Theileriosis in Ruminants

Causative Agent:
Theileriosis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Theileria, primarily affecting
ruminants. The main pathogenic species include:

 Theileria annulata (Tropical Theileriosis)

 Theileria parva (East Coast Fever, Corridor Disease)

 Theileria lestoquardi (Malignant Ovine Theileriosis)

Synonym:

 Theileria annulata: Bovine Tropical Theileriosis

 Theileria parva: East Coast Fever (ECF)

 Theileria lestoquardi: Malignant Ovine Theileriosis

Clinical Signs (Striking or Pathognomonic):

 High fever (40-42°C)

 Swollen lymph nodes, especially prescapular and parotid nodes (T. parva)

 Severe anemia and jaundice (T. annulata, T. lestoquardi)

 Dyspnea and pulmonary edema (T. parva)

 Nervous signs in advanced cases (T. parva)

 Death within days in acute cases

Lesions:

 Petechial hemorrhages in lymph nodes and internal organs

 Pulmonary congestion and edema (T. parva)

 Enlarged and necrotic spleen

 Yellow, icteric liver (T. annulata, T. lestoquardi)

 Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis in severe cases

Short Pathogenesis:
After transmission by ticks, Theileria sporozoites invade host leukocytes, transforming them into
proliferative schizonts. Merozoites released from schizonts infect erythrocytes, leading to
anemia and hemolysis. Immune suppression predisposes animals to secondary infections. Death
results from severe anemia, respiratory distress, or multi-organ failure.

Test (Gold Standard if Applicable):

 Microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained blood and lymph node aspirates

 PCR (Gold standard for species differentiation)

 ELISA for serological detection

Treatment (Specific Drugs and Dosages):

 Buparvaquone (2.5 mg/kg IM, single or repeated dose in 48 hours)

 Parvaquone (10 mg/kg IM, repeat in 48 hours if necessary)

 Oxytetracycline (10-20 mg/kg IV for secondary infections)

 Supportive therapy: fluid therapy, NSAIDs (Flunixin meglumine 1.1 mg/kg IV), blood
transfusions

Prevention and Control:

 Tick control using acaricides (synthetic pyrethroids, amitraz)

 Vaccination (live attenuated T. annulata and T. parva vaccines)

 Movement restrictions to limit the spread

 Monitoring and early detection in endemic areas

Prognosis:
Prognosis depends on the severity and early treatment. T. annulata and T. lestoquardi have
moderate to high mortality rates if untreated, while T. parva is often fatal without early
intervention. Recovered animals may develop partial immunity.

Differential Diagnosis:

 Babesiosis: Both cause fever and anemia, but Babesia infects red blood cells, and
Theileria affects leukocytes. Babesiosis also causes hemoglobinuria, which is not
typically observed in Theileriosis.

 Anaplasmosis: Similar presentation with anemia and fever, but Anaplasma spp. infect
red blood cells, not leukocytes, and there is no lymphadenopathy in Anaplasmosis.

 Trypanosomiasis: Causes fever and anemia but is characterized by trypanosomes in the

blood, unlike Theileria, which has intracellular forms.
  Hemorrhagic Septicemia: Caused by Pasteurella multocida, presenting with sudden
death and respiratory distress, whereas Theileriosis presents more gradually with
anemia and lymphadenopathy.

 Rift Valley Fever: Caused by a virus, it shares fever and jaundice but also causes abortion
and hemorrhagic lesions, which are absent in Theileriosis.

Mortality Rate:

Mortality Rate:

 T. annulata: 40-90% in severe cases

 T. parva: 90-100% if untreated

 T. lestoquardi: Up to 80% in susceptible sheep

Zoonosis:
No known zoonotic potential; Theileria spp. primarily affect ruminants.

References:

1. The Merck Veterinary Manual, 11th Edition

2. Radostits, O. M., et al. "Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle,

Horses, Sheep, Pigs, and Goats."

