Light, Electrons, and the
Periodic Table
Modern blimps are
filled with helium, an
inert gas.
Question: Why is
helium unreactive?
The Hindenburg was filled with
hydrogen, a reactive and flammable
gas. Question: What makes hydrogen
reactive?
1
Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
accurately describes the protons and the
neutrons in the nucleus, but it was unclear how
electrons behaved in the atom.
To understand the properties of atoms and
electron we first have to understand the
properties of light.
Light: Electromagnetic
Radiation
• Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Light is a type of energy that travels through space at a
constant speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s (186,000 mi/s).
2
A wave can be characterized by its wavelength
and frequency.
Wavelength, symbolized by the Greek letter
lambda, l, is the distance between any two
identical points on adjacent waves.
Frequency, symbolized by the Greek letter nu, n,
is the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed
point in one unit of time (usually a second). The
unit is 1/S or s-1, which is also called Hertz (Hz).
3
λ and n are related by:
c=λn
What is c?
A red LED emits a light with a wavelength of 720. nm
and a frequency of 4.17 x 1014 1/s. What is c in m/s?
c = 720. x 10-9 m x 4.17x1014 1/s = 3.00 x 108 m/s
Speed of light in a
vacuum
7
What is the wavelength of blue light with a
frequency of 6.4 1014/s?
n = 6.4 1014/s c = ln so
c = 3.00 108 m/s l = c/n
m
3.00 x 10 8
c s
λ
n 1
6.4 x 10 14
s
l = 4.7 10−7 m
8
4
What is the frequency of light having a
wavelength of 681 nm?
l = 681 nm = 6.81 10−7 m c = ln so
c = 3.00 108 m/s n = c/l
m
3.00 108
c s
n
l 6.81 10 m
7
l = 4.41 1014 /s
9
The energy of light depends on its frequency and wavelength.
longer wavelength
lower frequency
lower energy
shorter wavelength
higher frequency
higher energy
10
10
5
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
11
11
• Arrange the three types of electromagnetic
radiation—visible light, X-rays, and microwaves—
in order of increasing:
(a) Wavelength
(b) Frequency
(c) Energy
12
12
6
Continuous Spectra and Line Spectra
Flame test Element Lamps
Calcium Lithium
Mercury Hydrogen
13
13
Continuous Spectra
https://public.nrao.edu/gallery/rainbow-over-the-vla/
14
14
7
Line Spectra
15
15
White light spectrum
Each element produces a unique line spectrum.
He
Li
Kr
16
16
8
Light Electrons
Photoelectric effect
Metal Surface
• Light of the correct wavelength can eject electrons from a metal
surface. The brightness of the light has no effect on whether
electrons are ejected from the surface, which does not make
sense if light is a wave.
• Einstein proposed that light can act like a particle, which we now
call a photon.
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/ 17
17
The Bohr Model (1913)
• Electrons orbit the nucleus.
• Only certain orbit energies are “allowed”.
• Electrons can jump between levels.
• Light is absorbed or released when electrons
jump.
• Ground state: all electrons in lowest possible
levels.
18
18
9
The energy of each Bohr orbit, specified by a
quantum number n = 1, 2, 3 is fixed, or
quantized.
Bohr orbits are like steps of a ladder, each at a
specific distance from the nucleus and each at a
specific energy.
It is impossible for an electron to exist between
orbits in the Bohr model.
19
19
• When a hydrogen atom absorbs
energy, an electron is excited to a
higher-energy orbit.
• The electron then relaxes back to
a lower-energy orbit, emitting a
photon
of light.
20
20
10
21
21
The Bohr Model
• Successfully explains the line spectrum of hydrogen.
• Does not predict the properties of elements with more than
one electron.
• Important for introducing the concept of electron energy
being quantized.
22
22
11
The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms with
Orbitals
• The quantum-mechanical model of the atom replaced the
Bohr model in the early twentieth century. In the quantum-
mechanical model,
Bohr orbits are replaced with quantum-mechanical orbitals.
• Orbitals are different from orbits in that they represent
probability maps that show a statistical distribution of
where the electron is likely to
be found.
23
23
Bohr Model: Quantum Model:
1913 1920s-30s
An orbital is a probability
map that shows where the
electron is likely to be found;
it does not represent the
exact path that an electron
takes as it travels through
space.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to know both the
exact location and speed of a small particle such as an electron.
24
24
12
The wave nature of electrons
Tiny, fast-moving particles
also behave as waves.
This explains electron energy levels.
Ted Kinsman/Science Source
25
25
The Quantum Model
Main Ideas:
• uncertainty principle
• wave nature of electrons
QM describes electrons by
• energy
• probable locations
26
26
13
Energy Levels and Sublevels
1. Electrons occupy different energy levels.
• Level is identified by its principal quantum number, n (1, 2, 3…)
• Higher energy levels can hold more electrons
Level Electron
Capacity
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
27
27
Energy Levels and Sublevels
2. Each energy level contains one or more sublevels.
Sublevel
s
p
d
f
28
28
14
Energy Levels and Sublevels
3. Each sublevel contains one or more orbitals.
Sublevel Number of
Orbitals
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7
29
29
Energy Levels and Sublevels
4. Each orbital holds up to two electrons.
• Electrons have a magnetic field, called spin.
• Electrons with opposite spins pair together.
