Mobile Computing Prepared by Mrs.N.S.Abinaya,M.Sc.,M.Phil.

PARVATHY’S ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Semester : V Class: III BCA

MOBILE COMPUTING – SCAGA51

SYLLABUS

Unit - I:

INTRODUCTION : Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking – Mobile

Computing Applications – Characteristics of Mobile Computing – Structure of Mobile Computing
Applications - MAC Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed Assignment Schemes – Random
Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based Schemes.

Unit - II:

MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER : Overview of Mobile IP –

Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in Mobile IP – Route Optimization - Overview of TCP/IP –
Architecture of TCP/IP – Adaptation of TCP Window – Improvement in TCP Performance.

Unit - III:

MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS : Global Systems for Mobile

Communication(GSM)- General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)- Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS)

Unit – IV:

MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS : Ad-Hoc basic concepts – Characteristics- Applications –

Design Issues – Routing – Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols – Popular Routing Protocols –
Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANET)- MANET Vs VANET – Security.

Unit – V:

MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS : Mobile Device Operating Systems –

Special Constrains and Requirements – Commercial Mobile Operating Systems – Software Development

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Kit : iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, M-commerce –Structure –Pros & Cons – Mobile
Payment System – Security Issues .

Unit – I : INTRODUCTION : Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking –

Mobile Computing Applications – Characteristics of Mobile Computing – Structure of Mobile
Computing Applications - MAC Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed Assignment Schemes –
Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based Schemes.

1.1 Mobile computing:

Mobile computing is human-computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be
transported during normal usage, which allows for transmission of data, voice and video. Mobile
computing involves mobile communication, mobile hardware and mobile software.
Communication issues include ad hoc networks and in fracture networks as well as
communication properties, protocols data formats and concrete technologies.
1.2 Mobile computing and wireless computing:
The terms mobile and wireless are often used interchangeably but in reality, they are two
very different concepts applied to modern computing and technology. Mobile is used to describe
portable devices. A mobile device is one that is made to be taken anywhere. Therefore, it needs
an internal battery for power, and must be connected to a modern mobile network that can help it
to send and receive data without attaching to a hardware infrastructure. Wireless, on the other
hand does not mean mobile. Traditional computers or other non-mobile devices can access
wireless networks. One very common example is the use of a localized browser product in a
local area network (LAN), where the router takes what used to be a cables interaction and makes
it wireless. Other kinds of wireless networks called wireless networks called wide area networks
(WAN) can even use components of 3G or 4G wireless systems made specially for mobile
devices, but that doesn’t mean that the devices on these networks are mobile. They may still be
plugged in or require proximity to a router or network. A wireless system provides a fixed or
portal endpoint with access to a distributed network, a mobile system offers all of the resources
of that distributed network to something that can go anywhere, barring any issues with local
reception or technical area coverage.

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1.3 Mobile Computing Applications:

Mobile computing technology makes it possible for people to sender extract information
while on move. For example, a stock broker travelling in a car may wish to issue stock
transaction orders from a mobile phone or to receive share price quotations. This, therefore, open
up very difficult security issues that must be overcome to ensure privacy of data.
1.4 Characteristics of Mobile Computing:
A computing environment is said to be “mobile”, when either the sender or the receiver
of information can be on the move while transmitting or receiving information.
Ubiquity:
Ubiquity is present everywhere. In the context of mobile computing, ubiquity means the ability
of a user to perform computations from everywhere and at anytime.
Location awareness:
A hand-held devices equipped with global positioning system (GPS) can transparently provide
information about the current location of a user to a tracking station. Many applications ranging
from strategic to personalized services, require or get value additions by location based services.
Adaptation:
Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the ability of a system to adjust to
bandwidth fluctuation without inconveniencing the user.
Broadcast:
Due to the broadcast nature of the underlying communication network of a mobile computing
environment, efficient delivery of data can be made simultaneously to hundreds of mobile users.
Personalization:
Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a users profile. This is
required to let the users easily avail information with their hand-held devices.
1.5 Structure of Mobile Computing Application:
A mobile computing application is usually structured in terms of functionalities
implemented. The simple three-tier structure of a mobile computing application is depicted. The
three tiers are named as presentation tier, application tier and data tier.

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Presentation tier:
The topmost level of a mobile computing application concern the user interface. A good user
interface facilities the users to issue requests and to present the results to the them. This layer run
on the client’s computer.
Application tier:
This layer has the vital responsibility of making logical decisions and performing and data
layers. The middle tier to be like an engine of an automobile. It performs the processing of user
input, obtaining information and then making decisions.
Data tier:
The data tier is responsible for providing the basic facilities of data storage, access, and
manipulation. This layer contains a database. The information is stored and retrieved from the
database.
1.6 MAC protocol:
It should implement some rules that help to enforce discipline when multiple nodes
contend for a shared channel. It should help maximize the utilization of the channel. Channel
allocation needs to be fair. No node should be discriminated against at any time and made to wait
for an unduly long time for transmission. It should be capable of supporting several types of
traffic having different maximum and average bit rates. It should be robust in the face of
equipment failures and changing network conditions.
1.7 Wireless MAC protocols: Some issues:
The MAC protocol in a wireless medium is much more complex than its wired
counterpart. First, it is difficult to implement a collision are hard to be detected by the
transmitting nodes. The hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems in an infrastructureless
Network: The hidden terminal problem arises when at least three nodes (A, B and C) and
communicating among each other. The node A is in the radio range of the node B, and B is also
within the radio range of C. However, the nodes A and C are not in the radio range of each other.
Therefore, if both A and C start to transmit to B at the same time, the data received at node B.
Such a situation can arise because A and C are “hidden” from each other, because they are
outside each other’s transmission range.
A related problem called exposed terminal could arise in a scenario, node D is within
node A’s transmission range. Node B is within the transmission range of both the nodes A and C,

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but the node A and C are not within each other’s transmission range. MAC protocols usually
inhibit transmission when transmission from another terminal is detected. As a result node A will
not be able to transmit to any node when B is transmitting to C.
1.8 Fixed Assignment Schemes:
A few important categories of fixed assignment MAC protocols are the following:
Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into many narrower frequency bands called
channels. A division of the existing bandwidth into many channels. For full duplex
communication to take place, each user is allocated a forward link for communicating from it to
the base station and a reverse channel for communicating from the BS to it.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
TDMA is an access method in which multiple nodes are allotted different time slots to access the
same physical channel. The timeline is divided into fixed-sized time slots and these are divided
among multiple nodes that can transmit.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
In CDMA, multiple users are allotted different codes that consist of sequences of 0 and 1 to
access the same channel. A special coding scheme is used that allows signals from multiple users
to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. In CDMA, scheduling is applied. All the
senders send signals simultaneously through a common medium. The bandwidth of this medium
is much larger than the space that would be allocated to each packet transmission during FDMA
and the signals can be distinguished from each other by means of special coding scheme.
1.9 Random Assignment Schemes:
There are a number of random assignment schemes that are used in MAC protocols. A
few important ones are the following:
ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA
CSMA
CSMA/CD

