Histology

Nervous system
Types of neural tissue and their function Neurons :

• processing, Transfer, & Storage of Information.

Neuroglia or Gilocytes
• .Support, Regulation & Protection of Neurons
Different Types of glicocytes in nervous system and
: their
.1- CNS Neuroglia:

• Oligodendrocytes
• Ependymal Cells
• Astrocytes
• Microglia
2-PNS Neuroglia :

• Schwann Cells
• Satellite Cells
Differences between different type processes of
: neurons
• dendrites: Are Short, Numerous, Highly .
Branched Processes CONDUT Impulses
.Toward The Cell Body
 • Axons: Single Long Cylindrical Process .
.Conduct Impulses Away from The Cell Body
Classification of neurons:

• Bipolar Neuron
• Unipolar
• Multipolar Neuron.
• Anaxonic Neurons.
Consists of Ganglia :

• Neuronal Cell Bodies

• The Nerve Fibers Leading to and from Them
Gliocytes (Satellite Cells)
• .Connective Tissue Capsule Support-
Differentiate between Astrocytes types:

• Fibrous Astrocytes has few Long Processes

.Located in The White Matter
• PROTOPLASMIC ASTROCYTES, WITH
MANY Short, Branched Processes, Are Found
.in The Gray Matter
Differences between sensory and automatic
ganglion :

• Sensory ganglia
• Unipolar nerons
 • Sensory nerves
• Distinct capsule
• Conspicous satellite
: Types
• Cranial ganglia
• Spinal ganglia
: Autonomic ganglia
• Multipolar nerons
• Autonomic nerves
• Poorly define capsule
• InConspicous satellite
TyPes
• Sympathetic ganglia
• Parasympathetic ganglia
:Types of cerebrospinal membranes
• .DURA MATER
• .The Arachnoid Mater
• .The Delicate Pia Mater
Spinal cord

Gray matter region :

• The gray matter of the legs of the H forms the

ventral (anterior) horns
• The gray matter of the arms of the H forms the
dorsal (posterior) horns
• small lateral horns
Microscopically, gray matter is composed :

• A high density of neuron cell body

• Gliocytes
• A high capillary density
Each dorsal column is subdivided into 2 tracts ( that
prominent in the cervical region );

• the medial gracilis tract: covering fibers from

the lower limbs
• the lateral cuneatus tract:covering fibers from
the upper limbs

The ventrolateral white matter on each side is made

up of various ascending and descending tracts ,
most notably :
 • Lateral spinothalamic tract ( pain and temp)
• ventral spinothalamic tract ( light touch)
• spinocerebellar tract and corticospinal tract
(motor)

Microscopically, white matter is composed of

concentrated :

• myelinated fibers
• Gliocytes
• low capillary density
Mention the regions of spinal cord :

• cervical
• thoracic
• lumber
• sacral

Anatomy
Spinal cord
Mention spinal cord attachments :
1. DENTICULATE LIGAMENTS2.
2. Filum Terminale
3. Spinal Nerve Roots
Mention the faniculus of white matter :
Anterior faniculus.
Posterior faniculus.
Lateral faniculus.
Mention 3 types of nucli found in posterior horn of gray
matter in the spinal cord, and their rexed number and
location.

1. Posterior Horn (Column): Receives and Processes

Sensory INPUT.
a. Posteromarginal Nucleus (Rexed Lamina i): Found At
All Cord Levels Associated With Light Touch, Pain, And
Temperature Sensation, Origin of some fibers of an
anterolateral system.
b. Substantia Gelatinosa (Rexed Lamina II) and Nucleus
Proprias (Rexed Laminae III and IV): Found At ALL
SPINAL CORD LEVELS,
C. Posterior thoracic miclests (also known as Nucleus
dorsalis of Clarke) (Rexed Tamina VII: found at (C8) T1 to
L2.
Mention Different types of ascending and descending
tract.
Ascending tract:
Unconscious
1.Anterior spinocerebellar tract
2.lateral spinocerebellar tract.
Concious
Anterolateral spinothalamic tract.
Descending tract:
Voluntary
Pyramedal tract
Involuntary
Extrapyramidal tract.
Mention common pathway of ascending tract.
All has first, second, third order
Their first order is spinal ganglia
Decussation in contralatral side
Third order is PVL neucleus in thalamus
Final distanation is postcentral gyrus
Differentiate between post. And ant. Spinocerebellar
tract.
Posterior :
Unconscious proprioceptive for-
Fine coordinating movements of lower extremities
Uncross-
Ipsilateral
spinal ganglia C8-S3-
Anterior:
Unconscious proprioceptive for-
The movements of entire lower extremities
cross-
Contralateral
spinal ganglia L1-S2-

