CARIBBEAN
SOCIAL ISSUES:
HEALTH
Y. Maharaj
DISCLAIMER
This Powerpoint is to be used as a reference point and is
accompanied by an in-class discussion.
It is HIGHLY RECOMMENDED that students also read Chapter 12
of Sociology for CAPE Students as well as Chapter 20
ofSociology for Caribbean Students in addition to your
independent reading.
01.
Definitions of
Health
And other health related issues
Positive and Negative Health
Positive definitions of health assess the
Negative definitions of health speak
general state and well-being of an
to the absence of disease which is
individual using physical as well as
mental characteristics. the primary.
Within the realm of Sociology, the This conceptualization places
concept of primary health care or emphasis on healthcare
incorporating good nutrition and fitness professionals being the sole
techniques into one’s daily routines authority on one’s health relative to
would increase an individual’s level of the individual themselves.
wellness.
Health
Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity – WHO (1948)
Illness and Disease
Illness functions as a social condition as it is the subjective experience of disease
Disease Def. 1 Disease Def. 2
The pathological model looks at
biological symptoms and The statistical model defining
abnormal functioning in an health with reference to the
organism and refers to any average iin the population
unhealthy condtion in the body or (Hess. Et al. 1991).
mind
Morbidity
This is the state of being diseased or unhealthy
and also encompasses the incidence of ill
health in a population.
N.B That the morbidity rate is the number of
new or existing cases of a particular disease or
condition per 1000 people (Achengrau and
Seage 2003).
MORTALITY
The number of deaths in a population
diagnosed with a condition that has
distinctive and recognizable symptoms.
● NB The mortality rate is the number of
deaths per 1000 people.
● This is sometimes viewed as a vague
depiction of the population’s health
status, thus more importance is placed
on the indicators of morbidity
INCIDENCE
The statistical occurrence of a disease
within the general population that is
measured by the quantity of new cases in a
population within a given period.
It determines the risk posed by the disease
to the population.
PREVALENCE
Refers to how many people have a
particular condition in a given year.
It measures how often a disease occurs in a
population and how many persons afflicted
with the disease exist in the population at a
given point in time.
It is calculated by dividing the number of
persons with the disease or condition at a
particular point in time by the number of
persons at risk of contracting it.
DISABILITY
WHO in 1948 expounded on the concept of
disabilities to include impairments, activity
limitations and participation restrictions.
INSTITUTIALIZATION
The commitment of a patient to a health
care facility for treatment
COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
Any disease which is transferable from one
person or animal to another and is also
referred to as a contagious disease.
HIV/AIDS, COVID-19 are some examples
NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
Diseases which are not contagious or
transferable from one human to another.
Popular Caribbean examples include
diabetes, cancer, heart diseases and
strokes.
02.
Theoretical
Perspectives
Functionalist, Marxist, Interactionist and Feminist
FUNCTIONALIST
Parsons introduced Obligations
Rights the sick role in the
• The individual’s early 1950’s. • The sick person is
incapacity is a form He viewed it as a form obligated to do
of deviance from of deviance. The everything
social norms but theory encompasses reasonably
because it is not two rights and two expected of them
deliberate they are obligations. to get better
not punished. • This includes
• Sickness is a following
legitimate ground treatment plans
for exemption. provided.
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE
● Considers inequalities to be found within the health care
system
● Believe that the problems of the health care systems reflect
the problems of the wider society and are inextricable.
● Addresses the disparities between access to public and
private healthcare within the Caribbean.
● The Marxist theory was also one of the initial schools of
thought to propose that there was a link between diseases and
the working poor.
● Changes to the health care system must occur with economic
and social changes but these changes rely on the wealth and
power of the ruling class and are often resisted.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
● View health and illness as a social construct.
● Goffman and Friedson looked at health from a micro-
perspective and provided insight on living with a disease and
how doctors treat patients in health care settings.
● Focus on the Stigma around health which plays an integral role
in how a person feels about their health and whether they go
to a medical professional or not. See also Courtesy Stigma
● Contrasts Parson’s view that contracting an illness is not within
the control of the individual
The Social Construct of Health
The concept of Demedicalization
Medicalization
“Health” varies from
• The process by culture to culture. • The process
which a non- It can therefore be whereby a
medical problem viewed as a problem is no
becomes treated construction of the longer defined as
and defined as an values and beliefs of a an illness or
illness or disorder. group or society. disorder.
• Examples include • The most
pregnancy and prominent
attention-span example is
issues. homosexuality
Health in the Caribbean
Health impacts the social stability of the region and has many advantages. The issues
facing the Caribbean primarily impact:
Children and persons in early Later adulthood and the ageing
adulthood population
Childhood and Early Adulthood
• Across the Caribbean, infections as a cause of death have decreased
due to improvements in sanitation, water supply and medications.
• Nutritional deficiencies, however, continue to plague the poorest
nations within the region.
• Overnutrition also occurs in parts of the reason with increased rates
of obesity being found in children and teenagers.
• In young persons, there have been a rise in deaths caused by
diabetes, suicide, homicide, HIV/AIDS, gun violence, dangerous driving
etc.
• How do you think the stigma attached to HIV/AIDS was addressed?
Later Adulthood and Ageing Population
• Across the Caribbean, the population above 60 years has increased
due to improved health conditions and the increase of returning
retirees.
• Older persons are more likely to have non-communicable diseases
and will need treatment from the health sector in the Caribbean
• Older persons are also at greater risk of being victims of crime and
elder abuse.
• Additionally, there will be an increased demand for services and
facilities for elder care
• As well as an increase in the rates of non-communicable diseases
Nutrition and Health
• Nutrition is the process of providing or obtaining food necessary for
health and growth.
• Across developing nations, deficiency diseases continue to be
prevalent.
• Within the Caribbean, HIV/AIDS continues to negatively impact the
population
• How has the Covid-19 outbreak impacted health services in Guyana?
Health and Social Class
• Julian Tudor-Hart (1971) states in his inverse case law theory that
those who need health care the most, are the least likely to get it. In all
countries, it is the poor who get much less health care than they need.
• Zola (1981) suggests that the lower class get less health care partly
due to their generally low levels of health education. Because they
know less about disease and nutrition, they have less bargaining
power with doctors over the appropriate diagnosis and treatment of
illness.
Health and Gender
• According to the UNDP, women usually have a longer life expectancy
than men.
• Women also experience more sickness and medical conditions.
• In developing countries, this position may be reversed.
• The social determinants of health note that men are more likely to
participate in dangerous leisure activities and are less likely to visit
the doctor regularly.
• Women have been socialized to seek medical health and are more
likely to be in tune with their bodies.
Health and Ethnicity
• The linking of ethnicity to mental illness has been heavily criticized on
the grounds of the limited sample size and inherent racism.
• However, among East Indians, the incidence of diabetes is
significantly higher than among African descendants. One reason
given for this is the sedentary lifestyle and the high carbohydrate diet,
among this ethnic group.
• Afro-Caribbean persons have been seen to have a higher incidence
of hypertension. This may be linked to diet, stress or lifestyle generally
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