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CSMA/CA
ALOHA:
It is a simple communication schme that was developed at the university of Hawaii. The basic
ALOHA scheme, is a simple protocol. If a node has data to send, it begins to transmit. Note that
the first step implies that Pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is busy before
transmitting.If the frame successfully reaches the destination, the next frame is sent. If the frame
fails to be received at the destination, it is sent again. The simple ALOHA scheme works
acceptably, when the chances of contention are small.
The CSMA Scheme:
A popular MAC arbitration technique is the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA). In this
technique, a node senses the medium before starting to transmit. If it senses that some
transmission is already underway, it defers its transmission. Two popular extensions of the basic
CSMA technique are the collision detection (CSMA/CD) and the collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA) techniques. In a wireless network, a collision avoidance scheme works much better
compared to a collision detection-based scheme. A collision avoidance scheme is based on the
idea that it is necessary to prevent collision at the moment they are most likely to occur, when
the bus released after a packet transmission.
1.10 Reservation Based scheme:
A basic form of the reservation scheme is the RTS/CTS scheme/ In an RTS/CTS scheme,
a sender transmits an RTS packet to the receiver before the actual data transmission. On
receiving this the receiver sends a CTS packet and the actual data transfer commences only after
.When the other nodes sharing the medium sense the CTS packet, they refrain form transmitting
until the transmission from the sending node is complete.
MACA
MACA stands for Multiple Access collision Avoidance. MACA solves the hidden/exposed
terminal problems by regulating the transmitter power. A node running MACA requests to use
the medium by sending an RTS to the receiver. Since radio signals propagate Omni directionally,
every terminal within the sender’s radio range will hear this and then refrain from transmitting.
The start of its transmission, it sends a Request TO Send (RTS). B receives the RTS that contains
the senders name and the receivers name as well as the length of the future transmission. In
response to the RTS, an acknowledgment from B is triggered indicating Clear To Send (CTS).

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The CTS contains the names of the sender and receiver, and the length of the planned
transmission. This CTS is heared by C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the duration
of the transmission. On receipt of CTS from B, C refrains from transmitting anytime for the time
indicated in the CTS. Thus a collision cannot occur at B during data transmission and the hidden
terminal problem is solved. This is a collision avoidance protocol, a collision can occur during
the sending of an RTS. Both A and C could send an RTS at sane time. But an RTS occurs over a
very small duration compared to the duration of data transmission. Thus the probability of
collision remains much less. B resolves this contention problem by acknowledging only one
station in the CTS. No transmission occurs without an appropriate CTS. Thus C can start its
transmission assuming that no collision would occur at A.

Unit - II: MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER : Overview of Mobile
IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in Mobile IP – Route Optimization - Overview of TCP/IP –
Architecture of TCP/IP – Adaptation of TCP Window – Improvement in TCP Performance.

2.1 Overview of Mobile IP:

Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard communications
protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network to another
while maintaining their permanent IP address. Defined in Request for Comments (RFC) 2002,
Mobile IP is an enhancement of the Internet Protocol (IP) that adds mechanisms for forwarding
Internet traffic to mobile devices (known as mobile nodes) when they are connecting through
other than their home network. In traditional IP routing, IP addresses represent a topology.
Routing mechanisms rely on the assumption that each network node will always have the same
point of attachment to the Internet, and that each node's IP address identifies the network link
where it is connected. Core Internet routers look at the IP address prefix, which identifies a
device's network. At the network level, routers look at the next few bits to identify the
appropriate subnet. Finally, at the subnet level, routers look at the bits identifying a particular
device. In this routing scheme, if you disconnect a mobile device from the Internet and want to
reconnect through a different subnet, you have to configure the device with a new IP address,
and the appropriate netmask and default router. Otherwise, routing protocols have no means of
delivering packets because the device's IP address doesn't contain the necessary information
about the current point of attachment to the Internet.

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Components of a Mobile IP Network

Mobile IP has three major components as mentioned below –
Mobile Node: A device such as a cell phone, personal digital assistant, or laptop whose
software enables network roaming capabilities.
The Home Agent: A router on the home network serving as the anchor point for
communication with the mobile node; its tunnel packets from a device on the Internet, called a
correspondent node, to the roaming mobile node.
The Foreign Agent: A router that may function as the point of attachment for the mobile
node when it roams to a foreign network delivers packets from the home agent to the mobile
node.
2.2 Desirable Features of Mobile IP
Transparency:
A mobile end-system should continue to keep its IP address and there should not be any
distruption of communication after any movement. The IP address is to be managed
transparently and there should not be any effect of mobility on any on-going communication.
Compatibility:
Mobile IP should be compatible with the existing internet protocols.
Security:
Mobile IP should as far as possible provide users with secure communication over the Internet.
Efficiency and Scalability:
In the event of worldwide support, there can be a large number of mobile systems in the whole
Internet.This should neither result in large number of messages nor should it incur too much
computational overhead.
2.3 Key Mechanism Used in Mobile IP
Mobile IP is associated with the following three basic mechanisms:
Discovering the care-of-address
Registering the care-of-address
Tunnelling to the care-of-address

Discovering the care of address:

Each mobile node uses a discovery protocol to identify the respective home and foreign agents.

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The discovery of the care-of-address consists of the following important steps.

Mobile agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting the agent advertisement
messages.
The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes whether the message is
from its own home agent and determines whether it is on the home network or on a foreign
network.
If a mobile node does not wish to wait for the periodic advertisement it can send out agent
solicitation messages that will be responded to by a mobility agent.
Registering the care-of-address:
If a mobile node discovers that it is on the home network. It operates normally without using any
mobility services.
If the mobile node travels to a foreign network, it registers with the foreign agent by sending a
registration request messages which include the permanent IP address of the mobile host and the
IP address of its home agent.
The foreign agent in turn performs the registration process on behalf of the mobile host by
sending a Registration Request containing the permanent IP address of the mobile node and the
IP address of the foreign agent to the home agent.
The home agent then sends an acknowledgment to the foreign agent.
The foreign agent in turn updates its visitors list by inserting the entry for the mobile node and
relays the reply to the mobile node.
Tunnelling to the care-of-address:
When a home agent receives a packet addressed to a mobile host, it forwards the packet to the
care-of address using IP-within-IP.
Using IP-within-IP, the home agent inserts a new IP header in from of the IP header of any
datagram.
Destination address is set to the care-of-address.
Source address is set to the home agents address.
2.5 Route Optimization
In the mobile IP protocol, All the data packets to the mobile node go through the home
agent. Because of this there will be heavy traffic between HA and CN in the network, causing
latency to increase.

