Microbiology and Bioprocess Technology (BTC 302)

- MICROBIAL NUTRITION -
Most of the texts and images of this presentation are from Prescott, Harley, and Klein’s Microbiology book

The study materials/presentations are solely meant for academic purposes and they can be reused, reproduced,
modified, and distributed by others for academic purposes only with proper acknowledgements

Presentation prepared by Prof Sufia K Kazy, NIT Durgapur 1

COMPOSITION OF BACTERIAL CELLS
 NUTRIENTS
• Nutrients are substances used in biosynthesis of
new cellular components and energy production.
They are required for microbial growth and survival.
All organisms must have a supply of raw materials or
nutrients.

• Microbial cell composition shows that over 95% of

cell dry weight is made up of a few major elements:
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and
iron.
 Common Nutrient Requirements
• Macroelements (macronutrients) are required by
microorganisms in relatively large amounts.

• Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and iron are called macroelements or
macronutrients.

• The first six (C,O,H,N,S, and P) macroelements are

components of cellular carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.
Other macronutrients - potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and iron exist in the cell as cations - play a
variety of roles.
Potassium (K+) - required for activity by a number of
enzymes - some of those involved in protein synthesis.
Calcium (Ca2+) - maintenance of cell structure, motility,
transport, heat resistance of bacterial endospores, etc.
Magnesium (Mg2+) - serves as a cofactor for many
enzymes, complexes with ATP, and stabilizes ribosomes
and cell membranes.
Iron (Fe2+and Fe3+) - part of cytochromes and a cofactor
for enzymes and electron-carrying proteins.
All organisms, including microorganisms, also
require several micronutrients or trace elements.
The micronutrients - manganese, zinc, cobalt,
molybdenum, nickel, and copper — needed by most
cells.

These are required in very small amounts - even

contaminants in water, glassware, and regular media
components often are adequate for microbial growth.

Microorganisms require a balanced mixture of all

nutrients. If an essential nutrient is in short supply,
microbial growth will be limited regardless of the
concentrations of other nutrients.
Micronutrients are normally a part of enzymes and
cofactors, and they aid in the catalysis of reactions
and maintenance of protein structure.

 Zinc (Zn2+) - present at the active site of some

enzymes; also involved in the association of
regulatory and catalytic subunits of some enzymes
like E. coli aspartate carbamoyl transferase.

 Manganese (Mn2+) - aids many enzymes catalyzing

the transfer of phosphate groups.

 Molybdenum (Mo2+) - required for nitrogen fixation.

 Cobalt (Co2+) - is a component of vitamin B12.
A MICROBIAL PERIODIC TABLE OF
THE ELEMENTS
 Requirements for Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen and Electrons
All organisms need carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and a source of electrons.
Carbon is the backbone of all the organic
molecules from which organisms are built.

Hydrogen and oxygen are also found in organic

biomolecules of organisms.

In fact, organic nutrients serving as carbon

sources can be the source of all 3 elements (C,
H, O) and electrons (e).
Electrons are needed for two reasons
 The movement of electrons through
electron transport chains and during other
oxidation-reduction reactions within cell
can provide energy for use in cellular work.

 Electrons also are needed to reduce

molecules during biosynthesis of various
metabolites by the cells (e.g., the reduction
of CO2 to form organic molecules in cell).
Organic carbon sources can also serve as energy
(electron) sources. Because, these organic
nutrients are almost always reduced – so they
can donate electrons to other molecules
(electron acceptors).

Electron transfer releases energy when the

electrons move from reduced electron donors
(with more negative reduction potentials) to
oxidized electron acceptors (more positive
potentials.)
The more reduced the organic carbon source (the
more electrons it carries), the higher its energy
content. Thus lipids have a higher energy content than
carbohydrates.

On the other hand, inorganic carbon source, carbon

dioxide (CO2), supplies only carbon and oxygen, so it
cannot be used as a source of hydrogen, electrons, or
energy.

This is because CO2 is the most oxidized form of

carbon, lacks hydrogen, and is unable to donate
electrons during oxidation-reduction reactions.
Microorganisms have extraordinary flexibility
with respect to their carbon sources.

• Actinomycetes, common soil bacteria, can

degrade amyl alcohol, paraffin, and even rubber.

• Some bacteria can utilize numerous different

types of compounds as carbon sources; like
Burkholderia cepacia can use over 100 different
carbon compounds.

• Some microbes can even degrade relatively

indigestible human-made substances (xenobiotic
compounds) such as pesticides.
Some microbes are exceedingly fastidious
and catabolize only a few carbon compounds.

 Methylotrophic bacteria metabolize

methane, methanol, carbon monoxide,
formic acid, and related one-carbon
molecules.

 Parasitic members of the genus Leptospira

use only long-chain fatty acids as their
major source of carbon and energy.
 Nutritional Types of Microorganisms
Microorganisms can be grouped into different nutritional
types based on their nutritional requirements.
Based on Carbon source:
Autotrophs - can use CO2 as their sole or principal source of carbon.
Most of the autotrophic microbes carry out photosynthesis - use
light as their energy source. Some autotrophs oxidize inorganic
molecules and derive energy from electron transfer reactions.

Heterotrophs - Organisms that use reduced, preformed organic

molecules (obtained from other organisms) as carbon sources are
heterotrophs. Many microorganisms cannot use CO2 as their sole
carbon source; because the reduction of CO2 is a very energy-
expensive process.
Based on Energy source:
There are only two sources of energy available to organisms: (1)
light energy, and (2) the energy derived from oxidizing organic or
inorganic molecules
Phototrophs - use light as their energy source
Chemotrophs - obtain energy from the oxidation of chemical
compounds (either organic or inorganic).

