. The element indicat-
278 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

n type

Terminal
(a) depletion

Terminal
enhancement
types

Figure 10-7 MOSFET Types

ed as Sub refers to the substrate, the foundation slab for the FET con-
struction. The terminal enhancement types are shown in (E) and (F) and
are characterized by broken-line segments also associated with the insu-
lated-gate characteristics of the MOSFET. For thig reason this transistor
is also known as the insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) as dis-
cussed in Sec. 2-3 (see also Secs. 2-5 and 2-7).

10-8. SIGNAL WAVESHAPE SYMBOLS

Symbols for basic signal waveforms are shown in Figure 10-8. Several
cycles of a pure sine wave are shown in (A). This is a fundamental-fre-
quency waveform containing no harmonic signals. The pure sine wave is
characterized by a succession of positive and negative alternations, with
each alternation having the same amplitude as the others, each having a
gradual incline and decline, and all having identical widths (also see Fig-
 SIGNAL WAVESHAPE SYMBOLS 279

spionfhseroYVAN

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 10—8 Waveshape Symbols

ure 9-11). When a sine-wave signal is processed by a half-wave power

supply (Sec. 2-35) the result is a succession of single-polarity alterna-
tions as shown in Figure 10-8(B). Here, the negative alternations have
been eliminated by the rectification process. For full-wave rectification
(Sec. 2-36) the unipolarity alternations have no gaps between them, as
shown in Figure 10—8(C).
The symbols for square waves are shown in Figure 10—-8(D). Here
the waveform has positive and negative alternations as with the sine
wave shown in (A), but the waveform alternations have flat tops as
shown. Square waves of this type are made up of the fundamental fre-
quency plus a succession of even and odd harmonics of decreasing am-
plitude for the higher-order harmonics. Pulse waveforms are shown in
Figure 10-8(E) and these are of single polarity and can be either a train
of positive pulses or a train of negative pulses. Unlike the square wave
shown at (D), the pulses at (E) can have different spaces between them.
Thus, the pulses could be half as narrow as shown for the same spacing
or they could be of any duration and any interval between successive
pulses. Pulses are made up of the fundamental signal plus successive odd
harmonics of descending amplitude.
280 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

The waveforms shown in Figure 10-8(F) are integrated pulses.

Thus, lower-frequency signal components predominate as discussed in
Sec. 3-1. For the integration of negative pulses the waveform shown in
(F) would be inverted. The spiked pulses illustrated in Figure 10-8 rep-
resent the differentiation of a pulse train. Thus, high-frequency signals
predominate, as discussed in Sec. 3-2.
The waveform shown in Figure 10-8(H) are sawtooth signals,
formed as discussed in Sec. 3-6. The gradual rise and abrupt decline
make this waveform useful for sweeping electron beams across the inner
faceplate of display tubes. Similar sawtooth signals can, of course, have a
negative polarity. As with all waveforms other than a pure sine wave,
the sawtooth has ascending harmonic components in addition to the fun-
damental frequency.
Complex waveforms are generated by musical instruments, voice,
and other sound sources and consist of a mixture of numerous signal fre-
quencies. The signal shown in Figure 10-8(I) illustrates the initial effect
of a harmonic on a fundamental frequency. This waveform represents the
fundamental frequency plus a second harmonic component.

10-9. CONDUCTORS AND RESISTORS

Circuit conduction paths are represented by straight lines that intercon-

nect components. When lines cross as shown in Figure 10—9(A) there is
no connection between the two and hence no path for electric conduc-
tion. When separate lines are connected the intersection is emphasized by
a dot, as shown in Figure 10-9(B). When an electric conductor is housed
within a shield it is represented as shown in (C) (hgre the external metal
shield is placed at ground potential). A two-conductor twin-lead type
transmission line is represented by the symbol shown in (D).
The symbol shown in (E) represents a conductive path only if the
potential present exceeds a given value and has sufficient electromotive
force to bridge the gap. Such spark gaps have been widely used in televi-
sion receivers and other high-voltage optical scan systems for providing
a discharge path when potentials exceed a desired amplitude.
Illustrations in part (F) represent a fixed resistor and the symbol
for a variable resistor is shown in (G). A two-terminal variable resistor
connection is shown in (H). For the symbol shown in (I), a thermister is
represented. This is a resistor that alters the amount of resistance for a
 INDUCTORS AND TRANSFORMERS 281

oo a =P eae ane

Shielded cable | :
No connection Connection (shield grounded) Two-conductor

(a) (b) (c) (d)

AA
Spark :
Fixed resistor
gap
(e) (f)

eg
a ee Variable Two-terminal Thermistor
resistor

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 10-9 Conductor and Resistor Symbols

change in temperature. It is useful in minimizing voltage surges when the

equipment is first turned on. In such applications the resistance de-
creases sufficiently after warm-up to pass the desired amount of current.
Thermisters are also available that undergo a resistance increase for a
rise in temperature.

10-10. INDUCTORS AND TRANSFORMERS

Various inductor symbols are shown in Figure 10-10. In part (A) the
single inductors are illustrated with the air core representing the simplest
coil. A metallic core inductor is represented by one or two straight lines
running parallel with the coil as shown. Variable cores are represented
by arrows (see also Sec. 1-3). Transformers are shown in (B). Usually
the primary (P) is shown at the left of the secondary (S), as indicated by
the air core type illustrated. A fixed iron-core transformer has one or
two straight lines between the windings, as also shown. For the tuned
282 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

<——
ZINN Va a Sn (i —— —I NN AM Na
Air core Metallic core Variable cores

(a)

Air core Iron core Tuned

(b)

| =
iS tuned Multiple
secondary
(c)
Figure 10-10 Inductor Symbols

transformer an arrow is shown. When both the primary and secondary

windings are tuned, individual arrows are used, as shown in (C). Usual-
ly, an arrow pointing upward indicates that tuning adjustments can be
made from the top of the chassis; a downward-pointing arrow indicates
underchassis tuning. Multiple secondaries can also-lg depicted, as shown
in (C) (see also Sec. 1-10).

10-11. CAPACITOR SYMBOLS

Basic capacitor symbols are illustrated in Figure 10-11. In part (A) the
standard symbol for a fixed capacitor is shown as well as the variable
capacitor and the split stator. The latter is a dual capacitor unit with a
fixed stator section and dual rotor sections that are turned by a single
shaft (see also Sec. 1-4). The split-stator capacitor is widely used in
push-pull RF amplification. When individual capacitors serving separate
 TRANSDUCERS 283

Sn
Fixed Variable
aeif
Split-stator
ay
Ganged

(a) (b)

cae Varicap
Feed through or varactor

(c) (d)

Figure 10-11 Capacitor Symbols

circuits are linked together so that the rotors can be turned by a com-
mon shaft, they are termed ganged capacitors, as shown in (B). These are
employed in radio tuners, where they are part of the resonant circuits in
RF amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
The feed-through type of capacitor is shown in (C). This is a three-
terminal unit utilized at high frequencies for bypass purposes (see also
Sec. 7-19). The variable-capacitor diode is shown in (D). This device has
a reactance change for applied voltage (see Secs. 2-32 and 10-4).

10-12. TRANSDUCERS

Various transducer symbols are shown in Figure 10-12. The standard

symbol for a microphone is shown in (A) and a phonograph pickup in
(B). A tape recorder head is often represented as in (C), or as in (D),
where the alternate symbol is shown. The double-headed arrow indicates
the dual function of record and playback. An arrow pointing inward
only indicates the record function, while an arrow pointing outward only
indicates playback.
A speaker symbol is shown in (E) and a picture tube in (F). The
oscilloscope display tube is usually pictured as shown in (G).
284 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

Phonograph
Microphone pickup Tape head Alternate

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Speaker Picture tube

| 3 Scope tube :|

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 10-12 Transducer Symbols

10-13. SWITCHES AND RELAYS

Various switch and relay symbols are shown in Figure 10-13. The most
basic switch, the single-pole single-throw (SPST) type, is shown in part
(A). In (B) the double-pole single-throw (DPST) switch is shown. A sin-
gle-pole double-throw (SPDT) unit is shown in (C). Here the arrows rep-
resent fixed segments, in contrast to those in (A) and (B). The single-
pole single-throw switch with a double-break function is shown in (D).
In contrast to the SPST in (A), the switch in (D) has the movable sec-
tion completely disengaged from either side. Thig switch represents a
normally open design. The symbol for the normally closed SPST switch
is shown in (E). :
A normally closed double-pole single-throw switch is shown in (F).
Again, for this symbol the movable arms are the straight-line sections
and not the arrows, in contrast to the switch shown in (B). A double-
pole double-throw switch is shown in (G), and a single-pole double-
throw unit is shown in (H).
Relays contain a coil that is magnetically activated by a potential
either to close or to open a switching circuit. A typical single-pole single-
throw relay is shown in (I). This is a normally closed type and when
current flows through the coil the straight arm is pulled upward away
 MISCELLANEOUS GRAPHIC SYMBOLS 285

a a aeiewee d ie rs
SPST SPST
SPST DPST SPDT (Double (Normally
break) closed)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

fo DPST
See
DPDT SPDT ae
(Normally Relay
closed) SPST (NC)

(f) (g) (h) (i)

oe —ty 5]
Sicil SPDT
Normally Make before
open break

() (k) (1)

Figure 10-13 Switch and Relay Symbols

from the arrow head to open the circuit. The normally open single-pole
single-throw relay is shown in (J). Here the magnetic fields pull the mov-
able arm down to touch the arrowhead line for closing the switch. A
telephone-type single-pole double-throw relay is shown in (K), and a
make-before-break relay is shown in (L).

10-14. MISCELLANEOUS GRAPHIC SYMBOLS

Miscellaneous symbols are shown in Figure 10-14. Included is the trian-

gle widely used for amplifier representation. Here, the line at the left (at
right angles to the parallel line of the triangle) indicates the input. The
286 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS OF BASIC COMPONENTS

Amplifier Antenna Battery

— —4r— —i|r—
Single cell Multicell

Chassis connection
Crystal
Ground connection il

= V,
(Chassis not at ground)

Headphone

Phono jack Jack with

normally closed
terminal

Figure 10-14 Miscellaneous Graphic Symbols

output is usually shown leaving the triangle point. The two commonly
used ground connections are also shown and with most manufacturers
the chassis ground utilizes the distinctive symbol shown. The remaining
symbols include the crystal representation, the fuse, phono (or earphone)
jacks, and the headphone.

™~
 i Complete System
Block Diagrams

11-1. AM TRANSMISSION-RECEPTION

The basic amplitude-modulation process is shown in block diagram form

in Figure 11-1(A). A crystal-controlled oscillator is used for maintaining
a stable frequency for the generated carrier signal. The RF output is fed
to successive buffer amplifiers to bring the signal to the level required for
driving the final carrier power amplifiers. The carrier modulation process
uses low-frequency amplifiers as shown. When an audio signal is in-
volved for modulation, the input is from a microphone, phonograph, or
other source, such as recording tape. For television signals, the input
consists of the video signal plus synchronization and blanking signals.
The modulation signal is in series with the power supply to the final RF
amplifier, and hence the modulation process is performed as detailed in
Secs. 8-1 and 8-2. Reference should also be made to Figures 8-1 and 8—
2, which show the output circuitry as well as the sideband components.
A block diagram of the basic circuits comprising the receiver for
AM signals is shown in Figure 11-1(B). The circuit sequence and func-
tions constitute the swperheterodyne principle commonly utilized in most
receiving systems. As shown, the signal from an antenna is applied to an
RF amplifier, although in the less expensive receivers the RF stage may
be omitted and the antenna fed directly to the mixer circuit. In either
case the incoming AM signal is mixed with the signal generated by the
oscillator and the heterodyning process that occurs produces an interme-
diate-frequency signal. Subsequent IF amplifiers reject original signals

287
288 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

orale C TT
Crystal Bulfher edt i
controlled amplifiers powe ;
oscillator amplifier system

Microphone Low-signal
Power
or video audio or
amplifier
input with video
(modulator)
sync and blanking amplifiers

(a)

IF AM
amplifiers detector

Final
audio To
power speaker
amplifiers

(b)

Figure 11-1 AM Transmission-Reception System

and pass only the intermediate-frequency signal. Thus, the amplitude of

such signals is raised as described in Secs. 2-14 ang 2-15. The tuning of
the RF amplifier, the mixer, and oscillator is performed simultaneously
so that the same difference frequency is obtained by the heterodyning
process. Thus, the IF amplifiers receive only a single-frequency signal at
resonance, with sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the sidebands. For
public-entertainment reception practices the intermediate frequency is
455 kHz.
The intermediate-frequency signal is applied to a detector system
and processed as described in Sec. 2—42 and illustrated in Figure 2-31.
The resultant audio signal is then applied to several amplifier circuits to
increase signal amplitude to that required for loudspeakers.
 FM (MONO) TRANSMITTER 289

11-2. FM (MONO) TRANSMITTER

The frequency-modulation process is more complex than the amplitude-

modulation process described in Sec. 11-1. For frequency modulation,
there are several methods that can be employed. A basic system is de-
scribed in Sec. 8-3 and illustrated in Figure 8-3. In that system a phase-
locked loop is utilized to assure stability to a variable-frequency oscilla-
tor modulated by a reactance-control system to which audio signals are
applied. Sideband factors are discussed in Sec. 8-4. Another system is
the indirect frequency modulation process illustrated in Figure 11-2. In
this system advantage is taken of the fact that some significant similari-
ties prevail between AM and FM for low levels of frequency modulation.
For the latter, very small carrier deviations (where the carrier change is
less than approximately 30°) result in the production of only two signifi-
cant sidebands, as in AM. The only difference is that the two sidebands
obtained for low levels of FM are displaced 90° in relation to the carrier.
(In AM the two sidebands are in phase with the carrier.) The frequency-
modulation process illustrated in Figure 11-2 is based on similarities de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph. Essentially, amplitude modulation is
converted to frequency modulation by displacing the two sidebands 90°
and recombining them with a carrier. In shifting the phase of the side-

To frequency
; RF Class C itsliexs
ee buffer buffer e 3 FaSt
oscillator anaptifier amp and final p
amps

Quadrature
Balanced
90° phase
modulator
shifter

, Audio
Sound Audio one
input preamplifiers raltiers

Predistorter ala

Figure 11—2 FM (Mono) Transmitter

290 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

band signals in this manner, phase modulation occurs. A predistorter is

utilized for correction purposes as described later in this section.
As shown in Figure 11-2, a crystal oscillator is utilized and its sig-
nal is amplified and multiplied in frequency to that required for the final
carrier signal. The audio signal from the final audio amplifier is applied
to a balanced modulator in conjunction with a signal from the crystal
oscillator as shown (see Sec. 3-15). In this special modulator, the audio
signal causes the carrier signal to be amplitude modulated and hence two
sideband signals are created. The latter are applied to a quadrature cir-
cuit and shifted in phase by 90°, and then combined with the carrier sig-
nal, producing frequency modulation. As described in Sec. 3-15, the
balanced modulator suppresses a carrier signal so that the output con-
sists only of the sideband signals.
As mentioned earlier in this section, the phase-shift process pro-
duces phase modulation wherein the deviation of the carrier is related to
the frequency of the audio-modulating signal multiplied by the maximum
phase shift utilized. Consequently, the higher-frequency audio signals
produce a greater carrier frequency deviation than do lower-frequency
audio signals. This must be corrected because in frequency modulation
only the amplitude of the audio signals determines the amount of carrier
frequency deviation. The predistorter circuit shown in Figure 11-2 is the
correction circuit that produces the required frequency modulation. The
series resistor has a high ohmic value compared to the ohmic value of
the reactance of the shunt capacitor (for the full range of audio-signal
frequencies). Consequently, no appreciable phase change results for any
audio signals appearing across the predistorter. However, since the out-
put to the audio final amplifier is obtained only from across the shunt
capacitor, the amplitude of the audio signals differs for various frequen-
cies. As the frequencies of the signals rise, capacitive reactance decreases
and hence there is an increasing shunting effect. The result is a decrease
in the amplitude of the audio signals as they rise in frequency. Since the
phase-modulation process increases carrier deviation for higher-frequency
signals, the predistorter opposes this process and hence nullifies the char-
acteristics of phase modulation. Thus, the process is equivalent to that of
pure frequency modulation.