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Enable direct notification of the corresponding host.

Direct tunneling from the corresponding host to the mobile host.
Binding cache maintained at the corresponding host.
2.6 Overview of TCP / IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication
language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a
private network (either an intranet or an extranet). When you are set up with direct access to the
Internet, your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program just as every other
computer that you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP.
TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol, manages the
assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet and
received by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the original message. The lower layer,
Internet Protocol, handles the address part of each packet so that it gets to the right destination.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see where to forward the message.
Even though some packets from the same message are routed differently than others, they'll be
reassembled at the destination.TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a
computer user (a client) requests and is provided a service (such as sending a Web page) by
another computer (a server) in the network. TCP/IP communication is primarily point-to-point,
meaning each communication is from one point (or host computer) in the network to another
point or host computer.
TCP/IP and the higher-level applications that use it are collectively said to be "stateless"
because each client request is considered a new request unrelated to any previous one (unlike
ordinary phone conversations that require a dedicated connection for the call duration). Being
stateless frees network paths so that everyone can use them continuously. (Note that the TCP
layer itself is not stateless as far as any one message is concerned. Its connection remains in
place until all packets in a message have been received.)
Terminologies of TCP/IP:
HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTP takes care of the communication between a web server and a web browser. HTTP is used
for sending requests from a web client (a browser) to a web server, returning web content (web
pages) from the server back to the client.

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HTTPS - Secure HTTP

HTTPS takes care of secure communication between a web server and a web browser.
HTTPS typically handles credit card transactions and other sensitive data.
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
FTP takes care of transmission of files between computers.
TCP/IP Protocols for Email
E-mail programs use TCP/IP for sending and receiving e-mails. The TCP/IP protocols for email
are:
1. SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SMTP takes care of sending emails. Often emails are sent to an email server (SMTP server), then
to other servers, and finally to its destination. SMTP can only transmit pure text. It cannot
transmit binary data like pictures, sounds or movies.
2. MIME - Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extensions
The MIME protocol lets SMTP transmit multimedia files including voice, audio, and binary data
across TCP/IP networks. The MIME protocol converts binary data to pure text,before it is sent.
3. POP - Post Office Protocol
The POP protocol is used by email programs to retrieve emails from an email server. If your
email program uses POP, all your emails are downloaded to your email program (also called
email client), each time it connects to your email server.
4. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol
The IMAP protocol works much like the POP protocol. The main difference is that the IMAP
protocol will not automatically download all your emails each time your email program connects
to your email server.The IMAP protocol allows you to look through your email messages at the
email server before you download them. With IMAP you can choose to download your messages
or just delete them. This way IMAP is perfect if you need to connect to your email server from
different locations, but only want to download your messages when you are back in your office.
2.6 Architecture of TCP/IP:
The TCP/IP procol consists of four layers.These layers are: Application layer, Transport layer,
Internet layer and Network access layer. TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication
in which a user or machine (a client) is provided a service (like sending a webpage) by another
computer (a server) in the network. Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as

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stateless, which means each client request is considered new because it is unrelated to previous
requests. Being stateless frees up network paths so they can be used continuously.
TCP/IP model layers
TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols.
The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols
include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office
Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP).
The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the
network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing
and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which
is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.
The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent
networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are the
IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component
that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this layer include Ethernet for
local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Advantages of TCP/IP
TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company. Therefore, the
internet protocol suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with all operating systems, so it
can communicate with any other system. The internet protocol suite is also compatible with all
types of computer hardware and networks.
2.7 Adaptation of TCP/IP:
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and
maintained until the application programs at each end have finished exchanging messages. It
determines how to break application data into packets that networks can deliver, sends packets to
and accepts packets from the network layer, manages flow control, and—because it is meant to
provide error-free data transmission—handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets as
well as acknowledgement of all packets that arrive. In the Open Systems Interconnection(OSI)

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communication model, TCP covers parts of Layer 4, the Transport Layer, and parts of Layer 5,
the Session Layer.
For example, when a Web server sends an HTMLfile to a client, it uses the HTTP
protocol to do so. The HTTP program layer asks the TCP layer to set up the connection and send
the file. The TCP stack divides the file into packets, numbers them and then forwards them
individually to the IP layer for delivery. Although each packet in the transmission will have the
same source and destination IP addresses, packets may be sent along multiple routes. The TCP
program layer in the client computer waits until all of the packets have arrived, then
acknowledges those it receives and asks for the retransmission on any it does not (based on
missing packet numbers), then assembles them into a file and delivers the file to the receiving
application.
2.8 Imporvement in TCP Perfoemance:
Initially, it was thought that TCP/IP could not be used for storage networking
applications, as it would place an excessive load on the end systems -- the servers, disk arrays
and tape libraries. TCP requires a large amount of processing power and, until recently, had been
handled by the server CPU, limiting the amount of TCP a box can run and still have useful
cycles left over.
However, early in 2002, TCP offload adapters became commercially available and
changed this workload balance. These specialized adapter cards include a hardware-based TCP
offload engine that handles IP storage protocols at full wire speed over a Gigabit Ethernet
interface. The loading on the server CPU is no greater than that of a Fibre Channel HBA, so
TCP/IP has become a viable storage networking protocol. Vendors now are sampling 10 Gbps
TCP offload engines and have promised to deliver IP storage adapter cards that have 10 Gbps
Ethernet interfaces during 2003.
Although the limitations of the TCP computational intensity have been overcome,
another limitation -- flow control -- still can cause network performance problems. TCP was
designed for use in very large networks and, indeed, it is used today by hundreds of millions of
users of the world's largest network, the Internet. To ensure fairness and accessibility by millions
of simultaneous users, TCP uses a fairly conservative flow-control algorithm. In effect, each user
is granted a modest initial data flow rate that increases as acknowledgments are returned from
the destination end system when the IP packets are received without errors. If packets are

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dropped or contain errors, the sending system must fall back to a much lower flow rate and start
once again to ramp its rate. In a well-designed network, TCP has little impact on performance,
but in a congested or error-prone network, the overall performance can be cut by more than half.
To improve the operation of TCP/IP, a specification is available for a more aggressive version of
TCP. It sometimes is called fast-start TCP, as its initial flow rate will be greater, and it will
recover more quickly from lost packets.