Based on Electron source:

Microorganisms also have only two sources for electrons
Lithotrophs (i.e., “rock-eaters”) - use reduced inorganic
substances as their electron source.
Organotrophs - extract electrons from organic compounds.
Microorganisms can be placed in one of five nutritional classes
based on their primary sources of carbon, energy, and electrons.
The large majority of microorganisms thus far studied are either
photolithotrophic autotrophs or chemoorganotrophic heterotrophs.

Photolithotrophic autotrophs (often called photoautotrophs or

photolithoautotrophs) - use light energy and CO2 as their carbon source.
Eucaryotic algae and cyanobacteria employ water as the electron donor
and release oxygen. Purple and green sulfur bacteria cannot oxidize water
but extract electrons from inorganic donors like hydrogen, hydrogen
sulphide, metal sulphides and elemental sulfur.

Chemoorganotrophic heterotrophs (called chemoheterotrophs,

chemoorganoheterotrophs, or even heterotrophs) - use organic
compounds as sources of energy, hydrogen, electrons, and carbon.
Frequently the same organic nutrient will satisfy all these requirements. All
pathogenic microorganisms are chemoheterotrophs.
The other two nutritional classes have fewer
microorganisms but often are very important ecologically.
Photoorganotrophic heterotrophs (photoorganoheterotrophs) - are
photosynthetic and use organic matter as their electron donor and
carbon source. Examples - some purple and green bacteria -
common inhabitants of polluted lakes and streams. Some of these
bacteria also can grow as photoautotrophs with molecular
hydrogen as an electron donor.

Chemolithotrophic autotrophs (chemolithoautotrophs) - oxidize

reduced inorganic compounds such as iron, nitrogen, or sulfur
molecules to derive both energy and electrons for biosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide is the carbon source. Chemolithotrophs contribute
greatly to the chemical transformations of elements (e.g., the
conversion of ammonia to nitrate or sulfur to sulfate) that continually
occur in the ecosystem – biogeochemical cycling of elements.
Some microorganisms show great metabolic flexibility
and can alter their metabolic patterns in response to
environmental changes.

For example, many purple nonsulfur bacteria act as

photoorganotrophic heterotrophs in the absence of oxygen
but can oxidize organic molecules and function
chemotrophically at normal oxygen levels. When oxygen is
low, photosynthesis and oxidative metabolism may function
simultaneously.

Another example is the bacteria Beggiatoa that rely on

inorganic energy sources and organic (or sometimes CO2)
carbon sources. These microbes are sometimes called
mixotrophic because they combine chemolithoautotrophic
and heterotrophic metabolic processes.
 Requirements for Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur
Microorganisms require large quantities of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur for growth. These elements may be
obtained from the carbon source. Microorganisms usually
employ inorganic sources of N, P, and S as well.

Nitrogen is needed for the synthesis of amino acids, purines,

pyrimidines, some carbohydrates and lipids, enzyme cofactors,
and other substances.

Many microorganisms can use the nitrogen present in particular

amino acids. Some can incorporate ammonia directly through
the action of enzymes like glutamate dehydrogenase or
glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase.
Most phototrophs and many
nonphotosynthetic microorganisms reduce
nitrate to ammonia and incorporate the
ammonia in biomolecules via assimilatory
nitrate reduction process.

A variety of bacteria (many cyanobacteria

and the symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium) can
assimilate atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by
reducing it to ammonium (NH4). This is called
nitrogen fixation.
Phosphorus is required for nucleic acids, phospholipids,
nucleotides like ATP, several cofactors, some proteins,
and other cell components.

Almost all microorganisms use inorganic phosphate as their

phosphorus source and incorporate it directly. Low phosphate
levels actually limit microbial growth in many aquatic
environments. Some microbes (like E. coli) can use both organic
and inorganic phosphate.

Some organophosphates such as hexose 6-phosphates can be

taken up directly by transport proteins. Other organophosphates
are often hydrolyzed in the periplasm by the enzyme alkaline
phosphatase to produce inorganic phosphate, which then is
transported across the plasma membrane into the cell.
Sulfur is needed for the synthesis of
substances like the amino acids cysteine
and methionine, some carbohydrates,
biotin, and thiamine.

Most microorganisms use sulfate as a

source of sulfur and reduce it by
assimilatory sulfate reduction process; a
few microbes require a reduced form of
sulfur such as cysteine.
Some microorganisms have the enzymes and biochemical
pathways needed to synthesize all cell components using minerals
and sources of energy, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

Other microorganisms lack one or more of the enzymes needed to

manufacture indispensable constituents. Therefore they must
obtain these constituents or their precursors from the
environment.

Organic compounds that are essential cell components or

precursors of such components but cannot be synthesized by the
organism are called growth factors. There are three major classes
of growth factors: (1) amino acids, (2) purines and pyrimidines,
and (3) vitamins.
Amino acids - are needed for protein synthesis;
Purines and pyrimidines - for nucleic acid synthesis.
Vitamins - small organic molecules that usually make
up all or part of enzyme cofactors and are needed in
only very small amounts to sustain growth.

Enterococcus faecalis needs eight different vitamins

for growth.

Other growth factors - heme (iron containing group

from hemoglobin or cytochromes) is required by
Haemophilus influenzae.

Some Mycoplasmas need cholesterol.