3. Uilenberg, G. "Theileriosis in Domestic Animals."

4. Brown, C. G. D. "Dynamics of Theileria Infections in Cattle."

5. FAO. "Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases."

6. Bishop, R., et al. "Biology of Theileria Parasites and Their Impact on Livestock."

7. Dobbelaere, D. A. "Molecular and Cellular Pathogenesis of Theileria."

8. World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) reports on Theileriosis.

9. Gubbels, J. M., et al. "Molecular Characterization of Theileria spp."

10. Lawrence, J. A. "Epidemiology of T. parva Infections in African Cattle."

Anaplasmosis in Ruminants
Causative Agent:

 Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale

 Gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacteria

 Infect erythrocytes, causing hemolytic anemia

Synonym:

 Gall sickness

 Bovine anaplasmosis

Clinical Signs (Striking or Pathognomonic):

 Fever (40-41°C)

 Severe anemia (pale mucous membranes, icterus)

 Weakness, ataxia, depression

 Increased heart and respiratory rates

 Aggression due to cerebral hypoxia

 Late-stage: Recumbency, abortion in pregnant animals

Lesions:

 Splenomegaly

 Hepatomegaly with orange discoloration

 Gallbladder distention with thick bile

 Petechial hemorrhages in mucosae

 Emaciation in chronic cases

Short Pathogenesis:

 Transmission via ticks (Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor spp.), mechanical vectors (biting

flies, contaminated instruments)

 Bacteria invade erythrocytes, leading to immune-mediated destruction

 Progressive anemia, hypoxia, and organ damage

 Splenic clearance of infected erythrocytes worsens anemia

Test (Gold Standard if Applicable):

 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Gold Standard)

 Complement Fixation Test (CFT)

 Competitive ELISA

 Giemsa-stained blood smear (acute phase)

Treatment (Specific Drugs and Dosage):

 Tetracyclines (Oxytetracycline 20 mg/kg IV or IM, once daily for 3-5 days)

 Imidocarb dipropionate (3 mg/kg SC, single dose)

 Supportive therapy (blood transfusion, fluid therapy, NSAIDs)

Prevention and Control:

 Vector control (acaricides, fly repellents)

 Proper needle hygiene to prevent iatrogenic transmission

 Vaccination (live A. centrale strain for endemic areas)

 Quarantine and screening of new animals

Prognosis:

 Good in mild cases with early treatment

 Severe cases (PCV < 10%) have poor prognosis

 Recovered animals become asymptomatic carriers

Differential Diagnosis):

 Babesiosis (Babesia bovis, B. bigemina): Differentiated by characteristic pear-shaped

intraerythrocytic organisms, hemoglobinuria in B. bigemina

 Theileriosis (Theileria annulata, T. parva): Presence of schizonts in lymphocytes

 Leptospirosis: Associated with hemoglobinuria, renal involvement

 Hemotropic Mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma wenyonii, M. haemolamae): Smaller,

epicellular organisms visible on blood smear

 Post-parturient Hemoglobinuria: Occurs in high-producing dairy cows with phosphorus

deficiency
Mortality Rate:

 30-50% in untreated acute cases

 Lower in endemic areas due to partial immunity

Zoonosis:

 No direct zoonotic potential

 A. phagocytophilum (related species) affects humans

References:

1. The Merck Veterinary Manual, 11th Edition

2. Radostits, O. M., et al. "Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle,

Horses, Sheep, Pigs, and Goats."

3. Blood, D. C., and Radostits, O. M. "Veterinary Medicine."

4. Kahn, C. M. "The Merck Veterinary Manual."

5. Constable, P. D., et al. "Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle."

6. Coetzer, J. A. W., and Tustin, R. C. "Infectious Diseases of Livestock."

7. Uilenberg, G. "A Field Guide for Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of African Animal
Diseases."

8. Meiswinkel, R., et al. "Culicoides Biting Midges: Vectors of Livestock Diseases."

9. Spickler, A. R., and Roth, J. A. "Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals."

10. World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) Terrestrial Manual on Anaplasmosis

Babesiosis (B. bigemina, B. divergens)

Causative Agent: Babesia bigemina and Babesia divergens are protozoan parasites that infect
red blood cells in cattle. B. bigemina is transmitted by Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus ticks,
while B. divergens is associated with Ixodes ticks.