Unit - III: MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS : Global Systems for Mobile

Communication(GSM)- General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)- Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS)

3.1 Global System for Mobile Communication ( GSM ):

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in
the early 1970s.
GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard.
GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented
globally.
GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-
slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts
of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.
GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for
transmitting signals.
GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps
of data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming
is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network. GSM digitizes and

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compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other streams of user data, each
in its own timeslot.
Features of GSM
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
Improved spectrum efficiency
International roaming
Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
High-quality speech
Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone services.
Support for new services
Composition of the network
The GSM network has four separate parts that work together to function as a whole: the
mobile device itself, the base station subsystem (BSS), the network switching subsystem (NSS)
and the operation and support subsystem (OSS).The mobile device connects to the network via
hardware. The subscriber identity module (SIM) card provides the network with identifying
information about the mobile user.
Security:
Although GSM was designed as a secure wireless system, it can still experience attacks.
It uses authentication measures, such as challenge-response authentication, which prompts a user
to provide a valid answer to a question, and a preshared key that can come in the form of a
password or passphrase.There are a few cryptographic security algorithms that GMS employs,
including stream ciphers that encrypt plaintext digits. A5/1, A5/2 and A5/3 are three stream
ciphers that ensure that a user's conversation is private. However, the algorithms for both A5/1
and A5/2 have been broken and published and are therefore susceptible to plaintext attacks.
GSM uses GPRS, a packet-based communication service, to transmit data, such as through web
browsing. However, the ciphers that GPRS uses -- GEA/1 and GEA/2 – were broken and
published as well in 2011. Researchers published open source software to sniff packets in the
GPRS network. Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign
operators, users can often continue to use their phones when they travel to other countries. SIM
cards that hold home network access configurations may be switched to those with metered local
access, significantly reducing roaming costs, while experiencing no reductions in service.

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3.2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS):

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless data communication
service designed to replace the current circuit-switched services available on the second
generation global system for mobile communications (GSM) and time division multiple access
(TDMA) IS-136 networks. GSM and TDMA networks were designed for voice communication,
dividing the available bandwidth into multiple channels, each of which is constantly allocated to
an individual call (circuit-switched). These channels can be used for the purpose of data
transmission, but they only provide a maximum transmission speed of around 9.6Kbps (kilobits
per second).
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation
GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the
packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air
interface resources concurrently.
GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.
Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. These
new terminals will be backward compatible with GSM for voice calls. BTS A software upgrade
is required in the existing Base Transceiver Station(BTS). BSC The Base Station Controller
(BSC) requires a software upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the packet control
unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC. GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of
GPRS requires the installation of new core network elements called the serving GPRS support
node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN). Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the
databases involved in the network will require software upgrades to handle the new call models
and functions introduced by GPRS.
GPRS Mobile Stations
New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM
phones do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist,
including a high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA
device with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations
are backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.

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GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a
software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but
typically does not require hardware enhancements. When either voice or data traffic is originated
at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to
the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call.
However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN
via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSNs) and,
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks.
It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different
GSNs. Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need
any information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC,
HLR or EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area

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in GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.
3.3 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a so-called "third-generation
(3G)," broadband , packet -based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and multimedia at
data rates up to and possibly higher than 2 megabits per second ( Mbps ), offering a consistent
set of services to mobile computer and phone users no matter where they are located in the
world. Based on the Global System for Mobile ( GSM ) communication standard, UMTS,
endorsed by major standards bodies and manufacturers, is the planned standard for mobile users
around the world by 2002. Once UMTS is fully implemented, computer and phone users can be
constantly attached to the Internet as they travel and, as they roaming service , have the same set
of capabilities no matter where they travel to. Users will have access through a combination of
terrestrial wireless and satellite transmissions. Until UMTS is fully implemented, users can have
multi-mode devices that switch to the currently available technology (such as GSM 900 and
1800) where UMTS is not yet available.
Today's cellular telephone systems are mainly circuit-switched , with connections always
dependent on circuit availability. packet-switchedconnection, using the Internet Protocol ( IP ),
means that a virtual connection is always available to any other end point in the network. It will
also make it possible to provide new services, such as alternative billing methods (pay-per-bit,
pay-per-session, flat rate, asymmetric bandwidth, and others). The higher bandwidth of UMTS
also promises new services, such as video conferencing. UMTS promises to realize the Virtual
Home Environment ( VHE ) in which a roaming user can have the same services to which the
user is accustomed when at home or in the office, through a combination of transparent terrestrial
and satellite connections.
Trials of UMTS technology, using advanced mobile phone/computing device prototypes,
are currently being conducted by Nortel Networks and BT (British Telecommunications). The
electromagnetic radiation spectrum for UMTS has been identified as frequency bands 1885-2025
MHz for future IMT-2000 systems, and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for the satellite
portion of UMTS systems.
UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates of 42 Mbit/s when Evolved
HSPA (HSPA+) is implemented in the network. Users in deployed networks can expect a

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transfer rate of up to 384 kbit/s for Release '99 (R99) handsets (the original UMTS release), and
7.2 Mbit/s for High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) handsets in the downlink
connection. These speeds are significantly faster than the 9.6 kbit/s of a single GSM
errorcorrected circuit switched data channel, multiple 9.6 kbit/s channels in High-Speed Circuit-
Switched Data (HSCSD) and 14.4 kbit/s for CDMA. Since 2006, UMTS networks in many
countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with High-Speed Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G.
Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 21 Mbit/s. Work is also
progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
(HSUPA). Longer term, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) project plans to move UMTS to
4G speeds of 100 Mbit/s down and 50 Mbit/s up, using a next generation air interface technology
based upon orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing.

Unit – IV: MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS : Ad-Hoc basic concepts – Characteristics- Applications
–Design Issues – Routing – Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols – Popular Routing Protocols –
Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANET)- MANET Vs VANET – Security.

4.1 Ad-Hoc basic Concepts :

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET), also known as wireless ad hoc network or adhoc
wireless network, is a continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile
devices connected wirelessly. Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any
direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Each must forward
traffic unrelated to its own use, and therefore be a router. The primary challenge in building a
MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the information required to
properly route traffic. Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the
larger Internet. They may contain one or multiple and different transceivers between nodes.
This results in a highly dynamic, autonomous topology. MANETs are a kind of wireless ad -
hoc network (WANET) that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link
Layer ad hoc network. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing
network. MANETs circa 2000–2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30 MHz –
5 GHz).