30
30
15
Energy Levels and Sublevels
1. Electrons occupy different energy levels.
2. Each level contains sublevels.
3. Each sublevel contains orbitals.
4. Each orbital holds up to two electrons.
Sublevel Number of Electron
Orbitals Capacity
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
31
31
32
32
16
33
33
34
34
17
Electron Configuration
• An electron configuration shows the occupation of orbitals by
electrons for a particular atom.
• The electron configuration for a ground-state hydrogen atom is as
follows:
• The electron configuration tells us that hydrogen’s single electron
is in the 1s orbital.
35
35
36
36
18
37
37
Core Electrons: Lower energy electrons on the interior of the atom, they do not take
part in chemical reactions.
Valence Electrons: Highest energy electrons on the exterior of the atom, they are
responsible for the chemical properties of an element.
38
38
19
There are several terms describing electron
configurations that are important.
The complete electron configuration shows
every subshell explicitly.
Br: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
39
39
The abbreviated or noble-gas configuration
substitutes the preceding noble gas for the core
configuration and explicitly shows subshells
beyond that.
Br: [Ar] 4s23d104p5
40
40
20
41
41
Orbital Diagrams
A way to visualize the distribution of electrons
in an atoms orbitals.
B: 1s22s22p1
1s 2s 2p
Energy
42
42
21
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of carbon:
C: 1s22s22p2
1s 2s 2p
Hunds Rule: The lowest-energy arrangement of
electrons in a subshell is obtained by putting
electrons into separate orbitals of the subshell with
the same spin before pairing electrons.
43
43
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of carbon:
C: 1s22s22p2
1s 2s 2p
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of nitrogen:
N: 1s22s22p3
1s 2s 2p
44
44
22
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of oxygen:
O: 1s22s22p4
1s 2s 2p
Electrons in the same orbital must have
opposite spin.
45
45
Pauli exclusion principle: Electrons in the same
orbital must have opposite spin.
It also means that one orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons (with opposite spin).
46
46
23
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of oxygen:
O: 1s22s22p4
1s 2s 2p
47
47
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of phosphorous:
48
48
24
Draw the ground state orbital diagram of iron:
49
49
50
50
25
51
51
The Alkali Metals
• Alkali metals (Group 1) are among
the most reactive metals since
their outer electron configuration
(ns1) is 1 electron beyond a noble
gas configuration.
• If they can react to lose the
electron, they attain a noble gas
configuration.
• This explains why the Group 1
metals tend to form 1+ cations.
52
52
26
The Alkaline Earth Metals
• The alkaline earth metals
(Group 2) all have electron
configurations ns2 and are
therefore 2 electrons beyond
a noble gas configuration.
• In their reactions, they tend
to lose 2 electrons, forming
2+ ions and attaining a noble
gas configuration.
53
53
The Halogens
• The halogens (Group 7) all
have ns2np5 electron
configurations and are
therefore 1 electron short of
a noble gas configuration.
• In their reactions, halogens
tend to gain 1 electron,
forming 1− ions and a aining
a noble gas configuration.
54
54
27
The Noble Gases
• Calculations show that atoms with 8
valence electrons (or 2 for helium) are
predicted to be particularly low in energy
and therefore stable.
• The noble gases are chemically stable, and
thus relatively inert or nonreactive as
accounted for by the quantum model.
• Elements with electron configurations
close to the noble gases are the most
reactive because they can attain noble gas
electron configurations by losing or gaining
a small number of electrons.
55
55
Elements That Form Predictable Ions
56
56
28
Elements That Form Predictable Ions
Li: 1s22s1 The charge of main group metals
matches their group number (1A, 2A,
Li+: 1s2 3A). Metals form ions by losing
electrons.
F: 1s22s22p5 The charge of main group nonmetals
equals their group number (5A, 6A,
F−: 1s22s22p6
7A) minus 8. Nonmetals form ions by
gaining electrons.
57
57
Periodic Trends
Atomic Size #1: As you move left to
Decreasing Atomic Size right across a period in
the periodic table, atomic
size decreases.
#2: As you move down a
column in the periodic
Increasing Atomic Size
table, atomic size
increases.
58
58
29
Atomic Size
Why does atomic size decrease from left to right across a
period?
59
59
Atomic Size
Why do atomic size increase from top to
bottom down a group?
60
60
30
Refer to a periodic table and arrange the
following elements in order of increasing atomic
radius: Br, Se, Te.
34 35 Te is larger than Se.
Se Br Se is larger than Br.
52
Te Br < Se < Te
61
61
Refer to a periodic table and arrange the
following elements in order of increasing atomic
radius: Ga, Al, Si, Ge.
13 14 Ga is larger than Al.
Al Si Ge is larger than Si.
Al is larger than Si.
Ga is larger than Ge.
31 32
Ga Ge Si < Al < Ge < Ga
62
62
31
Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy increases as you move to the
right across a period and decreases as you move
down a column in the periodic table.
Na(g) Na+(g) + e-
495 kJ/mol
Cl(g) Cl+(g) + e-
1251 kJ/mol
63
63
64
64
32
Refer to a periodic table and arrange the
following elements in order of increasing
ionization energy: As, Br, Sb.
Sb < As.
33 35 As < Br.
As Br
51
Sb Ionization energies:
Sb < As < Br
65
65
Refer to a periodic table and arrange the
following elements in order of increasing
ionization energy: Ne, Na, P, Ar, K.
Chapter 7 | Slide 66
66
33