Ventricle system

1. Mention the anatomical structures comprise the

ventricular system of the brain?
The ventricular system consists of four -
interconnected cavities: the two lateral ventricles,
the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. These
spaces are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and
.are connected by openings and channels

Mention the communication ways between ventricles

with each other and subarachanoid space.
1. **Interventricular Foramina (Foramina of
Monro)**: connect the lateral ventricles to the third
ventricle.
2. **Cerebral Aqueduct (Aqueduct of
Sylvius)**: connects the third ventricle to the fourth
ventricle.
3. **Median and Lateral Apertures**: Located in the
fourth ventricle, these openings allow CSF to flow into
the subarachnoid space.
The choroid plexus is located in the following areas of
the brain:
1. **Lateral Ventricles**: The choroid plexus is found in
the roof of each lateral ventricle.
2. **Third Ventricle**: It is located along the roof of the
third ventricle.
3. **Fourth Ventricle**: The choroid plexus is also
present in the roof of the fourth ventricle.
Mention the parts of lateral ventricle and the presence
of chronoid plexus on them.
1. FRONTAL horn lacks chorold plexus.

2. BODY: contain chronoid plexus.

3.Temporal horn contain chronoid plexus.
4.occipital horn lack choroid plexus.
5.Trigone contain glomus

Brain blood supply

Mansion of the ARTERIES OF THE BRAIN

A. Internal carotid arteries
B. Vertebrobasilar system

Mansion of the characteristic to Internal carotid

:artery ICA

1-enters the cranium via the carotid canal of the

temporal bone.
lies within the cavernous sinus as the carotid -2
.siphon (S shape)
3-supplies tributaries to the dura mater, hypophysis,
tympanic cavity, and trigeminal ganglion.
4-provides branches to the optic nerve, optic chiasm,
hypothalamus, and genu of the internal capsule.

Mansion of the Internal carotid artery ICA

:branches
1. Ophthalmic artery
2. Posterior communicating artery PComA
3. Anterior choroidal artery AChA
4. Anterior cerebral artery ACA
5. Anterior communicating artery AComA
6. Middle cerebral artery MCA

: Mansion of the Basilar artery BA Branches

1. Pontine arteries PA
2. Labyrinthine artery LA
3. Anterior inferior cerebellar artery AICA
4. Superior cerebellar artery SCA
5. Posterior cerebral artery

Mansion of the constant CEREBRAL ARTERIAL

:CIRCLE (OF WILLIS)
1. anterior communicating,
,anterior cerebral .2
,internal carotid.3
4. posterior communicating, and
posterior cerebral arteries .5

Mansion of the MENINGEAL ARTERIES branches

:(ECA branches)
1. Anterior meningeal arteries
Middle meningeal artery .2
3. Posterior meningeal arteries

Mansion of the VEINS OF THE BRAIN:

A. Superficial cerebral veins
B. Deep cerebral veins

Mansion of the types Superficial cerebral veins:

,.Superior-1
2-middle
3-Inferior.

Mansion of the Deep cerebral veins:

1-Internal cerebral veins
2-Great cerebral vein (of Galen)

Where drain the Internal cerebral veins:

a. Septal vein
b. Thalamostriate vein
c. Terminal vein
d. Venous angle

Mansion of the VENOUS DURAL SINUSES:

1. Superior sagittal sinus
Inferior sagittal sinus .2
3. Straight sinus
4. Left and right transverse sinuses
Confluence of the sinuses .5
Sigmoid sinus .6
Sphenoparietal sinus .7
8. Superior petrosal sinus
Inferior petrosal sinus .9
Cavernous sinus.10

NS structural divisions

Mention the components of brain stem:

1 midbrain
2 Pons
Medulla oblongata 3
The peripheral nervous system including:
1 cranial and spinal nerves
2 plexuses
3 receptors

Mention the nerves that arise from cerebellum:

1 olfactory nerve
2 optic nerve

Mention the nerves that arise from brainstem:

From midbrain :
Oculomotor Nerve
Trochlear Nerve

From Pons:
Trigeminal Nerve
Abducens Nerve
Facial Nerve
Vestibulocochlear Nerve
From Medulla oblongata:
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Vagus Nerve
Accessory Nerve
Hypoglossal Nerve
Physiology