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4.2 Characteristics
Operating without a central coordinator
Multi-hop radio relaying
Frequent link breakage due to mobile nodes
Constraint resources (bandwidth, computing power, battery lifetime, etc.)
Instant deployment
4.3 Applications
Military applications
Collaborative computing
Emergency rescue
Mesh networks
Wireless sensor networks
Multi-hop cellular networks
Wireless Community Network
4.4 MANET Design Issues
A mobile ad hoc network is a collection of wireless nodes that can dynamically be set up
anywhere and anytime without using any pre-existing network infrastructure. It is an
autonomous system in which mobile hosts connected by wireless links are free to move
randomly and often act as routers at the same time. The traffic types in ad hoc networks are quite
different from those in an infrastructured wireless network including:
1) Peer-to-Peer. Communication between two nodes which are within one hop. Network traffic
(Bps) is usually consistent.
2) Remote-to-Remote. Communication between two nodes beyond a single hop but which
maintain a stable route between them. This may be the result of several nodes staying within
communication range of each other in a single area or possibly moving as a group. The traffic is
similar to standard network traffic.
3) Dynamic Traffic. This occurs when nodes are dynamic and moving around. Routes must be
reconstructed. This results in a poor connectivity and network activity in short bursts.
MANET has the following features:

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1) Autonomous terminal.
In MANET, each mobile terminal is an autonomous node, which may function as both a
host and a router. In other words, besides the basic processing ability as a host, the mobile nodes
can also perform switching functions as a router. So usually endpoints and switches are
indistinguishable in MANET.
2) Distributed operation.
Since there is no background network for the central control of the network operations,
the control and management of the network is distributed among the terminals. The nodes
involved in a MANET should collaborate amongst themselves and each node acts as a relay as
needed, to implement functions e.g. security and routing.
3) Multihop routing.
Basic types of ad hoc routing algorithms can be single-hop and multihop, based on
different link layer attributes and routing protocols. Single-hop MANET is simpler than multihop
in terms of structure and implementation, with the cost of lesser functionality and applicability.
When delivering data packets from a source to its destination out of the direct wireless
transmission range, the packets should be forwarded via one or more intermediate nodes.
4) Dynamic network topology.
Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change rapidly and unpredictably
and the connectivity among the terminals may vary with time. MANET should adapt to the
traffic and propagation conditions as well as the mobility patterns of the mobile network nodes.
The mobile nodes in the network dynamically establish routing among themselves as they move
about, forming their own network on the fly. Moreover, a user in the MANET may not only
operate within the ad hoc network, but may require access to a public fixed network (e.g.
Internet). Service Area Access Point Service Area Access Point Backbone Service Area (a)
Infrastructure-based wireless network (b) Ad hoc wireless network
5) Fluctuating link capacity.
The nature of high bit-error rates of wireless connection might be more profound in a
MANET. One end-to-end path can be shared by several sessions. The channel over which the
terminals communicate is subject to noise, fading, and interference, and has less bandwidth than
a wired network. In some scenarios, the path between any pair of users can traverse multiple
wireless links and the link themselves can be heterogeneous.

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6) Light-weight terminals.
In most cases, the MANET nodes are mobile devices with less CPU processing
capability, small memory size, and low power storage.
MANET Applications
With the increase of portable devices as well as progress in wireless communication, ad -
hoc networking is gaining importance with the increasing number of widespread applications.
Ad hoc networking can be applied anywhere where there is little or no communication
infrastructure or the existing infrastructure is expensive or inconvenient to use. Ad hoc
networking allows the devices to maintain connections to the network as well as easily adding
and removing devices to and from the network. The set of applications for MANETs is diverse,
ranging from large-scale, mobile, highly dynamic networks, to small, static networks that are
constrained by power sources. Besides the legacy applications that move from traditional
infrastructured environment into the ad hoc context, a great deal of new services can and will be
generated for the new environment.
Typical applications include:
1) Military battlefield.
Military equipment now routinely contains some sort of computer equipment. Ad hoc
networking would allow the military to take advantage of commonplace network technology to
maintain an information network between the soldiers, vehicles, and military information head
quarters. The basic techniques of ad hoc network came from this field.
2) Commercial sector.
Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire,
flood, or earthquake. Emergency rescue operations must take place where non-existing or
damaged communications infrastructure and rapid deployment of a communication network is
needed. Information is relayed from one rescue team member to another over a small handheld.
Other commercial scenarios include e.g. ship-to-ship ad hoc mobile communication, law
enforcement, etc.
3) Local level.
Ad hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary multimedia network
using notebook computers or palmtop computers to spread and share information among
participants at a e.g. conference or classroom. Another appropriate local level application might

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be in home networks where devices can communicate directly to exchange information.

Similarly in other civilian environments like taxicab, sports stadium, boat and small aircraft,
mobile ad hoc communications will have many aplications.
4) Personal Area Network (PAN).
Short-range MANET can simplify the intercommunication between various mobile
devices (such as a PDA, a laptop, and a cellular phone). Tedious wired cables are replaced with
wireless connections. Such an ad hoc network can also extend the access to the Internet or other
networks by mechanisms e.g. Wireless LAN (WLAN), GPRS, and UMTS. The PAN is
potentially a promising application field of MANET in the future pervasive computing context.
4.5 Routing.
Since the topology of the network is constantly changing, the issue of routing packets
between any pair of nodes becomes a challenging task. Most protocols should be based on
reactive routing instead of proactive. Multicast routing is another challenge because the multicast
tree is no longer static due to the random movement of nodes within the network. Routes
between nodes may potentially contain multiple hops, which is more complex than the single
hop communication.

4.6 Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols

Link State Routing Protocol : Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of
distance vector routing. In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology
of the domain the list of nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost
(metric), and condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm to build a
routing table.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol : In this protocol, the least cost route between any two nodes
is the route with minimum distance. Each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distances
to every node. This guides the packets to the desired node.

4.7 Popular Routing Protocols

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)

Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is adapted from the conventional
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) to ad hoc networks routing. It adds a new attribute, sequence

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number, to each route table entry of the conventional RIP. Using the newly added sequence
number, the mobile nodes can distinguish stale route information from the new and thus prevent
the formation of routing loops.

Packet Routing and Routing Table Management

In DSDV, each mobile node of an ad hoc network maintains a routing table, which lists
all available destinations, the metric and next hop to each destination and a sequence number
generated by the destination node. Using such routing table stored in each mobile node, the
packets are transmitted between the nodes of an ad hoc network. Each node of the ad hoc
network updates the routing table with advertisement periodically or when significant new
information is available to maintain the consistency of the routing table with the dynamically
changing topology of the ad hoc network.