11-3. FM (MONO) RECEIVER

A frequency-modulation receiver (mono) is illustrated in block diagram

form in Figure 11-3. The superheterodyne principle is utilized in similar
 FM (STEREO) TRANSMITTER 291

RF IF FM

amplifier amplifiers ue)

detector

Final
To
audio power

OF
speaker
amplifiers
De-emphasis

Figure 11-3 FM (Mono) Receiver

fashion to the AM receiver discussed in Sec. 11-1. For public-entertain-

ment FM receivers, the intermediate frequency is usually 10.7 MHz. The
output from the IF amplifiers is fed to a detector sensitive to frequency
modulation. Although several types are available, the ratio-detector cir-
cuit is the most commonly used (see Sec. 2—43 and Figure 2-32). The
output from the ratio detector is applied to a series resistor/shunt capac-
itor combination for deemphasis. The latter process restores the proper
amplitude to the audio signals which had been altered during the
preemphasis process of frequency modulation transmission (see Sec. 8-
3). As with the AM receiver, final audio power amplifiers raise the signal
to the level required for application to loudspeakers.

11-4. FM (STEREO) TRANSMITTER

The basic sections of a stereo FM transmission system are shown in Fig-

ure 11-4. Audio signals picked up by microphones are applied to a
right-channel input as well as a left-channel input, as shown. The system
is more complex than would be the case if two separate carriers were
modulated to produce left- and right-channel signals. To conserve spec-
trum space the stereo transmission must be compatible so that a mono
receiver can process the stereo signals as it would a mono signal. At the
same time a stereo receiver must be capable of processing mono recep-
tion. Thus, left- and right-channel signals undergo special mixing and are
292 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

RF To
Right { Sound Left power antenna
° input Y amplifiers system

disvad Carrier
River generator,
(L=R) modulator,
etc.

Balanced
modulator
/ 23 KHZ to 50) KHz
Ske ae sidebands (AM)
output Frequency generator
doubler (if used)

19 kHz
subcarrier
generator

Figure 11—4 Stereo FM Transmitter

applied to balanced modulators for carrier suppression, as shown in Fig-

ure 11-4 (see also Sec. 3-15).
For FM transmission, 100% modulation is defined as a carrier de-
viation of 75 kHz each side of the carrier resting frequency. In multiplex
systems such as stereo the imposed limits may not be exceeded; hence,
the various modulating signals encountered in stereo transmission must
utilize a modulation process confined to the existing limits imposed. The
nominal audio frequency range is from at least 50 Hz to 15 kHz with a
75-us preemphasis for each channel. Modulating-signal frequencies can
thus extend beyond 15 kHz to perform the multiplex process. This is
possible because the higher-frequency modulating signals increase the
rate of carrier deviation. (The extent of carrier-signal deviation on each
side of the center frequency is still determined by the amplitude of a
modulating signal.)
As shown in Figure 11-4, compatibility is maintained because a
mono signal is transmitted by adding the two signals received from the
right- and left-channel sources. The mono mixer signal (L + R) is ap-
plied to the modulating section of the primary FM transmitter and the
process creates the main channel. The spectrum frequencies are illustrat-
 FM (STEREO) TRANSMITTER 293

ed in Figure 11-5. As shown, the mono modulating signal occupies the

lower-frequency section of the total modulating-signal spectrum utilized
for the multiplexing process. To form the separate left and right chan-
nels of stereo, an additional signal is utilized and multiplexed. For the
latter process, a difference signal is formed by subtracting the right-chan-
nel signal from the left-channel signal (a process wherein the L and R
signals are applied to a mixer with the right signal 180° out of phase
with the left). Such a difference signal modulates an additional carrier
(subcarrier) and the amplitude-modulating process forms sidebands
which share in modulating the transmitted FM carrier as shown in Fig-
ure 11-4. The subcarrier is suppressed and hence must be re-formed and
reinstated at the stereo receiver.
The frequency of the subcarrier is 38 kHz and this frequency is
obtained by doubling a 19-kHz signal produced by the subcarrier gener-
ator. This 19-kHz signal modulates the carrier for synchronization pur-
poses during stereo detection at the receiver. The 19-kHz signal is
referred to as the pilot subcarrier and is held to +2 Hz of assigned fre-
quency. The 19-kHz signal modulates the transmitted FM carrier by
only 10% (an adequate amount that enables the receiver to derive this
signal and double its frequency to form the 38-kHz subcarrier signal for
recombination with the stereo sidebands (see also Sec. 11-5).
As shown in Figure 11-5, the sidebands generated by the modula-
tion of the 38-kHz subcarrier with the L — R signals are located above

(suppressed)
(10%)

Main channel
kHz
38
subcarrier
stereo
—->
(SIR) 19
subcarrier
pilot
kHz
>
67
subcarrier
SCA
kHz
—————
(50 Hz to
15 kHz)
30 80
y Lower Upper
0 (L — R sidebands) 10% modulation possible
Frequency, kHz

Figure 11-5 Stereo Multiplex FM Spectrum

294 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

the mono modulating signals. Such sidebands occupy the region between
23 and 53 kHz. As with the mono signal, audio-signal frequency re-
sponse extends from approximately 50 Hz to 15 kHz. Hence, the com-
plete multiplex modulating signal consists of a mono (L + R) signal in
the audio range, a supersonic 19-kHz pilot subcarrier signal, plus a L —
R supersonic signal with suppressed 38-kHz carrier.
The 19-kHz pilot signal for public-entertainment transmission is
granted a 10% injection as mentioned earlier, thus providing a carrier
frequency deviation of 7.5 kHz on each side of center frequency. With no
SCA transmission (discussed later in this section) there is a 90% modula-
tion possibility for the other signals during multiplex transmission. This
90% capability is divided between the mono and stereo channels. This
90%-modulation possibility is shared by the L + R and L — R signals.
Hence both cannot simultaneously modulate the transmission by 90%.
The L + R can modulate the main channel by 90% during mono broad-
casting, at which time the stereo sidebands would not modulate the FM
carrier. The L — R sidebands are capable of only. 45% modulation as a
maximum. If stereo sidebands are modulating at the 45% level, the L +
R modulating maximum is 45%.
When the SCA (Subsidiary Communications Authority) system is
utilized, it connects to the modulator section as shown in Figure 11-4.
This permits an FM station to broadcast on another channel in addition
to the standard FM. The SCA transmission is for private subscribers
who pay a fee for background music in public places. .The block for the
SCA section shown in Figure 11-4 represents a complete low-power
transmitter (compared to the main transmitter) with a center subcarrier
frequency of 67 kHz (the latter frequency has been generally adopted as
a standard for stereo-SCA combination stations),.The spectrum space
for the SCA signal is also illustrated in Figure 11-5. With stereo, the
SCA injection is held to 10% and hence causes a carrier deviation of
only 7.5 kHz on each side of center frequency. This 10% injection for
SCA added to the 10% for the pilot subcarrier reduces the remaining
modulation capability to 80%.

11-5. FM (STEREO) RECEIVER

A block diagram of an FM stereo receiver system is illustrated in Figure

11-6. Note that the initial stages following the antenna constitute a com-
plete mono FM receiver (RF, mixer, oscillator, IF amplifiers, and detec-
tor). The output from this section is applied to a composite signal
 TELEVISION (BLACK-AND-WHITE) TRANSMITTER 295

Mono FM - To audio
receiver Composite eeliicn
to detector signal L R
but minus amplifier
de-emphasis
Dual
de-emphiasis—— |

19 kHz 38 kHz
signal doubler
amplifier and amp Balanced
bridge FM
19 kHz 67 kHz detector
bandstop suppression
filter filter

Figure 11—6 Stereo FM Receiver System

amplifier as shown and then applied to both a 19-kHz signal amplifier

and a band-stop filter. After the signal has been amplified by the 19-kHz
amplifier, it is applied to a frequency-doubler circuit, where the signal is
raised to 38 kHz.
The composite signal appearing at the input of the 19-kHz band-
stop filter encounters resonant circuits that pass all signals except the
19-kHz pilot carrier. Thus, the output from the band-stop filter consists
of the 50-Hz to 15-kHz demodulated L + R signals, the 23- to 53-kHz
sideband signals (L — R), and the 67-kHz SCA carrier signal if the lat-
ter is being transmitted. The SCA signals are removed by the suppres-
sion filter and the remaining signals are then fed to a balanced bridge
demodulator circuit. Individual deemphasis circuitry is utilized as shown
for the left and right channels and the resultant signals are applied to
the stereo audio amplifier system.

11-6. TELEVISION (BLACK-AND-WHITE) TRANSMITTER

In public entertainment the picture (video) signal is used to amplitude-

modulate the picture carrier in a fashion similar to that of the AM trans-
mitter shown in Figure 11—-1(A). The video signal not only contains the
picture details but must also contains appropriate blanking and synchro-
296 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

nization pulses for proper horizontal and vertical scanning purposes at

both the transmitter and receiver (see also Sec. 8-5). The signal timing
and other details for black-and-white as well as color TV are given in
Sec. 11-8. The audio signals accompanying the video are frequency mod-
ulated (mono) similar to the system shown in Figure 11-2 and described
in Sec. 11-2. In the United States the bandwidth allocation per television
station as well as the specific frequency apply equally to black-and-white
and color receivers. Tables 7-23 and 7-24 show allocation frequencies
for both VHF and UHF stations.

11-7. COLOR SIGNAL SYNTHESIS

For television color signal transmission, it is necessary to utilize a cam-

era designed so that it derives individual red, blue, and green signal in-
formation contained in the scene being televised. The initial process is
discussed in Sec. 8-6 and illustrated in Figure 8-5. For conservation of
space and in the interest of compatibility the signals are processed to
produce a luminence signal with symbol Y, and in-phase color signal
with symbol J, and an out-of-phase quadrature color signal identified as
Q, as shown in Figure 8—5. These signals are then applied to filter cir-
cuits as shown in Figure 11-7, the block diagram of the basic circuits
utilized in television color modulation, and discussed in Sec. 11-8. As
mentioned in Sec. 11-6, the frequency allocations for- television stations
apply equally to black-and-white and color (see Tables 7-23 and 7-24).

11-8. TELEVISION (COLOR) TRANSMITTER ~~,

The basic circuitry for a television color modulation system is illustrated

in block diagram form in Figure 11-7. As with black-and-white trans-
mission discussed in Sec. 11-6, amplitude modulation is employed. A
crystal carrier oscillator is utilized as shown to generate the carrier sig-
nal. Frequency multiplication is utilized to raise the frequency of the car-
rier to that required for final transmission. Class C buffer amplifiers raise
the signal energy to the level needed to drive the final Class C modulat-
ed RF amplifiers. The modulated video signal is applied to a diplexer
antenna system in conjunction with the FM sound signal so that both
picture and sound may be transmitted by a single antenna system.
 TELEVISION (COLOR) TRANSMITTER 297

Antenna \|/

Crystal Class C
Frequency Class
(carrier) modulated Diplexer
multiplier C
generator buffers final

ol
* 4.
Adder Amplitier-
3 i net net
ht circuitry modulator

Oslo Mrz Balanced

low-pass modulator
filter oe Tee

Q | 0—0.S MHz Balanced

O low-pass modulator
filter ae O °°
FM sound
transmitter

3.579545 Color-
MHz burst Sound
Generator gate input

4a 90°
Frequency
phase phase
dividers
delay delay

Sync and
blanking:
To camera circuitry
keying, etc.

Figure 11-7 TV Color Modulation (AM)

The output signals obtained from the camera section (see Figure 8—
5) are applied to appropriate filter circuits as shown in Figure 11-7. To
minimize interference during color reception, the J signal is transmitted
with one sideband extending to 1.48 MHz and the Q as a double-side-
band signal each of which is 0.5 MHz distant from the frequency used
for the subcarrier, but which is suppressed at the transmitter. The J and
Q signals are applied to balanced modulators (see Sec. 3-15). These /
298 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

and Q signals modulate two subcarriers each of 3.579545 MHz but sepa-
rated by a 90° phase difference, with the J signal phase leading the Q sig-
nal phase. The subcarrier signals, plus the J and Q signals, are
suppressed and only the sideband components are attained at the output
(see also Table 7-30).
A 3.58-MHz oscillator is utilized to inject a minimum of eight cy-
cles on the horizontal blanking level for synchronization purposes at the
receiver. The phase of the burst signal is 58° ahead of the J signal, as
shown in Figure 11—7, with the J leading Q by 90°. All signals are com-
bined in an adder circuit, including the synchronization and blanking
pulses. All such signals are then amplified and utilized to amplitude-
modulate the Class C amplifier as shown. A separate FM transmitter is
audio-modulated and the carrier plus sideband signals are applied to a
diplexer antenna system that uses a common antenna to propagate both
video and sound signals.

11-9. TELEVISION RECEIVER SYSTEM

The television receiver system for either black-and-white or color recep-

tion is based on the superheterodyne principle (see Sec. 11-1). In con-
trast to the radio receiver, where only a single incoming carrier signal is
heterodyned with the oscillator signal, the television receiver must het-
erodyne two incoming carrier signals with the oscillator signal. Thus, for
any station tuned in, the tuner section oscillator signal is mixed with
both the modulated video carrier (AM) and the modulated sound carrier
(FM). Consequently, two intermediate-frequency signals are obtained,
necessitating both an AM detector and an FM degector. In addition, the
vertical and horizontal scanning signals must be synchronized at the re-
ceiver, and if the latter is color, additional circuitry is necessary. A block
diagram of the basic circuits of a color television receiver is shown in
Figure 11-8. The color receiver uses the identical circuits found in the
black-and-white set but must supplement them with the additional cir-
cuits to process the color signals. In Figure 11-8 each block that con-
tains a triangle is a circuit present only in a color receiver.
The video signals at the output of the tuner have a wide bandpass
(about 4.2 MHz for the video); hence, a wide bandpass is also necessary
in the IF amplifier stages. As shown, the output from the IF amplifier is
applied to individual detectors. The video detector extracts the picture
information (plus sync and blanking signals) and applies it to the video
 TELEVISION RECEIVER SYSTEM 299

Antenna Sound & 4.5 MHz To

inputs detector sound audio
IF amps detector amplifiers
To
pix
tube
socket

Bandpass
amplifier ht Te signal
A ga d etectors Ns

Reactance I&
control
a

Horizontal
sweep
voltage
oscillator-
amplifier regulator

Vertical Low-voltage
sweep Focus power
circuits rectifier
oscillator- supply
amplifier A

Figure 11—8 Television Receiver

amplifier stages. The sound signals are attenuated so that they do not
cause interference on the picture tube screen. For the sound detector, the
incoming video and sound signals are heterodyned and produce the final
sound IF of 4.5 MHz, the same frequency as in black-and-white receiv-
ers. This new IF signal is applied to IF amplifiers and the final sound
detector. The resultant demodulated signal is then applied to standard
audio amplifiers for loudspeaker drive. Generally, the picture IF is 45.75
300 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

MHz in the United States, with a sound IF of 41.25. Since these fre-
quencies are maintained for any station tuned in, the heterodyning of the
two always produces 4.5 MHz. (The oscillator circuit in the tuner chang-
es resonant frequencies for each station to maintain the same IF signal.)
For a black-and-white receiver the output from the final video am-
plifier is applied to either the control grid or the cathode of the picture
tube. For the color receiver shown, however, the luminance (Y) signals
are applied to the cathode elements and the color signals to grid ele-
ments. Additional outputs from the video amplifiers feed the color signal
circuits, the color synchronization section (burst), and the syne separator
stage. The latter, also found in black-and-white receivers, applies the
transmitted synchronizing signals to the horizontal- and vertical-sweep
oscillators. The sweep signals are then amplified and applied to the yoke
(inductors combined in a single housing and utilized for sweeping the
electron beam vertically and horizontally). In addition, the horizontal
signals are stepped up in a high-voltage transformer for generating the
25 kV or more needed for the second anode of. the picture tube. The
high voltage is applied to an inner conductive coating, and the electro-
static field generated increases the velocity of the electron beam. A lower
amplitude potential (approximately 5 kV) is utilized for controlling pic-
ture-tube focus. Conversion circuits correct improper scanning linearity
in three-gun color picture-tube circuitry so that the respective electron
beams representing red, blue, and green merge properly for proper color
rendition. :
The color signals from the video amplifier are applied to a
bandpass amplifier and then to color signal demodulators. The J and Q
color signals have minus quantities of green in relation to the Y (lumi-
nance) signal, and matrix units composed of resistiye networks mix the J
and Q signals in proper proportions for obtaining the original red, blue,
and green video signals. However, since the color subcarrier was sup-
pressed at the transmitter, it is necessary to generate such a carrier in the
receiver so that it can be mixed with the color signals to obtain the com-
posite modulated waveform. The color signal detection process can then
be accomplished and the color signals (G-Y, B-Y, and R-Y) applied to
the individual control grids of the picture tube. The subcarrier oscillator
is held in synchronization by a transmitted eight-cycle burst of a
3.58-MHz signal mounted on the horizontal blanking pulse. This burst
signal is obtained from the video amplifier and applied to a burst ampli-
fier. It is then utilized in a phase-locked loop (PLL) composed of a
phase detector, a reactance control, and the 3.58-MHz cscillator. The
 CALCULATOR AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 301

3.58-MHz oscillator is crystal controlled and the frequency is compared

to the burst signal in the phase detector. For any deviation of the oscil-
lator frequency, a reactance control compensates for the deviation and
corrects the frequency. The color-killer circuit disables the color circuitry
during reception of black-and-white transmission to minimize interfer-
ence if such circuits are left operative (see also Secs. 2-9, 2-10, 2-23
through 2-25, 2-30 through 2-32, 2-45, and 2-46 and Table 7-30).