Nervous System

1- Mention the division for nervous system

CNS (brain and spinal cord) -
PNS (cranial nerve 12 pair, spinal nerves 31 pairs -

2- Mention the measure parts of CNS

Brain (cerebrum, Brainstem, Cerebellum) -
Spinal Cord -

3- Mention the lobes of the cerebrum

Frontal lobe -
Parietal lobe -
Occipital lobe -
Temporal lobe -

4- Mention the role of the cerebrum

Last center to receive sensory input -
and carry out integration -
process for this input -
commanding voluntary motor response -

5- Mention the functions of the cerebellum

maintaining equilibrium and posture of the body -
ensure that all muscles work together to produce -
smooth, coordinated voluntary movement

6- Mention the two divisions of PNS

SNS -
ANS -

7- Mention the differences between Somatic and

Autonomic nervous system
Somatic has one afferent and efferent -
Autonomic has one afferent and two efferent -

8- Mention the divisions of ANS and the differences

between them
Sympathetic (preganglionic fibers short and -
postganglionic fibers long) (for fight and flight
response) (not localized)
parasympathetic (preganglionic fibers long, -
postganglionic fibers short) (in relaxed situations)
(much localized to one organ)

9- Mention the neurotransmitters of autonomic nervous

system
acetylcholine -
norepinephrine -

10- Mention the two cholinergic receptors that

Acetylcholine binds to
Nicotinic receptors -
Muscarinic receptors -

11- mention the two classes of adrenergic receptors for

epinephrine and norepinephrine
alpha (1, 2) -
Beta (1, 2, 3) -
12- Mention the functions of alpha receptors
.Vasoconstriction of blood vessels -
Contraction of muscles such as; the -
dilator pupillae muscle, erector pilae
.Inhibition of intestinal motility -

13- Mention the functions of Beta receptors

.Vasodilation of blood vessels -
Relaxation of muscles such as; the bronchial -
muscle, ciliary muscle, the walls of the stomach,
intestine and urinary bladder
.Excitation of myocardium -

Sensory Physiology

1- Mention the classification of sensory receptors

microscopic -
free nerves endings •
encapsulated nerve endings •
separate cells that synapse with sensory •
neurons
physiological -
mechanoreceptors •
thermoreceptors •
nociceptors •
photoreceptors •
chemoreceptors •

2- Mention the classification for sensation

special -
visceral -
somatic -

3- mention the classification for somatic sensation

Mechanical sensation -
thermal sensation -
pain sensation -

4- mention for what mechanical sensation is for

touch (tactile) sensation -
crude touch •
fine touch •
vibration sensation -
pressure sensation -
Stereognosis -
proprioceptive sensation -
Tikle and itch sensation -

5- mention the differences of sensation between the

back and fingertips by tactile localization and
discriminative
for back: a few numbers of afferent neurons, -
difficult to tell precisely where the touch occur, (poor
tactile localization) (poor tactile discrimination)
for fingertips: large numbers of afferent neurons, -
tells precisely where the touch occurs, (accurate
tactile localization) (accurate tactile discrimination)

6- mention the functions of somatosensory area I

fine touch sensation -
localized of pain and temperature -
intensity discrimination of different stimuli -
texture of materials -
proprioception -

7- menntionn the functions of somatosensory

association area
combine all the sensory signals from the different -
regions
Stereognosis -

Spinal cord

Mention Functions of the spinal cord:

.Conducts nerve impulses to and from the brain •
Processes simple sensory inputs and initiates •
.reflex responses
Mention types of neurons exist within the gray matter:
.Second-order sensory neurons (1)
.Somatic motor neurons (2)
.Visceral motor neurons (autonomic) (3)
.Interneurons (4)
Mention neurons that synapses with first-order sensory
neurons and their pathway :
1 - Second-order sensory neuron that transmits
impulses to higher levels of the CNS.
2-Alpha motor neuron that transmits impulses to
skeletal muscles.
3-Interneurons that transmit impulses to motor neurons
present in the ventral or lateral horns of the spinal gray
matter.
Mention types of Spinal reflexes:
.Spinal somatic reflexes control skeletal muscles •
Spinal autonomic reflexes control cardiac muscle, •
.smooth muscle and glands
Mention types of muscle receptors and their functions :
Muscle spindle : conduct sensory information about
change in m. length, responsable for stretch reflex.
Golgi tendon organ :conduct sensory info. about change
in m. tention, responsable for golgi tendon reflex.
Mention composition of muscle spindle, types, neucli
arrangements, sensory fibers and their functions :
Muscles spindle form of bundles of intrafusal fibers.
Intrafusal fibers has two types :
1. Nuclear bag fiber, neucli arranged in center, has
primary nerve fiber in central region, respond to onset
of stretch.
2. Nuclear chain fiber, neucli arranged in rows, has
secondary nerve fiber in paracentral region, respond to
prolonged stretch.
Mention Differences between stretch, golgi tendon, and
withdrawal reflex:
stretch reflex :
Monosynaptic
Ipsilateral
golgi tendon reflex :
Polysynapsis
Ipsilateral
withdrawal reflex:
Polysynapsis
Mention 3 changes occur in spinal cord during injury :
1.flaccid paralysis
2.hyperreflexia
3.spastic paralysis