If a node receives multiple update packets for a same destination during the waiting time
period, the routes with more recent sequence numbers are always preferred as the basis for
packet forwarding decisions, but the routing information is not necessarily advertised
immediately, if only the sequence numbers have been changed. If the update packets have the
same sequence number with the same node, the update packet with the smallest metric will be
used and the existing route will be discarded or stored as a less preferable route. In this case, the
update packet will be propagated with the sequence number to all mobile nodes in the ad hoc
network.

Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a routing protocol for wireless mesh networks. It is
similar to AODV in that it forms a route on-demand when a transmitting node requests one.
However, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing table at each intermediate
device. Determining source routes requires accumulating the address of each device between the
source and destination during route discovery. The accumulated path information iscached by
nodes processing the route discovery packets. The learned paths are used to route packets. To
accomplish source routing, the routed packets contain the address of each device the packet will
traverse. This may result in high overhead for long paths or large addresses, like IPv6.

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To avoid using source routing, DSR optionally defines a flow id option that allows
packets to be forwarded on a hop-by-hop basis. This protocol is truly based on source routing
whereby all the routing information is maintained (continually updated) at mobile nodes. It has
only two major phases, which are Route Discovery and Route Maintenance. Route Reply would
only be generated if the message has reached the intended destination node (route record which
is initially contained in Route Request would be inserted into the Route Reply).

To return the Route Reply, the destination node must have a route to the source node. If
the route is in the Destination Node's route cache, the route would be used. Otherwise, the node
will reverse the route based on the route record in the Route Request message header (this
requires that all links are symmetric). In the event of fatal transmission, the Route Maintenance
Phase is initiated whereby the Route Error packets are generated at a node.

The erroneous hop will be removed from the node's route cache; all routes containing the
hop are truncated at that point. Again, the Route Discovery Phase is initiated to determine the
most viable route.

Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) is an on-demand protocol designed to restrict the
bandwidth consumed by control packets in ad hoc wireless networks by eliminating the periodic
table-update messages required in the table-driven approach. The major difference between this
and the other on-demand routing protocols is that it is beacon-less and hence does not require
periodic hello packet (beacon) transmissions, which are used by a node to inform its neighbors of
its presence.

The basic approach of this protocol (and all other on-demand routing protocols) during
the route construction phase is to establish a route by flooding RouteRequest packets in the
network. The destination node, on receiving a RouteRequest packet, responds by sending a
RouteReply packet back to the source, which carries the route traversed by the RouteRequest
packet received.

Each RouteRequest carries a sequence number generated by the source node and the path
it has traversed. A node, upon receiving a RouteRequest packet, checks the sequence number on
the packet before forwarding it. The packet is forwarded only if it is not a duplicate
RouteRequest. The sequence number on the packet is used to prevent loop formations and to
avoid multiple transmissions of the same RouteRequest by an intermediate node that receives it

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through multiple paths. Thus, all nodes except the destination forward a RouteRequest packet
during the route construction phase. A destination node, after receiving the first RouteRequest
packet, replies to the source node through the reverse path the RouteRequest packet had
traversed. Nodes can also learn about the neighbouring routes traversed by data packets if
operated in the promiscuous mode (the mode of operation in which a node can receive the
packets that are neither broadcast nor addressed to itself). This route cache is also used during
the route construction phase

Adhoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)

Reactive protocols seek to set up routes on-demand. If a node wants to initiate

communication with a node to which it has no route, the routing protocol will try to establish
such a route. The Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing protocol is described in RFC
3561. The philosophy in AODV, like all reactive protocols, is that topology information is only
transmitted by nodes on-demand. When a node wishes to transmit traffic to a host to which it has
no route, it will generate a route request(RREQ) message that will be flooded in a limited way to
other nodes.

This causes control traffic overhead to be dynamic and it will result in an initial delay when
initiating such communication. A route is considered found when the RREQ message reaches
either the destination itself, or an intermediate node with a valid route entry for the destination.
For as long as a route exists between two endpoints, AODV remains passive. When the route
becomes invalid or lost, AODV will again issue a request.

AODV avoids the ``counting to infinity'' problem from the classical distance vector algorithm by
using sequence numbers for every route. The counting to infinity problem is the situation where
nodes update each other in a loop. Consider nodes A, B, C and D making up a MANET. A is not
updated on the fact that its route to D via C is broken. This means that A has a registered route,
with a metric of 2, to D. C has registered that the link to D is down, so once node B is updated on
the link breakage between C and D, it will calculate the shortest path to D to be via A using a
metric of 3. C receives information that B can reach D in 3 hops and updates its metric to 4
hops. A then registers an update in hop-count for its route to D via C and updates the metric to 5.
And so they continue to increment the metric in a loop.

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4.8 Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANET)

A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) consists of groups of moving or stationary

vehicles connected by a wireless network. Until recently the main use of VANETs was to
provide safety and comfort to drivers in vehicular environments. This view is changing,
vehicular ad hoc networks are seen now as an infrastructure for an intelligent transportation
system with increasing number of autonomous vehicles, and for any activity requiring Internet
connectivity in a smart city. Also, VANETs allow on-board computers of mostly stationary
vehicles, e.g., vehicles at an airport parking, to serve as resources of a mobile computer cloud
with minimum help from the Internet infrastructure.
The contents produced and consumed by vehicles has local relevance in terms of time,
space, and agents involved, the producer and the consumer. Vehicle-generated information
has local validity, a limited spatial scope, an explicit lifetime, a limited temporal scope, and local
interest, it is relevant to agents in a limited area around the vehicle. For example, the information
that a car is approaching a congested area of a highway is relevant only for that particular
segment of the road, at a particular time, and for vehicles nearby.
4.9 MANET Vs VANET
VANET includes vehicles and road-side infrastructure. MANET is the short form
of Mobile AdHoc Network. In ad-hoc networks all the nodes are mobile in nature and hence
they can be interfaced dynamically in arbitrary fashion. VANET is the short form of Vehicular
Adhoc Network.
4.10 Security.
Security, reliability, and availability are three crucial aspect of MANET, especially in
security sensitive applications. Since ad hoc relies on wireless communication medium, it is
important to deploy a security protocol to protect the privacy of transmissions. The requirements
regarding confidentiality, integrity, and availability are the same as for any other public
communication networks. However, the implementation schemes of key management,
authentication, and authorization are quite different because there is no aid of a trusted third-
party certification authority to create trusted relationships by exchanging private/public keys .
Different types of threats and attacks against routing in MANET should be analysed leading to
the requirement of ad hoc routing security, and advanced solutions are needed for the secure
routing of MANET.