11-10. CALCULATOR AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS

The vast array of interconnected circuits that can be fabricated into an

integrated-circuit chip was a significant breakthrough in the production
of hand-held calculators and desk-top computer systems. The versatility
of an integrated circuit that permits the structuring of both linear and
digital sections has enabled manufacturers to produce calculators having
capabilities boardering and overlapping some of those that were formerly
attributes of the computer alone. One of the prime capabilities of the
computer is its ability to branch to another procedure when necessary.
However, some calculators now have such decision-like capabilities, al-
though restricted to terms of storage capacity when compared to a com-
puter. (A decision command involves a statement such as: If the sum ex-
ceeds 500, follow procedure A; if the sum is at or below 500, follow
procedure B.) The A and B procedures are also spelled out in the
commands to the computer.
The basic sections and linkages of a computer system are illustrat-
ed in Figure 11-9. The term peripheral equipment refers to external ad-
juncts utilized with a computer, such as input keyboards or tape readers,
output printers, or plotters, as well as external storage devices. The cen-
tral processor unit (CPU) consists of the internal storage system made
up of both random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory
(ROM) units. The random-access types are for input and output data
flow as needed during computation. The read-only memory system con-
tains specific routines and other information which is permanently stored
and utilized as needed, without erasure possibilities by the operator. A
control section containing logic gates and routing capability channels the
information along specified paths as indicated during initiation of the
calculating processes. Logic decoders and encoders convert input data to
binary values and convert the latter into decimal or alphanumeric out-
302 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Peripheral
equipment Central Processor Unit (CPU)
eS

sia
@ Keyboard
ce
Disks
Lo
decoders and
encoders
® Punched cards
® Tape Magnetic cores
Bubble memory
Registers

OUTPUT
e@ Printer CONTROL Arithmetic
@ Logic gates Logic
© Plotter
Soest lth as ®@ Clock Unit
® Video display @ Switches (ALU)
@ Routing

External
storage
Power
supply

Figure 11-9 Computer Sections and Linkages

puts as needed. An arithmetic logic unit contains registers and logic cir-
cuitry that not only perform the basic functions of add, subtract,
multiply, and divide, but in association with ROM units can perform
square roots, cube roots, or other equations selected by the designer.
The more common calculators require that gll data be punched in
by pressing appropriate keys in the sequence involved in the arithmetic
process. The more expensive hand-held calculators are capable of reading
a prepared program from card strips inserted as needed. For a computer,
the input data system is much more complex because the set of instruc-
tions must spell out in detail the precise steps and procedures required.
The set of instructions that comprise a specific progress of computations
is termed a program. Computers generally are of the stored-program
type. Thus, the complete program is entered into the computer’s storage
facilities and the computer is instructed to read and execute the program
in sequence. Some computers are general-purpose types, whereas others
may be specifically oriented by their permanently stored routines. Thus,
a mathematically oriented unit has many common equation routines per-
 CALCULATOR AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 303

manently stored for recall as needed. A business-oriented computer uti-

lizes data-processing procedures involving bookkeeping practices,
inventory control, statistical data listings, and so on. When internal stor-
age is insufficient for retaining all the data required, external units are
linked to the computer as needed, such units consisting of floppy disk
memory, magnetic tape, or similar devices. The access time of data re-
trieval is slower than that for internal storage.
Since the logic circuitry of a computer operates in the binary sys-
tem, programs are encoded into the binary machine language by special
units (see Chap. 5). The basic computer-oriented language is one wherein
alphabetical abbreviations are used, such as MPY for multiply and DIV
for divide. Such usage is sometimes termed mnemonic coding (aid to
memory) or symbolic program language. This coding, in turn, is translat-
ed into machine language by an assembler that converts the data into
equivalent binary numbers. The conversion is from a source code into the
binary language (object code). Storage locations are addressed by sym-
bolic terms rather than by binary numbers, and the assembly language
maintains a one-to-one relationship with the machine language. The term
macro assembly language applies to a language that utilizes the basic
concepts of mnemonic instructions and addresses but permits the inclu-
sion of additional mnemonic instructions.
The term high-level language refers to a language designed for con-
venience of use in a specific area such as business, scientific, or general
purpose. Such languages are symbolic types and include COBOL, BA-
SIC, FORTRAN, ALGOL, PL/1, and others. All these terms are acro-
nyms made up by using the first letters or portions of words that
describe the system. COBOL, for instance, is derived from Common
Business-Oriented Language. FORTRAN stems from the phrase Formula
Translator. PL/1 is derived from Program Language 1, and BASIC is
obtained from Beginners’ All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. ALGOL
is from the phrase Algebraic-Oriented Language. For additional data on
these computer languages, see Chap. 12.
The conversion of high-level (source) languages into the binary (ob-
ject) machine language is more complex than converting assembly lan-
guage to binary. For high-level languages a program termed a compiler
performs the conversion process. These high-level languages are conve-
nient because they permit the preparation of a program in mathematical
or data-processing sequences similar to the actual calculation or data re-
triever involved. For each high-level language, however, specific rules
and phrases must be utilized for proper programming preparation.
304 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

11-11. ELECTRONIC GAMES

Because an integrated-circuit chip can contain thousands of transistors

and associated components it has been possible to design numerous elec-
tronic games in compact form. Some of these are portable self-contained
types utilizing light-emitting diodes or liquid-crystal diode matrix display
areas. Storage facilities are provided utilizing read-only memories for
game play progression and random-access memories for storing data
plus scores as games progress. The portable units contain sound amplifi-
cation and speaker units, thus providing for audio as well as visual out-
put signals. Some portable games are designed for one or more players
and are capable of keeping a running score for each.
The more complex games (such as backgammon and chess) contain
sophisticated microprocessors that have the ability to search through
game variations and progressions to provide a strong opponent when the
computerized game plays against a live adversary. Numerous games are
available with a level of play ranging from childto adult. The more so-
phisticated games utilize random play so that no two games will be
played in identical fashion.
A number of games have also been designed for use with television
receivers. The screen is utilized to display the game field and the televi-
sion speaker produces the accompanying sound effects. Many such tele-
vision games have provisions for plug-in cartridges to extend the number
of games that can be played. All such television games utilize the same
basic units as shown in block diagram form in Figure 11-10. Here, stor-
age facilities are again provided as mentioned for the portable game. The
read-only memories (ROM) have been preprogrammed to contain the
rules of the game, the proper progression, and. the data displays. The
random-access memory (RAM) displays the running score and stores the
game progression of the players. All these units are contained within the
IC chip as shown, and connections are made to the remote-control units
as well as to the required power source (batteries or ac line).
Most television game units provide for a color display when used
with a color receiver. They can, however, be played on a black-and-white
receiver and would function in an identical fashion except for the lack of
color. As shown in Figure 11-10, additional circuits are required, includ-
ing a VHF modulator plus the associated color and sync generator sec-
tions. The output signals from the VHF modulating unit are applied to
the antenna input terminal of the television receiver.
 SPEECH SYNTHESIS 305

IC units

ROM and RAM RF

VHF
units plus
modulator signal
programmed
unit output
game plan

Color
generator
and sync
Remote
control
units
Power
source

Figure 11-10 Basic Sections of Electronic Game Systems

11-12. SPEECH SYNTHESIS

Many electronic games, language translators (see Sec. 11-13), and some
computer peripheral equipment have facilities for speech output. The
methodology for speech production differs from that obtained with pho-
nograph records, recorded tape, or other prerecorded devices. Instead,
the speech utilized in electronic devices is synthesized and all the circuit-
ry necessary is present within an IC that contains analog-to-digital con-
version, storage, synthesizer sections, and signal filter units. Any one of
several different procedures can be utilized in the speech synthesis pro-
cess. Two representative examples are shown in Figure 11-11. In part
(A) is shown the circuit sequence for utilizing the stored speech compo-
nents to synthesize words. Here, consonants and vowels are fed to a mi-
crophone. An analog-to-digital converter produces a digitized signal that
is pulse-code-modulated, compressed, and stored as more fully described
later in this section. When a particular word is to be synthesized the
sound combinations needed are retrieved from storage and linked togeth-
er in series (concatenation) as required. With adequate storage of seg-
ments of speech sounds, the proper selection can produce male or female
voices and the timbre can be established so that the speech sounds like
)
that of an adult or child.
306 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Analog Compression
Sound or
h to and
ee digital storage
input ;
converter units

Sound Digital to
selection . analog
control converter

Synthesized
sae speech
os output

(a)

Pre-stored Sound
Combining
speech selection : utpu
sections 0 BEt
sounds control

(b)

Figure 11-11 Speech-Synthesis Systems

Complete phrases or words can be stored as shown in (B) and the

appropriate one selected as needed. Although this procedure is simpler
than that shown in (A), the storage requirementsyare much greater be-
cause of the numerous words and phrases that must be stored. In con-
trast, the system in (A) requires a much smaller storage since there are a
limited number of vowels and consonants that are needed in speech for-
mation. Although more circuitry is involved, the ability of the IC to con-
tain thousands of solid-state components minimizes the circuit problem.
Thus, this system uses pulse-code modulation (see Sec. 8-11). The sound
selection control selects the proper vowels or consonants from the stor-
age, mixes them as needed in proper sequency, and reconverts the digital
signal to analog. A low-pass filter provides the synthesized speech out-
put.
The compression section shown in Figure 11—-11(A) decreases the
quantity of data required for digital speech storage and results in the
 SYSTEM MINIATURIZATION 307

storage of amplitude changes of signal sections that are considerably be-

low the absolute amplitude values. Consequently, the data rate is less
than that which prevails for pure pulse-code modulation. This compres-
sion, plus pulse-code modulation, is also referred to as de/ta modulation
because a fixed step of change (delta) is involved in the sampling of the
original speech waveform. The digitized waveform method of speech syn-
thesis samples the waveform at a rate double that of the highest frequen-
cy prevailing. The latter is termed the Nyquist rate (see Table 12-3).

11-13. SYSTEM MINIATURIZATION

The integrated-circuit chip has been of great value in the miniaturization

of many devices, such as calculators, computers, and digital timepieces.
Some of the miniaturized games would have been impossible to produce
in the size now available without the IC. Another typical example is the
hand-held language translator. These units utilize liquid-crystal displays
and provide for a miniature keyboard. The word to be translated is
punched on the keyboard and the translation appears on the LCD dis-
play. The units are usually available with module plug-in capabilities for
selection of a particular language to be translated. Some units utilize
speech synthesizers (Sec. 11-12) and thus produce a spoken word during
the translation process. At the same time, the word is spelled out on the
display screen.
In all electronic systems, signals are processed and amplified and
finally appear on a screen in alphanumeric form or are converted to syn-
thesized speech. Since the initial process can be done on extremely low
amplitude signals, all the initial circuitry can be contained within a sin-
gle IC. The latter can develop sufficient voltage amplitudes for audible
or visual displays, although if a high-volume output is needed, external
transistor circuitry is required. Thus, the miniaturization qualities of the
IC have been utilized to produce extremely small portable equipment.
Typical are the stereo radio and tape players for earphone use only.
The cassette tape players for earphone operation alone accept stan-
dard-sized cassettes. Miniature earphones are utilized that provide excep-
tional tonal characteristics. Powerful magnets are formed by cobalt and
rare-earth magnetic elements such as samarium. The latter, combined
with precision-mounted thin Mylar diaphrams, produce the full audio
spectrum with a minimum of distortion at levels in the earphones that
reach maximum tolerable amplitudes. The tape units have many of the
308 COMPLETE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAMS

features present in the larger models, such as fast forward or reverse, au-
tomatic stop, tone and volume controls, and so on. Some units have
provisions for recording as well as playback, and many units measure
approximately 4 cm & 10 cm xX 15 cm. The portable stereo radios are
smaller units since they do not require the space for the cassettes. Some
cassette players have a plug-in module shaped like a cassette but con-
verting the tape player into a stereo radio unit.
Cassette tape players utilize electronic speed control of tape move-
ment instead of a heavy mechanical flywheel, thus reducing space and
weight. Circuits within the IC sense variations in tape speed and correct
for deviation before it would be noticeable by the listener.

™~
 Letter Symbols,
Acronyms,
and Definitions

12-1. INTRODUCTION

In electronic techology, letter symbols are widely used to expedite writ-

ten or oral descriptions and discussions of circuits and systems. It is, of
course, much more convenient to use the symbol MOSFET than to refer
to the unit as a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor. Similar-
ly, the letter symbol EAROM is certainly preferable to the phrase elec-
trically alterable read-only memory. Since, however, there are so many
such alphabetical symbols, as well as alphanumerical types (such as I?L),
it becomes difficult to recall the definitions of each encountered unless
we have a constant working familiarity with them. Thus, the lists in Ta-
bles 12-1 and 12-2 contain the most common types currently in use at
the time of publication of this text.
Acronyms, which are essentially also alphabetical or alphanumeri-
cal symbols, differ from the common letter symbols because the chosen
letters form a word. Thus, COBOL is derived from the initial letters of
each word in the phrase common business-oriented language and refers to
one of the several high-level computer languages used for data entry.
Similarly, the acronym BASIC is derived from the first letters of the
phrase beginners’ all-purpose symbolic instruction code. Some of the mem-
ory designations of electronic computers can be considered as acronyms,
since their constant usage in speech can be considered as expressing a
word, such as EARPROM for electrical erasable programmable read-
only memory, and FET for field-effect transistor, and so on. Hence, such
acronyms are found in Tables 12-1 and 12-4.