Control of motor activity

Mention main motor cortex parts:

(a) Primary motor cortex.(area 4)
(b) Premotor cortex.area (area 6)
.(c)Supplementary motor area
Mention Function of the primary motor cortex:
1- It is the only area that initiates the voluntary fine
discrete movements, especially of the hands and fingers.
2- It shares premotor cortex in initiating the gross
movements.
3- It facilitates the stretch reflex andtends to increase
the skeletal muscle tone
4- It is necessary for occurrence of superficial
(cutaneous) reflexes.
Mention some Effects of lesion in the primary motor
cortex:
1- Paralysis of the skeletal muscles, commonly
monoplegia.
2- Permanent loss of fine skilled movements and
temporary loss of gross movement.
3- Inhibition of the stretch reflex.
4- Loss of the superficial reflexes.
Mention Function of the premotor cortex:
1- It initiates gross movements and help performance of
specific fine skilled movements.
2- Enhancing the primary motor cortex to commence its
activity.
3- It initiates the subconscious automatic movements.
4- It inhibits the stretch reflex and tends to decrease the
skeletal muscle tone.
Mention the specialized areas in Premotor cortex :
Broca’s area for speech (area 44)
Eye movement area (area 8)
Head rotation area
Area for hand skills;

Mention some Effects of lesion in the premotor cortex:

1- Muscle paresis.
2- Muscle spasticity .
3- Exaggerated tendon jerks.
4- Psitive Babineski’s sign

Mention Function of the supplementary motor area:

1- It supplement (i.e., help) the functions of the
premotor cortex
2- involved in planning and programming of complex
movement before it strat.
Mention differences of corticospinal tract:
1.lateral corticospinal tract 80%, responsable for fine
skilled movements.
2.ventral corticospinal tract 20%,responsable for Gross
movement of axial m.

Differences between UMNL and LMNL:

Mention substances that can cross BBB and once that

can't cross the BBB:
Cross:lipid soluble substances
Not cross:water soluble substance.
Mention Functions of BBB:
1.protects the neurons of the CNS
from fluctuations in plasma components.
2.minimizes the possibility that harmful blood-borne
substances reach the CNS.
Mention sites of brain that not exists BBB.
Hypothalamus.
Vomiting center of the medulla.
Mention types of méningites :
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
Mention site of CSF production and it's function:
Site :ventricle system
Function:
1.shock-absorbing.
2.exchange of materials between the neural cells and
the blood.
3.Cushions for brain and spinal cord .
Mention the differences between CSF and blood plasma:
1. CSF lower in K+and slightly higher in Na+
than blood plasma.
2. presence of plasma proteins in the blood but almost
no proteins normally present in the CSF.

Embryology

Development of CNS
Mentione defects in the in the nural tube :
Spina bifidia
Anencephaly
Mention the brain vesicles of the embryo and their
results :
primary brain vesicles and their derivatives:
Primary Brain Vesicles #

1. **Prosencephalon (Forebrain)**
Divisions**: Telencephalon and Diencephalon** -
:**Derivatives** -
,Telencephalon**: Cerebral hemispheres** -
Diencephalon**: Thalamus, hypothalamus, ** -
epithalamus, participate in pituitary gland

2. **Mesencephalon (Midbrain)**
Derivatives**: Midbrain** -

3. **Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain)**
Divisions**: Metencephalon and ** -
Myelencephalon
:**Derivatives** -
Metencephalon**: Pons and cerebellum** -
Myelencephalon**: Medulla oblongata** -
Mention parts that forms pituitary gland :
Rathke poutch :forms
Adenohypophysis
Intermediate lobe
Pars tuberalis
Diencephalone :forms
Neurohypophysis
Post. Lobe
Mention sources of adrenal gland during embryological
development :
1.Mesoderm form cortix
2.neural crest cells form the medulla