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Wireless communication is subject to many types of problems due to interference and

poor signals. As for reliability and availability issues, besides low level error masking and
recovery mechanisms (i.e. link layer error detection and correction coding), special attention
should be paid to studying fault-tolerant routing algorithm. In multihop ad hoc wireless
networks, there exists an inherent attribute of redundant routing paths between nodes. Exploiting
this property, it’s possible to provide a fault-tolerant routing scheme , for increasing the
reliability and security of the target routing algorithm. Since overhead occurs in this reliable-
increasing algorithm, research should also study the tradeoff between performance and reliability
in order to calculate the most efficient solution.
In addition to the common vulnerabilities of wireless connection, an ad hoc network has
its particular security problems due to e.g. nasty neighbour relaying packets. The feature of
distributed operation requires different schemes of authentication and key management. Further,
wireless link characteristics introduce also reliability problems, because of the limited wireless
transmission range, the broadcast nature of the wireless medium (e.g. hidden terminal problem),
mobility-induced packet losses, and data transmission errors.

Unit – V: MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS : Mobile Device Operating Systems –

Special Constrains and Requirements – Commercial Mobile Operating Systems – Software Development
Kit : iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, M-commerce –Structure –Pros & Cons – Mobile
Payment System – Security Issues .

5.1 Mobile Device Operating system (or Mobile OS)

It is an operating system for phones, tablets, smart watches, or other mobile devices.
While computers such as typical laptops are 'mobile', the operating systems usually used on them
are not considered mobile ones, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that
historically did not have or need specific mobile features. This distinction is becoming blurred in
some newer operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses.
Mobile operating systems combine features of a personal computer operating system with
other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following
considered essential in modern mobile systems; a touch screen, cellular, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
Protected Access, Wi-Fi, Global Positioning System (GPS) mobile navigation, video- and single
frame picture cameras. Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smart

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phones) contain two mobile operating systems – the main user-facing software platform is
supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which operates the
radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range
of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over
the mobile device.
5.2 Special Constraints and Requirements

Design and capabilities of a Mobile OS (Operating System) is very different than general
purpose OS running on desktop machines
Physically Constrained
Battery-powered device
Small screens of varying shapes, sizes, and resolutions
Memory
Storage space
Working in Uncertainty
Networks come and go
Other devices appear and disappear
OS need to provide robust methods for handling connections and coping with service
interruptions and ad hoc attempts to communicate.Today's mobile devices are multifunctional
devices capable of hosting a broad range of applications for both business and consumer use.
Smartphones and tablets enable people to use their mobile device to access the Internet for email,
instant messaging, text messaging and Web browsing, as well as work documents, contact lists
and more. Mobile devices are often seen as an extension to your own PC or laptop, and in some
cases newer, more powerful mobile devices can even completely replace PCs. And when the
devices are used together, work done remotely on a mobile device can be synchronized with PCs
to reflect changes and new information while away from the computer.
Much like the Linux or Windows operating system controls your desktop or laptop
computer, a mobile operating system is the software platform on top of which other programs
can run on mobile devices. A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating
system that is specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones,
smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers and other handheld devices.

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5.3 Commercial Mobile Operating Systems

1. Android OS (Google Inc.)
The Android mobile operating system is Google's open and free software stack that
includes an operating system, middleware and also key applications for use on mobile devices,
including smartphones. Updates for the open source Android mobile operating system have been
developed under "dessert-inspired" version names (Cupcake, Donut, Eclair, Gingerbread,
Honeycomb, Ice Cream Sandwich) with each new version arriving in alphabetical order with
new enhancements and improvements.
2. Bada (Samsung Electronics)
Bada is a proprietary Samsung mobile OS that was first launched in 2010. The Samsung
Wave was the first smartphone to use this mobile OS. Bada provides mobile features such as
multipoint-touch, 3D graphics and of course, application downloads and installation.
3. BlackBerry OS (Research In Motion)
The BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Research In
Motion for use on the company’s popular BlackBerry handheld devices. The BlackBerry
platform is popular with corporate users as it offers synchronization with Microsoft Exchange,
Lotus Domino, Novell GroupWise email and other business software, when used with the
BlackBerry Enterprise Server.
4. iPhone OS / iOS (Apple)
Apple's iPhone OS was originally developed for use on its iPhone devices. Now, the
mobile operating system is referred to as iOS and is supported on a number of Apple devices
including the iPhone, iPad, iPad 2 and iPod Touch. The iOS mobile operating system is available
only on Apple's own manufactured devices as the company does not license the OS for thirdparty
hardware. Apple iOS is derived from Apple's Mac OS X operating system.
5. MeeGo OS (Nokia and Intel)
A joint open source mobile operating system which is the result of merging two products
based on open source technologies: Maemo (Nokia) and Moblin (Intel). MeeGo is a mobile OS
designed to work on a number of devices including smartphones, netbooks, tablets, in-vehicle
information systems and various devices using Intel Atom and ARMv7 architectures.

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6. Palm OS (Garnet OS)

The Palm OS is a proprietary mobile operating system (PDA operating system) that was
originally released in 1996 on the Pilot 1000 handheld. Newer versions of the Palm OS have
added support for expansion ports, new processors, external memory cards, improved security
and support for ARM processors and smartphones. Palm OS 5 was extended to provide support
for a broad range of screen resolutions, wireless connections and enhanced multimedia
capabilities and is called Garnet OS.
7. Symbian OS (Nokia)
Symbian is a mobile operating system (OS) targeted at mobile phones that offers a
highlevel of integration with communication and personal information management (PIM)
functionality. Symbian OS combines middleware with wireless communications through an
integrated mailbox and the integration of Java and PIM functionality (agenda and contacts).
Nokia has made the Symbian platform available under an alternative, open and direct model, to
work with some OEMs and the small community of platform development collaborators. Nokia
does not maintain Symbian as an open source development project.
8. webOS (Palm/HP)
webOS is a mobile operating system that runs on the Linux kernel. webOS was initially
developed by Palm as the successor to its Palm OS mobile operating system. It is a proprietary
Mobile OS which was eventually acquired by HP and now referred to as webOS (lower-case w)
in HP literature. HP uses webOS in a number of devices including several smartphones and HP
TouchPads. HP has pushed its webOS into the enterprise mobile market by focusing on
improving security features and management with the release of webOS 3.x. HP has also
announced plans for a version of webOS to run within the Microsoft Windows operating system
and to be installed on all HP desktop and notebook computers in 2012.
9. Windows Mobile (Windows Phone)
Windows Mobile is Microsoft's mobile operating system used in smartphones and mobile
devices – with or without touchscreens.
5.4 Software Deevelopment kit

A Software Development Kit (SDK) is a collection of software development tools in

one installable package. They ease creation of applications by having compiler, debugger and
perhaps a software framework. They are normally specific to a hardware platform and operating

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systems combination. To create applications with advanced functionalities such as

advertisements, push notifications, etc; most application software developers use specific
software development kits.