309
310 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-1. Miscellaneous Letter Symbols and Abbreviations

(alpha) current gain in transistors

ampere, amplifications
alternating current
automatic color control
analog to digital
analog to digital converter
audio frequency
audio frequency control
. automatic gain control
arithmetic and logic unit
automated send/receive
automatic tint control
automated test equipment
automatic teller machine
automatic volume control

bel (ratio of powers, voltages, currents), susceptance (beta) feedback

voltage, transistor current gain
binary-coded decimal
buffered field-effect-transistor logic
beat-frequency oscillator
bipolar field-effect transistor
binary digit
bubble memory controller

capacitance, capacitor
degrees Celsius
computer-aided design =
computer-aided manufacturing (also content-addressable memory)
charge-coupled device
>)
compatible current-sinking logic
collector-diffusion isolation
capacitance electronic disc (video)
ceramic dual in-line package
centimeter-gram-second system
input capacitance
circuit
current-mode logic
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
coder-decoder
central processing unit
 LETTER SYMBOLS 311

ee a
TABLE 12-1. continued

CRO cathode-ray oscilloscope

CROM control read-only memory
CRT cathode-ray tube
CSL current-steering logic
CTL complementary transistor logic
CW continuous wave

digital to analog
digital to analog converter
digital audio disc
decibel (commonly used term; equal to one-tenth of a bel)
digital bit-timing recovery
direct current
direct-coupled field-effect-transistor logic
direct-coupled logic
direct-coupled transistor logic
data encryption standard
de-ionized water
data input
dual in-line package
direct memory access
digital multimeter
diffused metal-oxide semiconductor
data output
digital-optical technology system
direct step-on wafer
change in time
diode-transistor logic
diffusion under epitaxial film
data under voice

EAROM electrically alterable read-only memory (same as EE-PROM)

EBCDIC extended binary-coded decimal interchange code
E beam electron beam
ECD electrochromic displays
ECL emitter-coupled logic
ECM electronic countermeasures
EFL emitter-follower logic
emf electromotive force
emi electromagnetic interference
EMR electromechanical relay
312 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

a —————

TABLE 12-1. continued

epi epitaxial
€ (epsilon) natural base log (2.7183)
E-PROM erasable programmable read-only memory
EE-PROM electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (also E?
PROM)
effective radiated power
electronic switching system
exclusive-or (gate)

farad of capacitance
degrees Fahrenheit
frequency of infinite attenuation
floating-gate avalanche-injection metal-oxide semiconductor
cutoff frequency
frequency-division multiplex
field-effect transistor
FEE fast Fourier transform
FIFO first in, first out
FLOTOX floating gate tunnel oxide
FM frequency modulation
FPLA field-programmable logic array
RPLE field-programmable logic family
FPLS field programmable logic switch
F-PROM field-programmable read-only memory
resonant frequency
FSA formater/sense amplifier

conductance, giga as in gigahertz (GHz) ~,

mutual conductance (transconductance) of tubes and field-effect
transistors
~“
germanium
general-purpose interface bus

henry (magnetizing flux)

high-density complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
hybrid integrated circuit
high-noise-immunity logic
high-performance metal-oxide semiconductor
high-threshold logic
high voltage
hertz (frequency in cycles per s)
 LETTER SYMBOLS 313

TABLE 12-1. continued

current
capacitive current
instantaneous capacitive current
integrated circuit
iridium-crystal display
in-circuit emulator
interrupted continuous waves
infused emitter coupling
intermediate frequency
insulated-gate field-effect transistor
institute of high fidelity
inductive current
instantaneous inductive current
integrated injection logic
maximum current
input/output
plate current (primary I)
current through resistance
infrared
instantaneous resistive current
secondary current
total current

imaginary-number operator in rectangular notation

joule (work, energy, etc.)
JFET junction field-effect transistor
junction isolation

coefficient of coupling, dielectric constant

degrees Kelvin
kilohertz (frequency in thousands of cycles per second)

(lambda) wavelength
inductance, inductor
light-activated programmable unijunction transistor
light-activated silicon controlled rectifier
inductance-capacitance
liquid-crystal display
inductance-capacitance-resistance
light-dependent resistor
light-emitting diode
314 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-1. continued

LIC linear integrated circuit

LIFO last in, first out
LOCMOS local-oxidation complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
LPC linear predictive coding
LSB least significant bit
LSI large-scale integration
LS (TTL) low-power Schottky (transistor-transistor logic)
L,
total inductance
LVI . low-voltage inverter (logic)
LVR longitudinal video recorder

a constant used in filter design, also milli

mutual inductance
megabit
molecular-beam epitaxy
megabit bubble memory
microprocessor control unit
modulated continuous wave
multi-drain metal-oxide semiconductor
microprocessor development system
millihenry
megahertz (frequency in millions of cycles per second)
metal insulator silicon
meter-kilogram-second system
MLA microprocessor language assembler
MLE microprocessor language editor
MNOS metal-nitride-oxide semiconductor
modem modulator /demodulator
MOS metal -oxide semiconductor
~
MOSFET metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
MPU microprocessor unit r
MPX
(or MUX) multiplex
MCR multiple register counter
MSB most significant bit
MSI medium-scale integration
MSW magneto static wave
MTL merged-transistor logic (same as I?L)
MUX
(or MPX) multiplex
be (mu) micro (as in 4“F), also amplification factor
 LETTER SYMBOLS 315

So ee ee ee ee
TABLE 12-1. continued

NDRO nondestructive readout

NMOS n-channel metal-oxide semiconductor
number of turns in primary
non-return to zero
non-return to zero inverted
number of turns in secondary

(omega) angular velocity (6.28f)

(omega) ohms
optical character recognition
original-equipment manufacturer
optical video disc (laser)

(pi) 3.1416
pico, as in picofarads (pF)
power
programmable-array logic
pulse amplitude modulation
apparent power
program-aid routine
average power
printed circuit
printed-circuit board
pulse-code modulation
double polysilicon complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
pulse duration modulation
percentage of efficiency
peripheral interface adapter
peripheral interface unit
peak inverse voltage
programmable logic array
phase-locked loop
p-channel metal-oxide semiconductor
point-of-sale terminal
pulse position modulation
page-replacement algorithm and control logic
programmable read-only memory
phase-shift key (modulator)
phase-shift keyed modulation
programmable unijunction transistor
316 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-1. continued

Q charge, quality, coulomb

QTAT quick turn-around time

R resistor, resistance
RALU register (and) arithmetic logic unit
RAM random-access memory
RCTL resistor-capacitor-transistor logic
R&D research and development
RF radio frequency
RFC radio-frequency choke
RFI radio-frequency interference
RIM read-in mode
Ry load resistance or load resistor
RMM read-mostly mode
rms root mean square
ROM read-only memory
rpm revolutions per minute
RTL resistor-transistor logic
R/W read/write

SAW surface-acoustic wave (devices)

SBS silicon bilateral switch
SCA subsidiary communications authority
SCR silicon controlled rectifier
SDFL Schottky-diode field-effect-transistor logic
SDLC synchronous data-link control
SHF super-high frequency ;
‘ 46 ™
Si silicon
SIP single in-line package
SLIC subscriber-loop interface circuit .
S/N signal-to-noise ratio
SOS silicon on sapphire
S/R-D synchro/resolver-to-digital (converter)
SSB single sideband
SSI small-scale integration
SSR solid-state relay
STT studio-to-transmitter
SUS silicon unilateral switch
SW short wave, switch
SWR standing-wave ratio
 LETTER SYMBOLS 317

TABLE 12-1. continued

(tau) time constant

time
time duration (or time division) modulation
total harmonic distortion
transistor-transistor logic
(see D-MOS)
transistor-resistor logic
transistor-transistor logic
teletypewriter
television
(theta) phase angle

universal asynchronous receiver /transmitter

ultra high frequency
universal receiver clock
universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver /transmitter
universal synchronous receiver /transmitter
universal transmitter clock

volt, voltage
voltage-controlled oscillator
video cassette recorder
video display generator
video high-density disc
very high frequency
very high-speed integrated circuit
very large-scale integration
volt per meter (field strength)
V-groove metal-oxide semiconductor
pinch-off voltage (or ve)
voltage standing-wave ratio
variable-threshold logic
volume unit

watt, power
wafer-scale integration

reactance
capacitive reactance
inductive reactance
XMOS high-speed metal-oxide semiconductor
318 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-1. continued

Y admittance

th impedance
ZIF zero-insertion force
load impedance
-MOS (see D-MOS)
characteristic impedance (surge impedance)
primary impedance
total impedance
secondary impedance

TABLE 12-2. Transistor Parameter and Miscellaneous Symbols

Note: Generally, in the following the subscript letters that are capitalized indicate
dc or static conditions; for example, h,, and h,,. (On occasion, the first letter may appear
as an uppercase one, as H_,. Lower case subscripts refer to ac signal-current ratios (h,»> ha»
etc.).)
mon emitter :
h, Com es! Small-signal forward current
hy Common ak transfer ratio
hA Common collector
hg Common emitter dc forward-current transfer ratio
h oe Common base dc forward-current transfer ratio
h, Common emitter :
h., Common base Small-signal input impedance
h. Common collector
ne Common emitter
h,, Common base Output .qdmittance
h.. Common collector
h Common emitter ,
re Small-sjgnal reverse voltage
h Common base :
rb transfer ratio
h,. Common collector
I° Collector current (rms)
~.
°
Collector current (instantaneous)
>
Base current (rms)
i Base current (instantaneous)
I, Emitter current (rms)
i. Emitter current (instantaneous)
BV Breakdown voltage
V Emitter-base voltage
 PARAMETER AND MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS 319

—e,«vKéb—R—e—ere-_—_—X—
C ——— —O

TABLE 12-2. continued

ee ae

Collector-emitter voltage
Collector-base voltage
Gate-to-source voltage

TABLE 12-3. FET Parameter and Miscellaneous Symbols

V DD Drain voltage (high) Most positive voltage applied to

unit, such as +9V
V.SS Source voltage Most negative supply potential
applied and used as reference
for other voltages (generally
indicative of ground reference)
Input voltage (high) High-logic level range of input V
Input voltage (low) Low-logic level range of input V
Minimum input voltage (high) Minimum permitted input high-
logic level
Maximum input voltage (low) Maximum permitted input low-
logic level
Output voltage (high) Range of voltages at output ter-
minal with specified output
load and given supply poten-
tial (Inputs conditioned for
high-logic level at output)
OL
Output voltage (low) Range of voltages at output ter-
minal with specified output
load and a given value of sup-
ply potential (Unit inputs are
set for low-logic level at out-
put)
Input current Current flow into unit at a given
input voltage and V,,,
Output current (high) Drive flow out of unit at given
output voltage (logic high)
and V,,
Output current (low) Drive current flow into unit at
given output EF (logic low) and
V DD
320 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-3. continued

ees Quiescent value of Current flow into drain

supply source I terminal at given input signal
and established V,,, values
a Transition time, Time between two specified
low to high reference points (usually given
between 10 and 90 percent) on
a waveform change from low
to high
ann _ Transition time, Time between two specified
high to low reference points (usually 90
and 10 percent) on a wave-
form changing from high to
low
Common source
| Small-signal FET input
Common gate
admittance
Common drain
Common source
Common gate FET output admittance
Common drain
Common source |
FET forward-transfer
Common gate :
admittance
Common drain
Common source
FET reverse transfer
Common gate
admittance
ig
Na
nies
atin
Po
a Common drain

Some program language titles are eponyms Tather than acronyms.

Eponyms are the names of persons. Thus, the Pascal computer program-
ming language is an eponym since it uses the namé of the famous French
mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), an early pioneer in mathemati-
cal logic.
In addition to the acronyms, Table 12-4 is essentially a listing of
common definitions of electronic terms. While complete coverage would
entail a dictionary-type text, the definitions contained herein comprise
many that need to be referenced on occasion because of their common
and wide usage. If more information is needed than that provided by the
listings in the tables in this chapter, reference should be made to the in-
dex for the exact page number that provides detailed data.
 DEFINITIONS 321

ee
TABLE 12-4. Definitions of Commonly Used Words and Phrases

ADA A special computer-programming language containing some

structured design from the Pascal computer language plus aspects
that considerably widen its application possibilities. The word Ada
is an eponym for Augusta Ada Byron, who programmed one of the
first computers (Charles Babbage’s “difference engine’’).
Addend A number to be added. In setting one number above the other
the addend is usually the upper one.
Admittance The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (symbol Y).
(See Sec. 1-12.)
Air Gap The air space between segments of inductor cores. The gap be-
tween special electrodes for the discharge of excessive-amplitude
potentials.
ALGOL An acronym derived from the first letters of the phrase alge-
braic-oriented language. It is a computer-programming process.
Algorithm In computer operations, the methodology used for setting
up a mathematical equation.
Allophone A variation of a phenome, such as the aspirated p of pill or
the unaspirated p of spill.
Amplifier In electronics, a circuit that increases the amplitude of an in-
put signal. (See Chap. 2.)
Amplitude Modulation The earliest type of modulation system com-
monly employed for radio broadcasting (public entertainment). It
is also used for picture-information broadcasting in television. The
carrier signal is modulated by the low-frequency signals so that the
composite waveform produced has an amplitude that varies above
and below the normal carrier amplitude level at a rate and ampli-
tude change corresponding to the modulating signal.
Analog Meter A test instrument providing a display by physical move-
ment of an indicator device as opposed to the digital display me-
ters. (See Sec. 9-1.)
and Circuit See Coincidence Gate
Angstrom Unit In the measurement of a wavelength of light, one ang-
strom =" 10-%em:
Angular Velocity A term identifying the expression 27f (6.28f). The
symbol is w. (See Sec. 1-16.)
Anode That element of a solid-state diode (or tube) that forms one of
the conducting elements. The anode potential must be positive with
respect to the cathode element for current conduction.
322 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Antiskate A term relating to the balancing out of the lateral force ap-
plied to a phonograph needle (and hence the phonograph cartridge
and tone arm) as the record grooves apply pressure to the needle
during playback. The antiskate assembly is a mechanical arrange-
ment producing a counterforce that is adjustable for the particular
tracking force used. Hence the device minimizes skating (sliding) of
the needle over the record’s surface (assuming the turntable level
for width and depth is properly adjusted).
APL Language A computer programming process. APL is derived
from the first letters of A Programming Language. Alphanumeric
designations and special symbols are utilized.
Apparent Power The electric ac power represented by EI without con-
sidering any possible phase difference between voltage and current.
(See Sec. 1-1.)
Armstrong Oscillator An oscillator utilizing a pick-up inductor coupled
from the output resonant circuit to the input terminal of the tran-
sistor. The feedback loop forms a continuous energy interchange
between output and input systems to sustain oscillations. (See Sec.
2-26.)
Assembler A program for translating a mnemonic program into ma-
chine (computer) language.
Attenuator A circuit composed of resistors and/or other components
for diminishing the amplitude of signals. (See Sec. 3-8.)
Augend A number to be added. In setting one number above the other
the augend is usually the lower one.
Auto Transformer A transformer having a single coil to which the pri-
mary ac is applied and having taps to furnish the secondary poten-
tials.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) A circuit which*obtains a voltage from
the detector system for gain control purposes. The signal is filtered
to produce a dc level proportional to the amplitude of the incom-
ing RF signal and uses this de as a corrective bias for the IF am-
plifier stages. The system minimizes gain variations for stations of
different signal strength. If a stronger station is tuned in, the AGC
bias reduces the gain of the IF stages and corrects for an increase
above the level preset by the viewer.
Automatic Volume Control (AGC) A circuit which obtains a voltage
 DEFINITIONS 323

a
TABLE 12-4. continued

from the detector system for volume-control purposes. The system

operates in the same manner as the AGC described above.
Average Value That value of ac obtained when signal alternations are
divided into a number of ordinates and the amplitudes averaged
out. (See Sec. 1-13.)
Back EMF Back electromotive force (counter emf) is the potential
generated in an inductor during alternating-current flow through it.
The back emf opposes the source voltage and current change.
Balanced Modulator A symmetrical circuit utilized to modulate a carri-
er, generate sidebands and suppress the original carrier plus the
modulating signal. (See Sec. 3-15.)
Bandpass Amplifier A circuit utilized in color television receivers for
increasing the signal gain of the color video signals while at the
same time preventing passage of synchronization and blanking sig-
nals that would cause interference if applied to the picture tube cir-
cuitry. (See Sec. 2-23.)
Bar Code _A code consisting of parallel heavy and light lines of varying
spacing representing coded characters that are read by an electron-
ic scanning device.
Bar Generator See Crosshatch Generator.
Base Terminal That element of a transistor commonly used for signal-
input purposes.
BASIC An acronym derived from the first letters of the phrase begin-
ners’ all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It is a computer-pro-
gramming language.
Batch Processing The handling in sequence of a number of stored pro-
grams in a computer.
Baud The number of times per second that the computer line condition
changes. For a line condition representative of 1 or 0 the presence
or absence of a bit indicates that the signaling speed in bauds is
identical to the bits per second rate.
Beat Frequency The frequency of the signal generated as the result of
mixing (heterodyning) two signals of different frequencies.
Bel The unit value representing the difference between two powers,
voltages, or currents. One-tenth of a bel is the commonly used ex-
pression decibel.
324 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Bessel Functions A mathematical process utilized to indicate the num-

ber of significant sidebands in FM. (See Sec. 7-7.)
Beta (B) Current gain in a common-emitter transistor amplifier.
Bias The potential applied between elements of a semiconductor (or
tube) to establish a predetermined operating level.
Binary-coded Decimal A term relating to the mefhod whereby each
decimal number is coded in terms of its binary equivalent. (See Sec.
5-2.)
Binary Notation The base-2 arithmetic system where only O and 1 is
utilized. (See Sec. 5-1.)
Biquinary A coding system wherein dual groups of binary bits are used
to reduce the number of computer counter circuits required for
decimal-coded binary. (See Sec. 5-7.)
Bit In binary notation a bit is either a 1 or a 0.
Block Oriented Refers to a random-access memory that can be sequen-
tially read out or data inserted in sequential form.
Blocking Oscillator A signal generator of the nonresonant type
establishing frequency by circuit resistance and inductance and/or
capacitance. (See Sec. 2-34.)
Bridge Circuits A circuit utilizing components in a symmetrical forma-
tion for measurement purposes or for production of full wave recti-
fication. (See Secs. 2-39 and 9-7.)
BSAL_ An acronym derived from the phrase block structured assembly
language. It is a computer programming process specifically
designed for microprocessors.
Bubble Storage Computer memory device pe Me
magnetic bubbles on
moving magnetic domains.
Buffer Stage A circuit between amplifier stages for isolation of specific
signals or transients. -
Burst-Gate Circuit A circuit utilized in color television receivers for
gating the 3.58-MHz synchronizing burst signal at time intervals
required.
Burst Signal A short-duration signal utilized primarily as a synchro-
nizing signal. In color television an eight-cycle signal having a fre-
quency of 3.58 MHz is utilized to synchronize the subcarrier
oscillator of the receiver.
Byte A specific number of digital bits handled as a group in computer
data processing. Usually 8 bits comprise one byte or word.
 DEFINITIONS 325