Synonym: Texas cattle fever (for B. bigemina)

Clinical Signs (Striking or Pathognomonic):

 Fever

 Anemia

 Weakness, lethargy

 Icterus (yellowing of the mucous membranes)

 Abortion in severe cases

 Dark red urine (hemoglobinuria)

 Respiratory distress

 Swelling of the limbs (due to edema)

 Rapid pulse and increased heart rate

Lesions:

 Splenomegaly

 Hepatomegaly

 Pale mucous membranes

 Hyperemia or congestion of the lungs and kidneys

 Extensive petechial hemorrhages in various organs

 Hemorrhagic and necrotic changes in the liver

Short Pathogenesis: The transmission of Babesia occurs when an infected tick feeds on the
host. The sporozoites invade red blood cells, initiating a cycle of schizogony. This results in the
formation of merozoites, which are released into the bloodstream and infect new erythrocytes.
The immune response generates inflammation and systemic effects, leading to clinical signs.

Test (Gold Standard if Applicable):

 Blood smear (demonstrates the presence of Babesia organisms in red blood cells)

 PCR testing (more sensitive, detects low parasitemia)

  Indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT)

Treatment (Specific Drugs and Its Dosage):

 Imidocarb dipropionate: 2 mg/kg IM, repeated after 24 hours if necessary

 Diminazene aceturate: 3.5 mg/kg IM, can be repeated after 48 hours if needed

 Quinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin): As adjunctive treatment in some cases

Prevention and Control:

 Tick control programs using acaricides (e.g., organophosphates, pyrethroids)

 Regular tick surveillance and management

 Use of vaccines (available in some regions for B. bigemina)

 Control of animal movement to minimize exposure to tick-infested areas

Prognosis:

 Good with prompt treatment, especially for B. bigemina

 Poor for B. divergens, particularly in older or immunocompromised animals

 High fatality rate if untreated, especially for B. divergens

Differential Diagnosis (Further Explain):

 Anaplasmosis: Similar clinical signs of anemia and fever, but caused by Anaplasma
marginale.

 Theileriosis: Also causes fever, anemia, and icterus, but caused by Theileria species and
transmitted by ticks.

 Trypanosomiasis: Also causes fever and anemia, but caused by Trypanosoma species.

Differentiating between these diseases often requires laboratory confirmation through blood
smears, PCR, or serology.

Mortality Rate:

 High in untreated cases of B. divergens (up to 50-70% in severe outbreaks)

 Lower in B. bigemina, especially with early treatment (mortality can be reduced to under
10% with appropriate intervention)

Zoonosis:
  Generally, Babesia species are not zoonotic for B. bigemina and B. divergens, though
cases of human infection with other Babesia species (e.g., B. microti) have been
reported.

References:

1. Merck Manual 11th Edition

2. Radostits, O. M., et al. (2007). Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle,
Sheep, Pigs, Goats, and Horses. Elsevier.

3. Brown, C. G. D. (1997). Babesiosis of Cattle. In: Diseases of Cattle in the Tropics.

4. Urquhart, G. M., et al. (1996). Veterinary Parasitology. Blackwell Science.

5. Kocan, A. A., et al. (2000). Theileriosis and Babesiosis in Cattle. Veterinary Parasitology.

6. OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health). (2020). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and
Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals.

7. Girma, Z., et al. (2011). Theileriosis and Babesiosis in East African Cattle. Veterinary
Journal.

8. Pruvot, M., et al. (2016). Detection of Babesia divergens in European Cattle. Veterinary
Parasitology.

9. Gohil, M., et al. (2013). Babesiosis in Cattle: Diagnosis and Treatment. Journal of
Veterinary Internal Medicine.

10. Dantas-Torres, F. (2008). Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. The Veterinary Clinics of North
America: Food Animal Practice.