Some SDKs are required for developing a platform-specific app. For example, the development
of an Android app on Java platform requires a Java Development Kit. For IOS applications
(apps) the IOS SDK is required. For Universal Windows Platform the .NET Framework
SDK might be used. There are also SDKs that add new features, they are installed in apps to
provide analytics and data about application activity. Some prominent creators of these types of
SDKs include Google, InMobi, and Facebook.

iOS
iOS (formerly iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc.
exclusively for its hardware. It is the operating system that presently powers many of the
company's mobile devices, including the iPhone, and iPod Touch; it also powered the iPad prior
to the introduction of iPadOS in 2019.
Android
Android is an open source and Linux-based Operating System for mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablet computers. Android was developed by the Open Handset Alliance, led by
Google, and other companies.

Android offers a unified approach to application development for mobile devices which means
developers need only develop for Android, and their applications should be able to run on
different devices powered by Android.

The first beta version of the Android Software Development Kit (SDK) was released by Google
in 2007 where as the first commercial version, Android 1.0, was released in September 2008.

On June 27, 2012, at the Google I/O conference, Google announced the next Android version,
4.1 Jelly Bean. Jelly Bean is an incremental update, with the primary aim of improving the user
interface, both in terms of functionality and performance.

The source code for Android is available under free and open source software licenses. Google
publishes most of the code under the Apache License version 2.0 and the rest, Linux kernel
changes, under the GNU General Public License version 2.

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Android Applications

Android applications are usually developed in the Java language using the Android
Software Development Kit. Once developed, Android applications can be packaged easily and
sold out either through a store such as Google Play, SlideME, Opera Mobile
Store, Mobango, F-droid and the Amazon Appstore. Android powers hundreds of millions of
mobile devices in more than 190 countries around the world. It's the largest installed base of any
mobile platform and growing fast. Every day more than 1 million new Android devices are
activated worldwide.

Blackberry
BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Canadian
company BlackBerry Limited for its BlackBerry line of smart phone handheld devices. Updates
to the operating system may be automatically available from wireless carriers that support
the BlackBerry over the air software loading (OTASL) service.
Windows Phone
Windows Phone is Microsoft's smart phone operating system and a brand for the
numerous hardware designs that run on it. Windows Phone uses a Metro-derived user interface
(UI), closely reflecting and relying on the tile-like interface introduced with the desktop systems.

5.5 M-Commerce
Mobile Commerce, also known as m-commerce . It is the use of wireless handheld
devices like cell phones and tablets to conduct commercial transactions online, including the
purchase and sale of products, online banking, and paying bills. The industries affected most by
m-commerce include:

 Financial services, which includes mobile banking (when customers use their handheld
devices to access their accounts and pay their bills) as well as brokerage services, in which
stock quotes can be displayed and trading conducted from the same handheld device.

 Telecommunications, in which service changes, bill payment and account reviews can all be
performed from the same handheld device.

 Service and retail, as consumers are given the ability to place and pay for orders on-the-fly.

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 Information services, which include the delivery of financial news, sports figures and traffic
updates to a single mobile device.

5.6 Structure of M-commerce

This system structure includes six components: i) mobile commerce applications,

ii) mobile handheld devices, iii) mobile middleware, iv) wireless networks, v) wired networks,
and vi) host computers.

5.7 Pros and Cons of mobile commerce

The advantages of m-commerce include:

 Added customer retention by being more easily accessible.

 More convenience for customers in comparing prices, reading reviews and making purchases
without the need of a desktop computer.

 Wider variety of products and services.

 Automates a businesses’ point of customer contact and sales.

Disadvantages of m-commerce include:

 A poorly executed mobile experience can deter customers from making purchases.

 Mobile payment options are not available in every geographic location and may not support
every type of digital wallet.

 Businesses must know and comply with tax laws and regulations of all countries they ship to
some businesses will avoid this by only allowing purchases and shipping from their country
of origin.

5.8 Mobile Payment Systems

Mobile payments, also known as m-payments, may be defined as any payment where a
mobile device is used to initiate, authorize and confirm an exchange of currency in return for
goods and services. Mobile devices include mobile phones, PDAs, wireless tablets and other
devices that can connect to mobile telecommunication networks. Mobile payments can be an

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alternative to cash, checks, credit cards and debit cards, and can make possible new opportunities
for commerce convenience. Mobile payment (also referred to as mobile money, mobile money
transfer, and mobile wallet) generally refer to payment services operated under financial
regulation and performed from or via a mobile device. Instead of paying with cash, cheque, or
credit cards, a consumer can use a mobile to pay for a wide range of services and digital or hard
goods.
5.9 Security Issues
The concept of security in M-commerce is the most important aspect of a business that a
mobile-system should respond to. There is no need to implement, such system without securing
its environment, especially where transactions involve monetary value. Different views from
participants in an M-commerce scenario, percept, security and privacy as major factors for
markets breakthrough of the according system. Moving from participant’s point of views, I have
defined five security objectives / standards that a system should respond to:

Confidentiality: Ensure privacy, the content of the transaction cannot be viewed by

unauthorised persons and enables encryption.

Authentication: Ensure that the content of the transaction originates from the presumed
sender/partner.

Integrity: Ensure that the content of transaction is not modified during the delivery and cannot
be altered at any time. The technique used is called digital signatures.

Authorization: Ensure that anyone involved in the transaction must be recognize and verified in
order to authorize/allow the transaction to take place. It is more like digital certificates.

Non-repudiation: No-one should be able to claim that any transaction on his/her behalf was
made without their knowledge. The concept of digital signatures is applied.

The mobile device – confidential user data on the mobile device as well as the device itself
should be protected from unauthorized use. The security mechanisms employed here include
user authentication (e.g. PIN or password authentication), secure storage of confidential data
(e.g. SIM card in mobile phones) and security of the operating system.

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The network operator infrastructure – security mechanisms for the end user often terminate in the
access network. This raises questions regarding the security of the user’s data within and beyond
the access network. Moreover, the user receives certain services for which he/she has to pay.
This often involves the network operator and he/she will want to be assured about correct
charging and billing.

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