a
TABLE 12-4. continued

C Language A computer programming language designed and formu-

lated by Bell Laboratories. It is a structured language retaining a
number of assembly-language features.
Candela The unit of luminous intensity in the International System of
Units. (See Sec. 7-21.)
Capacitance The quantity of electric charge that can be created in a ca-
pacitor for a given applied potential.
Capacitive Reactance The opposition created by a capacitor to the flow
of alternating current having a given signal frequency.
Capacitor A device capable of storing an electrostatic charge between
two conducting surfaces.
Capture Ratio The term refers to the ability of a receiver’s tuner to
pull in (capture) one station while rejecting another of nearly the
same frequency. A 1.5-dB capture ratio rating indicates the tuner
will not pass a station signal if it is 1.5 dB lower in signal strength
than the one to which the receiver is tuned. (A lower capture ratio
dB rating is the preferred.)
Cascade In electronics, the sequential linkages of circuits by coupling
the output of one stage to the input of the next.
Cassette A tape cartridge used for recording and playback purposes.
Cathode That element of a solid-state diode which has opposing electri-
cal characteristics to the anode. Also that element within a vacuum
or gas tube which emits electrons.
Celsius (Formerly centigrade.) A temperature reference related to Fahr-
enheit by °C = 5/9 (F — 32).
cgs Unit System An earlier measurement standard known as the centi-
meter-gram-second system. (See Sec. 7-20.)
Characteristic In mathematics, the whole-number portion of the
logarithm.
Characteristic Impedance A term referring to the impedance of a trans-
mission line having series inductor and resistive components, plus
shunt capacitance. (See Sec. 1-14.)
Charge Coupled Device A device that stores minority current carriers
in a potentially charged area and transfers such carriers from be-
neath one electrode area to an area beneath an adjacent electrode.
Chroma Signals The signals utilized in color television systems for con-
veying the color information.
326 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Clamper_ A circuit that locks in and holds to a predetermined level the

dc component of a signal waveform.
Class A Amplifier For Class A amplifier operation the bias is such that
operation is on the linear portion of the characteristic curve of the
transistor. The input signal does not have an amplitude that drives
the transistor to cutoff or to saturation. Class A provides for a
minimum of harmonic distortion compared to other classes. Con-
version of dc power to signal power (efficiency) is relatively low
and may range between 10 and 15%.
Class AB, Amplifier This type amplifier has a larger signal-input char-
acteristic than Class A and is used when a higher signal power out-
put is needed. Bias for Class AB, is usually set so that the zero-
signal idling current permits the input signal to swing the collector
(or drain) current to the cutoff point in one direction and to the
saturation level in the opposite direction. Class AB, has been exten-
sively used in audio-power output amplifiers. Distortion is higher
than Class A though it can be minimized by push-pull or comple-
mentary-symmetry operation. Efficiency runs between 20 and 35%
depending on bias, supply potentials, and transistors used. The
subscript 1 denotes that the input signal’s amplitude is held to a
level below where saturation occurs at one extreme and cutoff at
the other.
Class AB, Amplifier For this amplifier classification the input signal
has sufficient amplitude to drive the transistors output current into
the cutoff as well as the saturation region. Though output power
and efficiency are superior to the Class ‘AB, type, distortion is
higher because of operation on the nonlinear portion of the transis-
tor’s curve. The high amplitude of the input signal also causes
some signal clipping which adds to distortion. Push-pull or com-
plementary-symmetry operation is needed to keep distortion at low
levels. Efficiency ranges from 35 to 50% depending on potentials
and transistors utilized.
Class B Amplifier This type amplifier can be used as a single-ended
type for either audio or RF signals, though for audio the push-pull
or complementary-symmetry systems must be used if distortion is
to be kept at a minimum. Bias is set at approximately cutoff,
though often the projected cutoff point is used. The latter is the
point where the linear portion of the curve is projected downward
 DEFINITIONS 327

TABLE 12-4. continued

to meet the horizontal line of the graph of characteristic curves.

The latter point provides better performance and less distortion
than would otherwise be the case. Efficiency is between 60 and
70%. For RF signals the distortion is lower because of the resonant
circuitry.
Class C Amplifier The bias for this circuit is set beyond the transistor’s
cutoff point and collector (or drain) current flows for only a por-
tion of the applied input signal. Since some portions of the input
waveform are lost, this amplifier is not suitable for processing au-
dio signals, and is used exclusively for RF signals. With a well-
designed Class C stage, efficiency may exceed 90%. The flywheel ef-
fect of the resonant circuit reestablishes the pure sinewave signal
even though an input sinewave signal undergoes clipping.
Class D Amplifier This amplifier system is a special high-efficiency
type employing pulses in modulated form. For pulse modulating
purposes, several systems may be utilized and typical is the case
where pulses are given amplitude changes corresponding to the am-
plitude changes of the modulating signal. For audio such type am-
plification achieves a high degree of efficiency and signals can be
driven into higher peak-current amplitudes than is possible with
amplifiers of the Class A, AB and B varieties. (See Sec. 8-9.)
Clipper A circuit that eliminates peak portions of signal waveforms for
purposes of amplitude reduction, overshoot elimination, or suppres-
sion of noise and transients. (See Secs. 3-4 and 3-5.)
Clock Pulses In digital systems the precisely-timed pulse signals gener-
ated by the fundamental signal source. (See Sec. 6-17.)
COBOL An acronym derived from the first letters of the phrase com-
mon business oriented language. It is a computer-programming
method.
CODEC This word is derived from coder-decoder. A typical example
is a device for converting analog signals to digital data.
Coefficient of Coupling (k) A term relating to the percentage of coil in-
teraction when inductors are coupled. (See Sec. 1-3.)
Coincidence Gate A digital logic circuit necessitating input-signal coin-
cidence to obtain an output. (See Sec. 6-3.)
Collector Terminal That terminal of a bipolar junction transistor that
often forms part of the output circuit.
Cologarithm The logarithm of the reciprocal of a given number.
328 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Colpitts Oscillator An oscillator wherein the resonant circuit capaci-

tance is formed by dual capacitors having a common stator shaft
placed at signal ground. Thus, the resonant circuit is effectively
split into two sections that couple output signals back to the input
for sustained oscillations. (See Sec. 2-28.)
Combining Circuits A circuit for inserting at precise time intervals a
new group of signals within a given signal train. (See Sec. 3-14.)
Common Base Circuit A circuit wherein the base terminal of the tran-
sistor is placed at signal ground. The input signal is applied be-
tween the emitter and base and the output obtained from the
collector section. There is no phase reversal between input and out-
put signals. Another term for this system is the grounded base
circuit.
Common Collector Circuit A circuit wherein the collector terminal of
the transistor is placed at signal ground. The input signal is ap-
plied between base and emitter. The output signal is obtained from
across the emitter resistor. This circuit is also known as the emit-
ter-follower circuit because the output phase of the signal follows
that of the input signal.
Common-Drain Circuit A circuit wherein the drain terminal of a tran-
sistor is placed at signal ground. The input signal is applied be-
tween gate and source terminals. The output. signal is obtained
from across the source resistor. This circuit is also known as the
source follower circuit because the output phase of the signal follows
that of the input signal.
Common-Emitter Circuit A circuit wherein the emitter terminal of the
transistor is placed at signal ground. The cea signal is applied be-
tween base and emitter and the output obtained from the collector
section. There is a 180° phase reversal between input and output
signals. Another term for this system is the grounded emitter
circuit.
Common-Gate Circuit A circuit wherein the gate terminal of an FET is
placed at signal ground. The input signal is applied between the
source and gate terminals and the output obtained from the drain
section. There is no phase reversal between input and output sig-
nals. Another term for this system is the grounded gate circuit.
Common-Source Circuit A circuit wherein the source terminal of an
FET is placed at signal ground. The input signal is applied be-
 DEFINITIONS 329

ee
TABLE 12-4. continued

tween gate and source and the output obtained from the drain sec-
tion. There is a 180° phase reversal between input and output
signals. Another term for this system is the grounded source circuit.
Compander An electronic circuit that compresses the dynamic audio
range to accommodate the extremes of loud and soft audio within
a given medium. (See also Expander.)
Compiler A program designed to translate a high-level computer pro-
gramming language into machine (computer) language.
Complement Number In digital logic systems the complement is an in-
verse representation such as binary 0101 for 1010, or in the deci-
mal system 3194 for 6805. For the latter the representation is in
nine’s complement, while the former is one’s complement.
Complementary-symmetry A term usually applied to an audio amplifier
utilizing complementary transistors (npn and pnp) in a symmetrical
circuit for increasing audio power output and reducing signal dis-
tortion.
Compliance The inherent mobility of a phonograph needle and car-
tridge assembly during record playback. Compliance is the ability
of a phonograph needle to comply with the variations within the rec-
ord grooves that produce the sound. Greater compliance provides
for improved reproduction of a broad frequency span of signals. A
cartridge rating of 35 x 10-° represents excellent compliance and
is somewhat superior to another having a rating of 15 x 10-°.
Compression In audio the limiting of amplitude excursions of soft and
loud sounds. In speech synthesis the process of compacting a
group of signals into a shorter time span.
Concatenation In speech synthesis, the linking or connecting in series
of certain sounds.
Conductance The symbol G is used for conductance. The latter is the
reciprocal of resistance. (See Sec. 1-12.)
Conductivity The ability of a conductor to pass current.
Contact Potential A term identifying the voltage established by placing
into contact two dissimilar metals.
Continuous Wave The term applied to a continuous-amplitude un-
modulated RF waveform. The term is also applied to the transmis-
sion of such a signal in Morse code form.
Control Grid That element in a gas or vacuum tube to which the input
signal is usually applied. The grid is adjacent to the cathode and
330 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

the amplitude and polarity of the potential applied to the grid con-
trols electron flow.
Cosine In a right triangle the ratio of the adjacent side over the hypot-
enuse.
Coulomb The unit for the quantity of electric charge. It represents that
quantity of electrons representing one ampere of current flow past
a given point in one second.
Coupling The linkage formed between circuits or systems.
Critical Coupling In resonant circuits, that degree of coupling produc-
ing the maximum peak of energy transfer at the resonant frequency
of the applied signal.
Cross Neutralization The type of neutralization typical in dual-transis-
tor push-pull RF amplifiers that couples a portion of the output
signal of each transistor to the input circuit of the other.
Crosshatch Generator A signal generator producing vertical and hori-
zontal display lines on a television screen for test purposes. (See
Sec. 9-11.)
Crossover Frequency That frequency, in a multiple-speaker audio sys-
tem, where equal signal amplitude prevails at both the high- and
low-frequency sections.
Crystal Oscillator An oscillator having a quartz crystal as part of the
frequency-determining circuit for improved operating stability. (See
Sec. 2-29.) .
Current Feedback A system where the feedback signal voltage is pro-
portional to the amount of signal current.
Cutoff Frequency The signal frequency in a spégcial circuit or filter be-
yond which point all signals are abruptly diminished or eliminated
in amplitude.
CW Transmission The type of transmission known as continuous wave
consisting of short and long duration signals having a continuous
and constant amplitude and unmodulated by audio tones. (See Sec.
8-7.)
Cycle Any two successive signal alternations (of opposing polarity) in
alternating current.
Damping Factor A term relating to the ability of an amplifier-speaker
assembly to suppress in rapid fashion the cone motion once the ac-
tuating signal has dropped to zero. A factor of 45 is superior to a
lower value such as 20. A high damping factor reduces the sound
 DEFINITIONS 331

TABLE 12-4. continued

hangover (wherein tones tend to fade out slowly or hang over be-
yond the cessation point of the initiating signal).
Darlington Amplifier A dual-transistor assembly with an emitter fol-
lower circuit of the first transistor feeding the base input of the sec-
ond. It features exceptionally high gain and has an impedance
stepdown characteristic. It is an efficient driver with low supply
potentials. (See Sec. 2~20.)
de Amplifier Direct-current amplifier.
De Morgan’s Theorem The duality condition established by the nega-
tion of some logic expressions. (See Sec. 6-11.)
Decibel (dB) The decibel is a unit of difference in levels of electronic
quantities. It is not a unit of measurement but rather compares
high and low levels of power, voltage, or current. The unit bel is
not used. Instead, one-tenth of a bel, the decibel is commonly used.
(See Secs. 1-7 and 7-1.)
Decoupling Circuit A network usually composed of a resistor and ca-
pacitor combination placed in a voltage feed line to isolate signal
components from the power supply. By preventing the power sup-
ply from acting as a common coupler, interaction among stages is
avoided and undue signal attenuation or regeneration is avoided.
The decoupling network provides a short return path for signal en-
ergy back to the transistor. (See Sec. 2-8.)
De-emphasis_ In public entertainment FM radio reception the reduction
of the excessive levels of high-frequency signals created at the
transmitter during pre-emphasis. The system raises the signal to
noise ratio. (See Sec. 3-9.)
Degeneration The attenuation of signal amplitude caused by inverse
feedback or other signal-diminishing factors.
Delay System A circuit used for delaying a signal for a specific time
interval compared to its normal mode. (See Sec. 3-13.)
Demodulator A circuit for extracting the original modulating signal
from the composite modulated carrier. (See Secs. 2-42 to 2-45.)
Denominator The quantity below the division line of a fraction, hence
that quantity by which the numerator is divided.
Detector See Demodulator.
Deviation Ratio In frequency modulation the ratio of the maximum
frequency deviation of the carrier to the highest frequency of mod-
ulation signal. (See Sec. 8-4.)
332 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Diac A dual diode unit used for power switching. Conduction occurs
when a predetermined voltage amplitude is reached, and either ac
or de can be gated. (See Sec. 2-41.)
Dielectric Constant (k) A reference of the characteristics of dielectric
material referenced in relation to air which has a k of 1, and all
other material having a higher constant. (See Table 7-12.)
Difference Frequency A signal obtained during the heterodyning of
two signals wherein the new signal has a frequency equal to the
difference between the two original signals.
Differential Amplifier A dual-transistor direct-coupled circuitry section
with a common emitter system. The differential amplifier has an
excellent signal bandpass, exceptional circuit stability, and a wide
range of application possibilities. It utilizes no capacitors or induc-
tors and is useful in forming amplifiers, mixers, limiters, modula-
tors, and signal frequency multipliers. (See Sec. 2-22).
Differentiation In electronics, the signal-modification circuit composed
of a series capacitor and a shunt resistor having a short time con-
stant in relation to the duration of input-pulse signals. The
differentiator circuit attenuates to a greater degree progressively
lower-frequency components. (See Sec. 3-2.)
Diffusion In IC fabrication a process utilizing high temperatures and a
shifting of specific densities of n-type or p-type impurity atoms into
the silicon slab for establishing specific electrical. characteristics.
DIN Dual input.
Direct Coupling The linkage of two circuits or systems without inter-
vening series components such as capacitors, inductors, or
resistors.
Discharge Circuit A circuit utilizing the charge and discharge charac-
teristics of a capacitor to form a sawtooth ‘signal. There is a slow
rise time compared to the abrupt decline of the amplitude. (See
Sec. 3-6.)
Discriminator See Phase Discriminator.
Distributed Capacitance That capacitance created between the turns
and layers of wire in an inductor.
Dolby System A patented noise-reduction system widely used in pub-
lic-entertainment electronic devices. It employs a dual process: the
increase in level in a group of high frequency signals during record-
 DEFINITIONS 333

TABLE 12-4. continued

ing (or transmission) and reversing the process during reception by

a matching decoder. (See Sec. 3-9.)
Drain Terminal The element (of a field-effect transistor) often utilized
for the output section of the circuit.
Dyne_ The unit of force in the centimeter-gram-second (cgs) system (see
Sec. 7-20). Dyne is that force required to produce, in a 1-gram
weight mass, an acceleration of 1 centimeter per second for every
second that the force is present.
Edison Effect The production of current flow between two vacuum-
tube elements. Electronics from a heated cathode of negative po-
tential, are attracted and flow to a positive-potential anode
structure.
Effective Value That value of ac capable of performing the same work
as an identical dc value. The effective value is ascertained by squar-
ing instantaneous value, adding the latter, and finding the average.
The square root of the latter is the effective value. (See Sec. 1-13.)
Electret A device made up of a material that retains an electric charge
permanently.
Electron Gun A term applied to the cylindrical electrode assembly that
forms and focuses the electron beam within a cathode-ray tube.
Emitter-Follower Circuit See Common-Collector Circuit.
Emitter Terminal One of the electrodes of the bipolar junction transis-
tor often used in conjunction with the collector for the output
system.
Encoder Disc A device used for the conversion of an analog function
into a digital representation. (See Sec. 5-11.)
Epitaxial In IC technology a multilayer structure.
Error-detection Codes Special codes so designed that they identify er-
rors in digital systems. (See Sec. 5-9.)
Etching A term used in the fabrication of integrated circuits that in-
volves applications of gas plasmas or acids to etch away undesired
materials from the surface of a semiconductor wafer.
Even-parity Code An error detecting code wherein all digits in the bi-
nary representation (including the parity digit) produce an even
number of 1’s. (See Sec. 5-9.)
Excess-Three Code A mathematical system wherein each number is
334 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

raised in value by three in relation to the decimal equivalent. (See

Sec. 5-6.)
Exclusive-or Gate <A logic circuit such as one that produces an output
for an A or B input but no output when both A and B inputs pre-
vail. (See Sec. 6-12.)
Expander An electronic circuit that expands to the normal level the
dynamic audio range that had been compressed by a compander.
Exponent. A number, letter, or other symbol placed at the upper right
of a number, letter, etc. to indicate the number of times the num-
ber (or symbol) is to be taken as a factor.
Fahrenheit A temperature measurement related to Celsius by “F =
GXxE@) 032.
Farad The unit of capacitance. (In practical electronics only fractional
values are utilized.)
FDM Transmission A term relating to frequency-division multiplexing
wherein several bands are used for the transmission of differing
modulations. (See Sec. 8-12.)
Ferrite <A brittle compound of ferromagnetic materials used for high-Q
core materials for inductors.
Ferro-Magnetic Materials Those magnetic materials having a high de-
gree of permeability.
Fiber Optics The system of using special light-wave: carrying fibers for
the propagation of data.
Field-effect Transistor A transistor formed by the metal-oxide semi-
conductor process.
Fifty-dB Quieting A term referring to the standard generally accepted
for indicating the degree of noise suppression necessary for high-fi-
delity performance. Stereo reception requires more signal strength
than mono to achieve 50-dB quieting.
Filament In a gas or vacuum tube that electrode which is heated to
produce electron emission directly, or indirectly by heating a sepa-
rate cathode. (The filament is also termed a heater.)
Flip-flop Circuit A symmetrical circuit that produces an output signal
only when its bistable state is changed by an input signal. (See Sec.
6-15.)
Floating-Gate Transistor A transistor designed primarily for computer-
storage systems.
 DEFINITIONS 335

a
TABLE 12-4. continued

Floppy Dise A flexible circular disc similar to phonograph records used

for data storage in computer systems. A disc slightly larger than
five inches can store well over 100 k-bytes of data.
Flywheel Effect A term describing the continuous interchange of elec-
tric energy between the storage capabilities of a capacitor and in-
ductor in a parallel-resonant circuit.
Formant In speech synthesis, any one of a group of frequency bands of
signal amplitudes that combine to form the particular characteris-
tics of a vocal sound.
FORTH A computer-programming language developed by Forth Inc.
It permits the user to customize the system by adding and defining
new commands.
FORTRAN An acronym derived from the first letters of the phrase for-
mula translator. FORTRAN is a computer-programming language.
Forward Bias A bias potential applied to semiconductor elements in
such a manner that the bias polarity coincides with that of the p-n
zones.
Forward-Current Transfer Ratio The ratio of the signal-current gain of
a transistor circuit taken between the input and output circuitry.
(See Beta.)
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) See Telemetry.
Frequency Modulation The modification of an RF carrier signal by a
low-frequency signal to convey information. The frequency of the
carrier is shifted above and below its unmodulated or resting fre-
quency at a rate corresponding to the frequency of the modulating
signal. The extent of carrier deviation is determined by the ampli-
tude of the modulating signal. (See Sec. 8-3.)
Full-wave Power Supply A power supply circuit for converting the al-
ternating line current to direct current by utilizing successive alter-
nations of the ac input. (See Sec. 2-36.)
Function Generator An instrument that produces precisely formed sig-
nals controlled with respect to frequency and waveshape. (See Sec.
9-16.)
Gate Terminal That terminal in a field-effect transistor usually
employed in the signal-input circuitry. The term is also applied to
switching devices such as the silicon-controlled rectifier and switch-
ing diodes.
336 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Gating Circuits Circuits that insert specific signals into an existing sig-
nal train, or circuits that switch power at specific intervals. (See
Secs. 2-41 and 3-14.)
Gauss The unit of flux density in the cgs system
of units. (See Sec.
7-20.)
Gilbert The magnetomotive force in the cgs system of units. (See Sec.
7-20.)
Glitch An undesired pulse, transient, or other signal in a digital
system.
Gray Code A special code wherein only one digit changes for each nu-
merical value increase. (See Sec. 5—5.)
Grounded-Base Circuit See Common-Base Circuit.
Grounded Collector A circuit wherein the collector element of the tran-
sistor is placed at signal ground and the output signal is from the
emitter element. (See also Emitter-Follower.)
Grounded Drain A circuit using a field-effect transistor in which the
drain element is placed at signal ground. (See Common-Source
Circuit.)
Grounded-Emitter Circuit See Common-Emitter Circuit.
Grounded-Gate Circuit See Common-Gate Circuit.
Grounded-Source Circuit See Common-Source Circuit.
Half-wave Power Supply A circuit for converting the alternating line
current to direct current by utilizing every other alternation of the
ac input. (See Sec. 2-35.)
Hall Effect A term referring to the voltage developed between the
edges of a crystal slab (of indium arsenidés for instance) that is
subjected to a magnetic field. This voltage develops when current
is passed through the crystal structure and the voltage forms at
right angles points to the direction of current flow. The developed
voltage is proportional to the product of the magnetic field (H)
and the current (J).
Hardware In computer terminology, the peripheral equipment such as
readers, storage devices, etc. as distinguished from software such as
computer programs.
Harmonic Distortion (HD) Undesired alterations of a given signal dur-
ing amplification or routing with a resultant poor-quality signal
output. Harmonic distortion relates to spurious signals harmonical-
ly related to the original signal. Harmonic distortion is given in
 DEFINITIONS 337

TABLE 12-4. continued

percentage related to the total signal amplitude. Such distortion

ratings may be given as a percentage for several signal frequencies,
or for the total frequency span of the receiver or amplifier. A typi-
cal example is 0.2 percent for 20 Hz to 20 kHz. See also
Intermodulation Distortion.
Hartley Oscillator An oscillator wherein the resonant-circuit inductor
has a center tap to ground that effectively splits the resonant cir-
cuit into two sections. The dual sections couple output signals back
to the input for sustained oscillations. (See Sec. 2-27.)
Henry The unit of inductance in the International System of Units.
(See Sec. 7-21.)
Hertz (Hz) A word designating the number of cycles per second in
electricity and electronics.
Heterodyne The electronic mixing of two signals having different fre-
quencies in a non-linear circuit. The process produces a third signal
having a frequency equaling the difference between the original sig-
nals. The new signal is termed the intermediate-frequency (IF)
signal.
Hexadecimal Notation A system in arithmetic using base-16 notation.
(See Sec. 5-3.)
High Fidelity An audio amplifying or processing system that has an
output response extending from approximately 20 MHz to 20 kHz,
with negligible harmonic distortion.
Hole Flow Current carriers in semiconductor devices. In solid-state
electronics, hole flow occurs below the conduction band of the
atom and the direction of flow is opposite to that of electron flow.
Hypotenuse The side opposite the right angle in a right triangle.
Hysteresis In magnetic materials the characteristic of the flux density
lagging the magnetizing force.
I and Q Signals Two color signal components obtained (in color trans-
mitting circuitry) for eliminating one signal of the red, blue, and
green signals needed for color. In addition, the color subcarrier is
also suppressed to conserve spectrum space. (See Secs. 2-45 and
2-46.)
ICW Transmission The type of transmission known as interrupted con-
tinuous waves consisting of an amplitude-modulated carrier that is
broken up into Morse-code segments. (See Sec. 8-7.)
IHF Sensitivity A term referring to the characteristics of a radio re-
338 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

ceiver’s tuner. The sensitivity indicates the ~4V required at the tun-
er’s input to obtain an output signal having less than 3 percent
distortion and noise. (IHF refers to the Institute of High Fidelity.)
The sensitivity for a stereo tuner is below that of a mono tuner.
The lower figure ratings are superior: a 1.8-V sensitivity is better
than a 1.9 uV rating. .
Image Rejection The ability of a receiver’s tuner to reject image-fre-
quency signals. The latter are produced by the heterodyning of the
signal produced by the tuner’s oscillator with that of an undesired
signal picked up by the tuner. The higher the dB rating the better
the rejection characteristics. (A rating of 100 dB is superior to one
of 90 dB.)
Impedance This unit has for its symbol Z and is the amount of opposi-
tion in ohms offered to ac by a combination of reactance and resis-
tance. (See Secs. 1-5 and 1-14.) ?
Inductive Reactance The opposition created by an inductor to the flow
of alternating current having a given signal frequency.
Injection-logic Circuit A circuit using two transistors with complemen-
tary characteristics, one of which consists of a multiple-emitter in-
put section. The symbol is I?L.
Integrated Circuit A term referring to a micro-miniaturized electronic
circuit system utilizing a semiconductor chip.
Integration In electronics, a signal-modification circuit composed of a
series resistor and a shunt capacitor having a long time constant in
relation to the duration of input-pulse signals. The integrator cir-
cuit attenuates to a greater degree progressiyely higher-frequency
components. (See Sec. 3-1.)
Interface In computer technology, the linking of compatible peripheral
equipment. ‘
Intermediate Frequency (IF) See Heterodyne.
Intermodulation Distortion (IM) This term refers to the type distortion
caused by the undesired electronic mixing (heterodyning) of two
primary signals. Equipment ratings are given in the percentage of
IM in relation to the total signal amplitude. See also Harmonic
Distortion.
Inverse Feedback A feedback circuit which samples a portion of the
output signals from a system for transfer back to an earlier stage.
The feedback is to a point where fed back signals are out of phase
 DEFINITIONS 339

a a a re
TABLE 12-4. continued

with existing signals. The system increases frequency response and

stability while reducing harmonic distortion. Amplification is de-
creased in proportion to the amplitude of the degenerative signal
fed back. (See Sec. 2-19.)
Ionosphere Ionized layers above the earth’s surface that affect high-fre-
quency communications, both reception and transmission, depend-
ing on the density and position of the ionized layers. The original
term was Kennelly-Heaviside layer.
j Operator The lower-case letter j is used in electronic math as a sub-
stitute for i (imaginary number). The symbol / indicates an opera-
tor used in rectangular notation. (See Sec. 1-11.)
J-K Flip-Flop A bistable logic circuit so named because input lines are
designated by the letters J and K. (See Sec. 6-16.)
Joule The unit of energy, work, or quantity of heat.
Junction Transistor A transistor formed by combining n and p zones
of semiconductor material.
Kelvin An absolute-temperature scale related to the Celsius scale by °K
=a Cae St
Kilohertz A frequency of 1000 cycles per second (kHz).
Latch A circuit switching mode that locks in a predetermined state.
Limiter See Clipper.
Linear-predictive Coding A speech synthesis technique for generating
the natural resonances of human speech by using established char-
acteristics for determining filter coefficients.
Lisp A computer programming language particularly useful in process-
ing lists of data. Also of value in computer-aided design, and re-
search in artificial intelligence technology of computers.
Lissajous Figures Signal patterns showing phase displacement. (See
Sec. 9-10.)
Logarithm The exponent to which a base is raised to obtain a number
is the logarithm of that number.
Logic Gates Switching circuits that gate signals in or out of other cir-
cuits or systems in a logical operational process.
Logical Connective In digital logic systems an arithmetic sign used to
identify the type logic. The plus sign identifies an or gate (A+B)
and a multiplication sign identifies an and gate (A-B).
Lumen The unit reference in the International System of Units for the
flux of light.
340 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Luminance Signals In television systems, the signals that are equivalent

to the black-and-white picture information.
Lux The unit of illumination in the International System of Units.
(See Sec. 7-21.)
Magnetometer A device that produces an output signal when a mag-
netic field is impressed.
Magnetoresistive Effect This term relates to the Hall-effect device
wherein the resistive characteristics are altered by the application
of a magnetic field.
Magnetostrictive Effect A term relating to the change in length of cer-
tain metals when magnetized.
Mainsail A computer programming language designed for specialized
applications such as computer-aided design.
Majority Carriers In semiconductor electronics, the term identifying
the primary current-movement process. For- a pnp transistor the
chief current carriers are the electronic hole configurations.
Mantissa In mathematics, the decimal fraction portion of a logarithm.
Masking A term used in the fabrication of integrated circuits where
glass plates or chrome sections are formed that have circuit pat-
terns involving a single layer of the wafer.
Matrix Circuit A circuit utilizing electronic components for mixing
quantities of signals to produce a desired output signal. (See Sec.
2-46.)
Maxwell The unit of magnetic flux in the cgs system of units. (See Sec.
7-20.)
Minuend A number from which another number isto be subtracted.
mks Unit System An earlier measurement standard known as the me-
ter-kilogram-second system. (See Sec. 7-20.) ,
Mnemonic Coding This term applies to a computer symbolic program
language designed as an aid to memory, such as DIV for divide,
and MPY for multiply.
Modulation Index A term used in frequency modulation that relates to
the ratio of the frequency deviation of the carrier to the frequency
of the modulating signal. (See Sec. 8-4.)
Module A printed-circuit board containing ICs and electronic compo-
nents that combine to make up a section of a complete system.
Monolithic Comprising a single type or layer in IC technology.
Morse Code _A system of identifying numerals and the letters of the al-
 DEFINITIONS 341

i a
TABLE 12-4. continued

phabet by assigning combinations of dots and dashes. Used in te-

legraphy. (See Table 7-28.)
Multiplexing The process of utilizing several bands to transmit two or
more modulating signals. In addition to a primary RF carrier, sev-
eral subcarriers are utilized which, in turn, modulate the primary
carrier. (See Sec. 8-12.)
Multiplicand That number which is multiplied by another.
Multivibrator A signal generator of the non-resonant type establishing
frequency by circuit resistance and inductance and/or capacitance.
(See Sec. 2-33.)
Mutual Conductance That inductance created when two coils are elec-
tromagnetically coupled. One henry of mutual inductance is creat-
ed when one ampere of ac in the primary coil induces one volt of
ac across the secondary coil.
Mutual Inductance (M) A term relating to the additional inductance
produced by the coupling of two or more inductors. (See Sec. 1-3.)
nand Circuit A digital logic circuit that inverts the and-logic function.
(See Sec. 6-8.)
Negated Logic The logic prevailing when a digital signal is inverted. It
is identified by an overbar such as A+B+C.
Negative Feedback In amplifiers, the feeding back of an out-of-phase
signal to a previous stage to improve performance. (See Sec. 2-21.)
Nepers A term used extensively in Europe relating to comparison of
unit values. The neper uses the natural base € (2.7182... . ) to ex-
press the same factors as decibels. There is a constant relationship
between decibels and nepers and 1 dB = 0.1151 neper, and 1
neper = 8.686 dB. (See Sec. 1-8.)
Neutralization The process by which a feedback loop is utilized be-
tween the input and output of an RF amplifier to minimize oscilla-
tory tendencies. See a/so Unilateralization.
Newton The unit of electric force in the International System of Units.
(See Sec. 7-21.)
Nibble The least significant (or the most significant) group of four bits
of a byte.
Nonlinear Distortion A distortion of a signal waveform caused by op-
eration in the circuit’s non-linear characteristic curves.
nor Circuit A digital logic circuit that inverts the or-logic function. (See
Sec. 6-6.)
342 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Numerator The quantity above the division line of a fraction.

Nyquist Interval The maximum separation in time allocated to evenly
spaced instantaneous portions of a signal waveform of a bandwidth
designated as W to achieve full analysis of the signal waveform. It
is equal to 1/2 Ws.
Nyquist Rate Sampling a signal waveform in a time domain twice that
of the highest frequency of the signal. Hence for a bandwidth of F
cycles the rate measured in code elements is not to exceed 2 F (the
Nyquist rate).
Octal Notation A notation wherein a binary number is separated into
individual groups of three bits each. (See Sec. 5-4.)
Odd-parity Code An error detecting code wherein all digits in the bina-
ry representation (including the parity digit) produce an odd num-
ber of 1’s. (See Sec. 5—9.)
Oersted The unit of magnetic field intensity in the cgs system of units.
(See Sec. 7-20.)
Off Line Peripheral computer equipment indirectly used in association
with a computer but not directly fed into the central processor. (A
keypunch machine is an example.)
Ohm _ The unit of electric resistance.
Ohm’s Law A mathematical statement of the relationships of current,
voltage, and resistance. (E = JR.)
Ohms-per-volt The ohmic value that a meter multiplier resistor must
have to increase the meter scale by one volt. It is a measurement of
the meter sensitivity.
On Line Peripheral equipment feeding data directly into the computer.
Operational Amplifier A direct-coupled amplifier system utilizing a
feedback loop. The system has linear amplifying characteristics, a
wide-signal frequency response, low distortion, and a gain possibili-
ty of over a million. (See Sec. 2-21.)
or Circuit A digital logic circuit that produces an output for one or
more input signals. (See Sec. 62.)
Oscilloscope An instrument having a cathode-ray tube for visual dis-
play of signals. (See Sec. 9-10.)
Pads See Attenuators.
PAM Transmission A term referencing pulse-amplitude modulation
wherein the waveform of a pulse train is modified in amplitude,
width, or position. (See Sec. 8-8.)
 DEFINITIONS 343

TABLE 12-4. continued

Pascal A computer
programming language. It is an eponym for the
French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
PCM Transmission A term relating to pulse-code modulation involving
the conversion of amplitude variations of the modulating signal to
a group of pulses coded in binary form to represent a specific am-
plitude. (See Sec. 8-11.)
PDM Transmission A term referring to pulse-duration modulation
wherein the width of each pulse in a pulse train is gradually
changed in relation to the changing amplitude of the modulating
signal. (See Sec. 8-10.)
Peak Inverse Voltage The maximum voltage amplitude present across
rectifier elements at the time such voltage has a polarity opposite
to that voltage producing conduction.
Peak-to-peak Value The amplitude of a signal measured from its low-
est or most negative peak amplitude to its highest or most positive
peak amplitude.
Peak Value A term relating to the maximum amplitude reached by a
signal waveform having segments of different amplitude. (See Sec.
1-13.)
Peaking Coils Inductors utilized in video or other high-frequency am-
plifier systems for extending the frequency response range and
overcoming the effects of shunt capacitances that tend to diminish
high-frequency signal levels. (See Sec. 2-9.)
Peltier Effect The temperature change phenomenon that occurs when
current is passed through the junction of a pn semiconductor.
Peripheral Equipment External devices utilized with a computer, such
as printers and keyboards.
Permeability The degree by which a material can carry magnetic flux.
Air has a permeability of 1 (unity) and all other materials are rated
above 1.
Phase Discriminator A circuit that compares the phase difference be-
tween two signals and generates a voltage in proportion to such a
difference. The circuit is utilized for frequency-correction purposes.
(See Sec. 2-31.)
Phase Inversion A change of phase for a given signal. Phase inversion
circuitry is utilized to obtain two signals having a 180° phase dif-
ference for push-pull operation. (See Sec. 2-12.)
Phase-locked Loop A continuous circuit loop wherein the phase of one
344 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

signal is locked into synchronization with a reference signal. (See

Sec. 7-30.)
Phasor In a phasor diagram the angle represents a timing difference as
opposed to a directional difference for the vector. (See Sec. 1-17.)
Phoneme The part of a word in speech synthesis that is the smallest
unit identifying one word from another. The s in the word sit is a
phoneme in the English language.
Photoconductive See Photoelectric Effect.
Photoelectric Effect The effect of incident light on photosensitive ma-
terials such as cesium, germanium and certain semiconductor junc-
tions. A photoconductor device undergoes a resistance change for a
change of light intensity. A photovoltaic type generates a potential
in proportion to the intensity of the light impinging on it.
Photovoltaic See Photoelectric Effect.
Piezoelectric Effect A term relating to crystal structures used as trans-
ducers. These generate a voltage between the crystal plates when
placed under physical stress (twisted slightly), or they vibrate at a
specific frequency upon the application of electric potentials.
Pilot Subcarrier The 19-kHz signal utilized in the multiplexing process
of stereo FM generation.
PL/1 A computer-programming language combining some of the fea-
tures of FORTRAN and COBOL. PL/1 indicates program lan-
guage |.
Planck’s Constant This refers to the constant 6.624 x 10-2’ that re-
lates energy to the frequency of the initiating signal. In the equa-
tion E=hf, the amount of E (radiant energy),produced by a signal
frequency f multiplied by Planck’s constant (4) expresses the differ-
ence between two energy levels. Planck’s constant thus relates to
such phenomena as lasers, masers, fluorescence, and other aspects
of quantum physics involving photons.
Planer Process The formation of components in an IC on a single
plane or surface of the foundation slab.
Plasma Etching In IC fabrications, an etching process utilizing a cloud
of ionized gas. See also Etching.
PL/M A microcomputer system programming language based on the
PL/1 system. Some ALGOL methodology is also employed.
Polar Notation A method for indicating impedance and phase angles
simultaneously. (See Sec. 1-11.)
 DEFINITIONS 345

———
TABLE 12-4. continued

Potential Barrier The internal inherent resistance of a transistor in ref-

erence to the potential existing between n-p junctions.
Power Factor In alternating current the power factor is expressed as
the cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage. The
power factor is equal to resistance divided by impedance.
Power Output A term usually used to rate the signal power available
from an amplifier. Ratings in rms EIA and IHF have been used in
the past (Electronic Industries Association and Institute of High
Fidelity).
PPM Transmission A term referring to pulse-position modulation or
pulse-time modulation because a change in the modulating signal
causes a corresponding change in the pulse position in time. (See
Sec. 8-9.)
Predistorter A circuit utilized in some frequency-modulation processes.
The predistorter alters phase-modulation characteristics to produce
frequency modulation. (See Sec. 11-2.)
Pre-emphasis In public entertainment FM radio transmission the pre-
emphasis of increasingly higher frequency signals for noise reduc-
tion purposes. A de-emphasis circuit is needed at the receiver. (See
Sec. 3-9.)
Prosody In speech synthesis the accent or tone of a syllable; the sound
modulation or pronounciation of the syllable.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) In this system the amplitude of a
series of pulses is raised or lowered to coincide with amplitude
changes of the modulating signal. (See Sec. 8-8.)
Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) In this system the amplitude variations
of a modulating signal are converted to a set of pulses. Each set, in
binary form, represents a specific amplitude. (See also Sec. 8-11.)
Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) In this system the width of each
pulse is progressively altered to conform to the amplitude of the
. modulating signal. Because the modulated pulse train has a fixed
amplitude, noise signals can be minimized by amplitude limiter cir-
cuitry. This system is also known as pulse-width modulation
(PWM). (See Sec. 8-10.)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) In this system a change in the
pulses’ position in time is undertaken for changes in the amplitude
in the modulating signal. The time change can relate to the time
interval between pulses or to the time a pulse occurs in relation to
346 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

a fixed marker pulse position. This system has also been referred to
as pulse-time modulation (PTM). (See Sec. 8-9.)
Pulse-Time Modulation (PTM) See Pulse-Position Modulation.
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) See Pulse-Duration Modulation.
Push-Pull Circuit A signal-amplifier system utilizing two or more tran-
sistors in which the signals appearing at each input group at any
instant are 180° out of phase. (See Secs. 2-13 and 2-17.)
Quadrature Circuit A circuit so designed that a signal phase displace-
ment of 90° occurs.
Quiescent Operating Point The zero-signal current or voltage values in
electronic circuit.
Quotient The number resulting from the division process.
Radian The length of a radius along the circumference of a circle cre-
ates an angle for its arc of 57.3° which is termed a radian. (Sec Sec.
1-16.) ‘
Rainbow Generator A signal generator producing vertical bars of color
relating to phase relationships with respect to the color subcarrier
of television systems. (See Sec. 9-11.)
Raster A rectangular area on a television screen formed by the hori-
zontal and vertical sweep system. (See Sec. 2-25.)
Ratio Detector A dual-diode detector utilized for the demodulation of
FM carriers. Frequency deviations are sensed across a resistive net-
work where the ratio of voltages changes for the frequency devia-
tions of a carrier. (See Sec. 2-43.)
Reactance The opposition in ohms offered to ac by either an inductor
or capacitor. (See Sec. 1-5.)
Reactance Control Circuit A circuit simulating nee a capacitive or
inductive reactance, the value of which is determined by the ampli-
tude of the applied potential. Varactor diodes also perform this
function. (See Sec. 2-32.)
Real Time Computer operation wherein the computer calculates data
and performs program modifications as required (such as in satel-
lite tracking).
Rectangular Notation See j Operator.
Regeneration Utilizing a portion of an amplified output signal for posi-
tive feedback to cause and sustain oscillations. (See Sec. 2-44.)
Regulation A term referring to power supplies and indicating in per-
 DEFINITIONS 347

a
TABLE 12-4. continued

centage the degree by which the voltage varies as the current drain
by the load changes. (See Sec. 2-35.)
Relaxation Oscillator A non-resonant type oscillator establishing the
frequency of the generated signal by resistance and circuit induc-
tance and/or capacitance. (See Sec. 2-33.)
Relay A switching unit that is initiated by an applied potential.
Reluctance The degree of opposition present in a material to magnetic
flux.
Residual Magnetism The flux density that remains in a material after
the applied magnetizing force has been removed.
Resistance The amount of opposition in ohms offered to the flow of ei-
ther direct or alternating current.
Resonance A condition achieved when an electronic system is tuned to
a frequency that causes the inductive reactance (X,) of the circuit
to have an identical ohmic value to circuit capacitive reactance (X,).
This results in cancellation of reactive effects and resistance pre-
dominates. Resonance permits tuning to a specific signal frequency.
(See Secs. 1-6 and 7-8.)
Retentivity The degree of magnetic retention of a material.
Reticle In IC fabrication a chrome plate (or glass emulsion) containing
a magnified circuit-pattern image.
Reverse Bias A bias potential applied to semiconductor elements in
opposite polarity to the p-n zones.
Root-mean-square Value of ac See Effective Value.
Saturation In a transistor (or tube) the point where current amplitudes
level off despite an increase in applied potential. For inductors the
point at which the flux density levels off despite an increase in
magnetizing force.
Sawtooth A term referring to a signal having a gradual amplitude in-
crease to a predetermined height followed by an abrupt decline.
Successive waveforms resemble the teeth of a saw, hence the name.
(See Sec. 3-6.)
Scalar A term defined as a quantity of length, time, temperature, etc.
Exactly specified numerically on an appropriate scale. (See Sec.
1-17.) |
Schmitt Trigger A monostable multivibrator that has its switching sen-
sitivity related to the amplitude of the input pulse. (See Sec. 6-20.)
348 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Schottky Diode A special-purpose diode characterized by a low-voltage

switching mode and high switching rate.
Seebeck Principle A term relating to the production of a voltage when
the junction of dissimilar metal wires (such as constantan and iron)
are heated.
Selectivity (Q) A word describing the ability of a tuning circuit to re-
ject undesired signals having frequencies higher or lower than the
desired signal. Thus, selectivity relates to the bandpass characteris-
tics of an electronic circuit. The higher ratings indicate better selec-
tivity. (See Sec. 1-6.)
Series Aiding A term referring to the coupling of inductors where the
coil terms are wound in identical directions to increase total induc-
tance. (See Sec. 1-3.)
Series Opposing The coupling of inductors that are wound in opposing
directions causing the fields of one coil to oppose the other. (See
Sec. 1-3.)
SI Unit System The modernized version of the metric system, known
as the International System of Units. This system is an absolute
one, utilizing absolute units for simplicity. (See Sec. 7-21.)
Sidebands_ The signals generated during the modulation process and re-
lated to the carrier frequency by the characteristics of the modulat-
ing signal. (See Secs. 8-2 and 8-4.)
Siemens The unit of conductance in the International System of Units.
(See Sec. 7-21.)
Signal Generator A circuit containing a free-running oscillator that
generates a specific type of signal in electronic systems. (See Sec.
9-8.)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) The degree to which a receiver raises the
signal amplitude of the desired station above the general residual
noise level. The higher the S/N ratio the better.
Significant Sidebands In frequency-modulation communication systems
the sidebands that have sufficient amplitude to be of consequence
during transmission and reception.
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) A power-switching diode having a
special gate. A gate signal causes conduction which continues even
after the gate signal is removed. (See Sec. 2-41.)
Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) A power-switching diode having two
gating terminals for controlling conduction. (See Sec. 2-41.)
 DEFINITIONS 349

a ee
TABLE 12-4. continued

Sine In a right triangle, the ratio of the opposite side over the hypote-
nuse.
Sinewave A signal having a waveform characterized by a succession of
positive and negative alternations, each having the same amplitude
as the others, each having a gradual incline and decline, and all
having identical widths.
Single-shot Multivibrator A circuit producing an output signal of fixed
duration for a wide latitude of input-pulse wave shapes. (See Sec.
6-19.)
Single-Sideband (SSB) Modulation A type of transmission wherein one
sideband is suppressed to conserve spectrum space and minimize
interference. (See Sec. 8-2.)
Skin Effect A term relating to the tendency for current to flow on the
outer surface (skin) of a wire at very high-frequency signal opera-
tion. The higher frequency of the signals increases the rate of
change of the wire’s current and magnetic fields, increasing internal
inductive reactance.
SMAL_ An acronym derived from the phrase structured macro-assembly
language. It is a computer programming process specifically
designed for microprocessors.
Software A term designating computer programs and sub-routines as
distinguished from computer hardware such as peripheral equip-
ment.
Source-Follower Circuit See Common-Source Circuit.
Source Terminal One of the elements of a field-effect transistor often
used in the output section of a circuit.
Spark Gap A gap of pre-determined width established between a chas-
sis component and ground to discharge an accumulated potential
after it reaches a certain level. Television receivers use a number of
spark gaps for such voltage-discharge purposes. (See Sec. 2-10.)
Speech Synthesizer An electronic device (usually an IC) that produces
sounds of speech by combining generated vowel and consonant
tones.
Split Stator Variable capacitors having the rotor connected to a com-
mon shaft and the stators separated (split) into two or more sec-
tions. (See Sec. 2-16.)
Squarewave A signal having a waveform with a linear and sharp rise in
350 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

amplitude and a substantially constant level flat-top peak ampli-

tude.
Standing Waves A term describing the condition that occurs along
transmission lines at very high signal frequencies. Under certain
conditions (see Sec. 1-14) reflections of the signal energy occur re-
sulting in the formation of loops and nodes of voltage and current
at specific places along the line.
Steradian A unit of measure relating to solid angles in the Internation-
al System of Units. (See Sec. 7-21.)
Stereo Separation The ability of a stereo receiver, amplifier, phono-
graph cartridge, or tape head to minimize the signal spillover be-
tween stereo channels. Generally a 20-dB rating provides adequate
separation. Manufacturer’s specifications are usually based on tests
performed using a 1-kHz signal with the rating expressed in deci-
bels (dB). The higher the rating the better the.separation.
Stereophonic A sound reproduction system containing two separate
channels (feeding two separate loudspeakers) for reproduction of
output signals spanning the distance between the two speakers.
Stripping An IC fabrication process employing plasmas or acids for re-
moval of certain wafer coatings after the processing steps of expo-
sure, etching, etc.
Subcarrier A second carrier signal independent of the primary carrier.
(See Sec. 2-30.)
Substrate An extremely thin wafer (such as silicon) utilized as the
foundation slab of an integrated-circuit semiconductor.
Subtrahend That number which is subtracted frorg.another.
Superheterodyne A term usually applied to a television or radio receiv-
er system wherein the incoming carrier signal is heterodyned with
the signal produced by an oscillator. (See Sec. 2-42.)
Surface-acoustic Wave A piezoelectric device utilized as a filter in tele-
vision and other superheterodyne receivers.
Surge Impedance See Characteristic Impedance.
Susceptance The reciprocal of reactance is susceptance (symbol B). The
symbol may also be expressed as B, or B. to indicate inductive or
capacitive susceptance. (See Sec. 1-12.)
Sweep Generator An oscillator producing an output signal that is var-
ied in frequency by a specific amount. It is useful for testing fre-
 DEFINITIONS 351

i
ee ere
TABLE 12-4. continued

quency-modulation systems and for bandpass measurements. (See

Sec. 9-9.)
Synthesis The formation of a complete unit by the combination of sep-
arate elements.
Tangent In a right triangle the ratio of the opposite side over the adja-
cent side.
TDM Transmission A term referring to time-division multiplexing.
This process is capable of transmitting two or more signals by allo-
cating each signal a finite time interval. Instantaneous amplitudes
of the signals are sampled and transmitted in a given time se-
quence. (See Sec. 8-12.)
Telemetry The process wherein several special modulating systems are
utilized for the transmission of information. Multiplexing is em-
ployed and the system thus permits the transmission of various
data (including voice transmission). The system is also known as
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). (See Sec. 8-12.)
Tesla The unit of magnetic flux density in the International System of
Units. (See Sec. 7-21.)
Thermistor A resistor characterized by having a change of resistance
for a temperature change.
Time Constant When a potential is applied to an inductor or capacitor
circuit containing resistance the specific interval of time for voltage
or current to attain 63% of maximum is known as the time con-
stant. (See Secs. 1-9 and 7-4.)
Time-Duration Multiplexing (TDM) This is a system capable of trans-
mitting two or more signals by allocating each a finite time inter-
val. Instantaneous amplitudes of the various signals are sampled
and transmitted in a time sequence. See also Multiplexing.
Time Sharing A computer term designating the use of a single central
processor unit by a number of users who employ remote-program-
ming devices such as keyboard-entry units.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) A term referring to the total distor-
tion created by unwanted harmonic signal components within an
electronic system. See also Harmonic Distortion.
Tracking Force The grams of pressure exerted by a phonograph needle
on the record during playback. Decreased tracking force causes less
record wear; hence a phonograph needle exerting 1 gram of pres-
352 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

sure is superior to another having a tracking force of 3 grams. The

ability of a phonograph assembly to track at low levels requires a
free moving arm and a cartridge having good compliance. An
antiskate device would also aid in permitting a low tracking force
to be achieved.
Transconductance The conduction characteristics of a field-effect tran-
sistor in relation to the applied signal potentials at the circuit in-
put. (The symbol is g_.)
Transducer A device for converting one form of energy to another,
such as vibratory to electrical (phonograph pickup), or audible
sounds to electric signals (microphone), etc.
Transient A signal or component of a signal having a fractional dura-
tion compared to the primary signal.
Transistor A solid-state semiconductor having characteristics of ampli-
fication, signal generation, and switching.
Triac A dual-diode switching unit similar to the Diac but having a
gate electrode for controlling either ac or dc power switching. (See
Sec. 2-41.)
Triggered Sweep A term referring to a special sweep system in oscillo-
scopes where synchronization is initiated by the input signal. (See
Sec. 9-10.)
True Power In ac systems, the product of voltage, current, and the co-
sine of the angle between current and voltage. See also Apparent
Power.
Tunnel Effect A term relating to the tunnel diode solid-state unit
wherein current carriers have the effect of passing through the po-
tential barrier of the semiconductor material at virtually the speed
of light; as though they were tunneling beneath the barrier to over-
come its transfer-delay characteristics.
Turns Ratio The ratio of the number of turns of wire in the primary of
a transformer in relation to the number of turns in the secondary.
(See Sec. 1-10.)
Unilateralization A process by which an external feedback loop is used
between the input and output sections of an RF amplifier. The
loop is tunable and adjusted for cancelling resistive and reactive
coupling that may cause oscillations. See also Neutralization.
Varactor A solid-state diode having a capacitive characteristic that can
be altered by a change of applied potential.
 DEFINITIONS 353

TABLE 12-4. continued

Vector A vector quantity is one having both amplitude and direction

and essentially represented by a straight-line segment having mo-
tion in a particular direction. (See Sec. 1-17.)
Vectorscope An instrument utilizing the oscilloscope principle in con-
junction with a rainbow generator for television system test pur-
poses. (See Sec. 9-12.)
Velocity A word often used in electronics as a synonym for speed, al-
though actually speed is more accurately defined as the time rate of
change of position in a given direction. Velocity is the time rate of
motional change of position in a specific direction. (See Sec. 7-11.)
Vestigial Sideband The portion of a modulated signal that represents
the remnant of an attenuated section, such as when the lower side-
bands are suppressed almost fully, but a portion (vestigial section)
remains.
Voltage Doubler Circuit A power-supply circuit wherein two series ca-
pacitors are charged alternately to the peak rectified potential of
the input line ac. The output terminals are connected across the
two series capacitors to obtain approximately double the line po-
tential. (See Sec. 2-37.)
Voltage Tripler Circuit A power-supply circuit wherein capacitors are
charged alternately so that the sum of their charges plus the input
potential produces approximately triple the input voltage. (See Sec.
2-38.)
Volume Unit (VU) A term used in audio testing. It is a decibel-orient-
ed unit wherein a reference level is indicated. With volume units,
the zero level is assumed to equal 0.001 W (1 mW) across 600 2
of Z.
Wafer-scale Integration Formation of an integrated circuit over the
face of a wafer.
Watt The unit of electric power in the International System of Units.
(See Sec. 7-21.)
Watt Hour One watt of electric power dissipation for one hour. It is
the unit of electric energy related to time.
Wavelength The span of a signal waveform related to the distance of
the propagated wave in relation to a single cycle with a wave ve-
locity of approximately 300,000,000 meters per second. (One cycle
= 300,000,000 m.)
354 LETTER SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS, AND DEFINITIONS

TABLE 12-4. continued

Weber The unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units.

(See Sec. 7-21.)
White Noise A signal containing several discrete frequencies generated
for test purposes in electronic systems.
Wiegand Effect A pulse-generating characteristic imparted to ferro-
magnetic wires.
Winchester Nickname for rigid disk-memory drives.
Word In computer technology, a group of bits (0 or 1) handled as a
specific group.
Wow and Flutter A term designating the percentage of speed variations
in phonograph turntables. Usually the designations are such as: Jess
than 0.03% or less than 0.1%. On occasion the degree of phono-
graph turntable rumble is also given in dB, such as rumble better
than —60 dB.
Yoke As in television, a multiple inductor arrangement around the
neck of the picture tube for providing electromagnetic deflection of
the beam both vertically and horizontally.
Zener Diode A solid-state diode characterized by achieving a special
breakdown region at a specific reverse-bias potention. The break-
down region is known as the zener region and, despite the current
increase, the voltage drop across the diode remains virtually the
same as before the zener region is reached. Thus,- the zener diode is
useful in voltage-regulation applications.

a
 Index

Note: Only selected letter symbols are included in the Index. For additional sym-
bols see Table 12-1. Similarly, refer to Table 12-4 for definitions of words and
phrases not included in this Index.

ADA, 321 Amplitude modulation (AM)

Admittance, 23 detector, 94
ALGOL, 303, 321 receiver, 288
Algorithm, 321 sidebands, 220
Amplifiers transmission, 287, 596
audio, 52 and gate, 160
bandpass, 69 Angstrom, 321
basic, 35 Angular velocity, 32
burst gate, 70 APL, 322
circuits, 40 Apparent power, 3
classes of, 326 Assembler, 303, 322
Darlington, 66 Attenuator, 114
differential, 67 Auto transformer, 321
feedback, 57, 64 Average values, 24
I-F types, 57
neutralization, 57
operational, 66 Back EMF, 323
phase, 54 Balanced Modulator, 121
push-pull, 62 Band, 323
R-F types, 57 Bandwidth, 12, 69
sweep, 72 Bar code, 323
video, 49 BASIC, 303, 309, 323

355
356 INDEX

Beat frequency, 323 Circuits, (continued)

Binary-coded decimal, 146 Schmitt trigger, 181
Binary system, 143 single-shot, 180
Biquinary, 151 switching, 92, 158
Block oriented, 324 tone control, 110
Blocking Oscillator, 83 volume control, 115
Broadcast allocations, 210 Clipper, 106
BSAL, 324 Clock pulse system, 177
Bubble storage, 324 COBOL, 303, 309, 327
Byte, 324 CODEC, 327
Codes (mathematical)
bar, 323
C language, 325 binary, 143
C-MOS, 132 biquinary, 151
Calculators, 301 decimal-binary, 146
Capacitance encoder disc, 155
series and parallel, 6 error detection, 152
symbols, 282 excess-three, 150
time constant, 17 Gray, 149
CGS system, 207 Gray toe binary, 154
Characteristic Z, 26 hexadecimal, 146
Circuits, 40 miscellaneous, 145
amplifiers, 40, 47, 49, 52, 57 numerical (7, 4, 2, 1), 152
attenuators, 114 octal, 147
clippers, 106 Color codes
clock pulse system, 177 capacitor, 204
combining, 119 miscellaneous, 206
common connected, 328 resistor, 203
deemphasis, 111 temperature coefficient, 207
delay, 117 Combining circuit, 119
detector, 94 Compander, 329
discharge, 107 Compiler, 303, 329
discriminator, 103 Compression»429
flip flop, 172 Computer systems, 301
gain control, 110 Contact potential, 329
gates, 158 Control grid,“ 329
integrated, 123 Conversions
integrator, 101 length, 194
J-K system, 175 meters-kilohertz, 192
logic types, 158 speed, 194
modifiers, 105, 109 velocity, 194
pads, 114 Coulomb, 4
phase inversion, 54 Coupling
power supplies, 84 coefficient, 6
preemphasis, 111 types, 47, 53, 60
sawtooth, 107 CW system, 231
 INDEX 357

D-MOS, 138 Frequency modulation (FM) (continued)

Darlington, 66 detector, 95
DCTL, 135 deviation ratio, 224
Decibel ratios, 183 modulation index, 224
Decibels, 14 receiver, 290
Deemphasis, 111 sidebands, 223
Delay System, 117 transmission, 289
Demodulator. See Detector
DeMorgan’s theorem, 168
Detector Gain control, 110
AM, 94 Games, 304
color, 97 Glitch, 336
FM, 95 Gray code, 149
regenerative, 96 Greek alphabet, 200
Dielectric constants, 198
Differentiator, 103
DIN, 332 H-MOS, 140
Diodes, 270 Hall effect, 336
photodiodes, 271 Hardware, 336
reactive, 274 Hertz, 337
rectifier, 84 Hexadecimal, 146
regulating, 90, 274 Hole flow, 337
switching, 92, 272
Discriminator, 78
Dolby, 113 RiAe33
ICW system, 231
Impedance, 7
EARPROM, 309 trig aspects, 10, 29
ECL, 141 Inductance
Effective values, 24 mutual, 5
Electret, 333 series and parallel, 5
Error detection, 152 symbols, 281
Excess-three, 150 time constant, 17
Exclusive or, 169 Instruments
Expander, 334 analog types, 239, 241
bar generators, 260
bridge systems, 250
Feedback, 57, 64 clamp-around types, 265
inverse, 65 crosshatch, 260
Flip flop, 172 current meters, 239
Floppy disk, 335 decibel scales, 247
FORTH, 335 digital types, 249
FORTRAN, 303, 335 distortion tester, 269
Frequencies for LC, 190, 202 frequency counter, 269
Frequency-division, 236 function generator, 268
Frequency modulation (FM), 222 ohmmeters, 243
358 INDEX

Instruments (continued) Logic systems (continued)

oscilloscopes, 255 J-K system, 175
power factor, 266 ‘miscellaneous gates, 166
signal generators, 252 nand circuit, 165
sweep generators, 254 nor circuit, 163
transistor tester, 264 or circuit, 158
vector scope, 262 Schmitt trigger, 181
voltmeters, 241, 249 single-shot circuit, 180
VOM types, 245 symbolic, 158
VU scales, 247 truth tables, 159
watt hour, 266
Integrated circuits, 123
C-MOS, 132 Magnetoresistive, 340
components, 126 Magnetostrictive, 340
D-MOS, 138 Mainsail, 340
DCTL, 135 Math symbols, 198
ECL, 141 Matrix, 99, 227
H-MOS, 140 MD-MOS, 136
housing, 129 MKS system, 207
E33 Mnemonic coding, 340
MD-MOS, 136 Modifier circuit, 105
N-MOS, 131 Modulation
P-MOS, 131 AM, 94, 220, 287
RTL, 141 balanced, 121
SOS, 139 FM, 95, 223, 224, 288
structure, 124 PM, 233
symbols, 129 PP235
hee 130 pulse code, .237
V-MOS, 138 pulse duration, 236
Integrator, 101 pulse width, 236
Interface, 338 TV, 296
Ionesphere, 339 Multiplexing, 237, 293
Multivibrator~82

J-K circuit, 175

j-notation, 21 N-MOS, 131°
operator, 22 nand gate, 165
Nepers, 16
Neutralization, 57
Lisp, 339 Nibble, 341
Logic systems nor gate, 163
and gate, 160 not logic, 162
clock pulses, 177 Number systems, 145
DeMorgan’s theorem, 168
exclusive gates, 169
flip flop, 172 Octal notation, 147
gating tree, 179 Off line, 342
 INDEX 359

Ohm’s law, 1 Reactance (continued)

wheel, 2 trig aspects, 10, 29
or circuit, 158 Real time, 346
Oscillator Relay symbols, 284
Armstrong, 75 Resistance
blocking, 83 series and parallel, 4
Colpitts, 75 symbols, 280
crystal, 76 trig aspects, 10, 29
Hartley, 74 Resonance, 12
multivibrator, 82 RTL, 141
subcarrier, 76

Sawtooth, 107
P-MOS, 131 Scalar, 33, 347
Pads, 114 Schmitt trigger, 181
Pascal, 320, 343 Schottky, 134
Peak values, 24 Seebeck principle, 348
peak-to-peak, 258 Selectivity, 12
Peltier effect, 345 SI system, 208
Peripheral, 345 Signal symbols, 278
Phasors, 33 Single-shot circuit, 180
Photoelectric, 344 SMAL, 349
Piezoelectric, 344 SOS, 139
PL/M, 344 Sound levels, 201
Planck’s constant, 344 Speech synthesis, 305
Polar notation, 21 Subcarrier, 78
Power factor, 3 Susceptance, 23
meter, 266 Switch symbols, 284
Power supply, 6 Switching
bridge, 90 logic, 158
full wave, 86 power, 92
half wave, 84 Symbols
regulated, 90 capacitor, 282
switching, 92 inductor, 281
voltage doubler, 87 letter, 310
voltage multiplier, 89 resistor, 280
voltage tripler, 88 switch, 284
Powers of 2, 187 transistor, 36
Preemphasis, 111
Prefix symbols, 183
PROM, 315 30
Telemetry, 237
Television
R-F choke, 57 bandpass, 224
Radians, 32 black and white, 295
Reactance, 7 burst signal, 228
control, 79 color camera, 227
360 INDEX

Television (continued) Trigonometric (continued)

color phase, 230 impedance, 10
color transmitter, 296 ratios, 31
IF signal, 229 reactance, 10
reactance control, 79 True power, 3
receiver, 298 Truth tables, 159
signal synthesis, 296 Tunnel effect, 352
subcarrier, 78 TV technical standards, 216
technical standards, 216
tuner signal, 229
Time constant, 17, 186 Unilateralization, 58
equations, 19
Time sharing, 351
Tone control, 110 V-MOS, 138
Transducers, 283 Vectors, 33
Transformer product, 34
coupling, 47, 53, 60 Velocity, 194
symbols, 281 Video
turns ratio, 20 amplifiers, 49
Transistor Volume control, 115
circuits, 40
field-effect, 42, 126, 276, 319
gain, 35 Weights and measures, 195
junction types, 40, 275 White noise, 354
parameters, 35, 318 Winchester, 354
symbols, 36, 318 Word, 354
Transmission lines, 25
impedance, 26
Trigonometric, 29 Zener, 90

~
A special feature of the text is the final chapter
which contains a comprehensive list of letter abbre-
viations, acronyms, and definitions of commonly
used words and phrases in all branches of elec-
tronics.
Matthew Mandl has written more than 20 texts on
electronics and related topics. He is currently em-
ployed as a technical writer and has served as an
industrial consultant for many firms in the Philadel-
phia area. He has had 30 years of experience teach-
ing electronics and computer technology at the
Technical Institute of Temple University.

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 MATTHEVVY MANDL
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This important new book by Matthew Mandl should be required reading for
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The Table of Contents includes:

e Basic Equations in Electronics

e Circuit Descriptions wtp
e Signal Modification, Routing, and Control
e Integrated Circuits
e Digital-System Codes
e Switches, Gates, and Symbolic Logic
e Various Tables and Miscellaneous Data
e Transmission Principles
e Fundamental Principles of Instrumentation
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e Complete System Block Diagrams
e Letter Symbols, Acronyms, and Definitions

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