Research Methodology 21BRM57

Module 2: Research Design

Concept and Importance in Research – Features of a good research design – Exploratory

Research Design – concept, types and uses, Descriptive Research Designs – concept, types and
uses. Experimental Design: Concept of Independent & Dependent variables. Qualitative and
Quantitative Research: Qualitative research – Quantitative research – Concept of measurement,
causality, generalization, replication. Merging the two approaches.

Concept of Research Design

A research design is a systematic procedure or an idea to carry out different tasks of the
research study. It is important to know the research design and its types for the researcher to
carry out the work in a proper way.

The purpose of research design is that enable the researcher to proceed in the right direction
without any deviation from the tasks. It is an overall detailed strategy of the research process.

The design of experiments is a very important aspect of a research study. A poor research
design may collapse the entire research project in terms of time, manpower, and money.

What is a Research Design in Research Methodology?

A research design is a plan or framework for conducting research. It includes a set of plans
and procedures that aim to produce reliable and valid data. The research design must be
appropriate to the type of research question being asked and the type of data being collected.

Importance of Research Design

A Good research design consists of the following important points:

• Formulating a research design helps the researcher to make correct decisions in

each and every step of the study.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• It helps to identify the major and minor tasks of the study.

• It makes the research study effective and interesting by providing minute details at
each step of the research process.

• Based on the design of experiments (research design), a researcher can easily

frame the objectives of the research work.

• A good research design helps the researcher to complete the objectives of the study
in a given time and facilitates getting the best solution for the research problems.

• It helps the researcher to complete all the tasks even with limited resources in a
better way.

• The main advantage of a good research design is that it provides accuracy,

reliability, consistency, and legitimacy to the research.

Research design elements

Research design elements include the following:

• Clear purpose: The research question or hypothesis must be clearly defined and
focused.

• Sampling: This includes decisions about sample size, sampling method, and criteria
for inclusion or exclusion. The approach varies for different research design types.

• Data collection: This research design element involves the process of gathering data
or information from the study participants or sources. It includes decisions about what
data to collect, how to collect it, and the tools or instruments that will be used.

• Data analysis: All research design types require analysis and interpretation of the data
collected. This research design element includes decisions about the statistical tests or
methods that will be used to analyze the data, as well as any potential confounding
variables or biases that may need to be addressed.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Type of research methodology: This includes decisions about the overall approach
for the study.

• Time frame: An important research design element is the time frame, which includes
decisions about the duration of the study, the timeline for data collection and analysis,
and follow-up periods.

• Ethical considerations: The research design must include decisions about ethical
considerations such as informed consent, confidentiality, and participant protection.

• Resources: A good research design takes into account decisions about the budget,
staffing, and other resources needed to carry out the study.

The elements of research design should be carefully planned and executed to ensure the
validity and reliability of the study findings. Let’s go deeper into the concepts of research
design.

Characteristics of research design

Some basic characteristics of research design are common to different research design types.
These characteristics of research design are as follows:

• Neutrality: Right from the study assumptions to setting up the study, a neutral stance
must be maintained, free of pre-conceived notions. The researcher’s expectations or
beliefs should not color the findings or interpretation of the findings. Accordingly, a
good research design should address potential sources of bias and confounding
factors to be able to yield unbiased and neutral results.

• Reliability: Reliability is one of the characteristics of research design that refers to

consistency in measurement over repeated measures and fewer random errors. A
reliable research design must allow for results to be consistent, with few errors due to
chance.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Validity: Validity refers to the minimization of non-random (systematic) errors. A

good research design must employ measurement tools that ensure validity of the
results.

• Generalizability: The outcome of the research design should be applicable to a larger

population and not just a small sample. A generalized method means the study can be
conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

• Flexibility: A research design should allow for changes to be made to the research
plan as needed, based on the data collected and the outcomes of the study

A well-planned research design is critical for conducting a scientifically rigorous study that
will generate neutral, reliable, valid, and generalizable results. At the same time, it should
allow some level of flexibility.

Benefits of research design

There are numerous benefits of research design. These are as follows:

• Clear direction: Among the benefits of research design, the main one is providing
direction to the research and guiding the choice of clear objectives, which help the
researcher to focus on the specific research questions or hypotheses they want to
investigate.

• Control: Through a proper research design, researchers can control variables, identify
potential confounding factors, and use randomization to minimize bias and increase
the reliability of their findings.

• Replication: Research designs provide the opportunity for replication. This helps to
confirm the findings of a study and ensures that the results are not due to chance or
other factors. Thus, a well-chosen research design also eliminates bias and errors.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Validity: A research design ensures the validity of the research, i.e., whether the
results truly reflect the phenomenon being investigated.

• Reliability: Benefits of research design also include reducing inaccuracies and

ensuring the reliability of the research (i.e., consistency of the research results over
time, across different samples, and under different conditions).

• Efficiency: A strong research design helps increase the efficiency of the research
process. Researchers can use a variety of designs to investigate their research
questions, choose the most appropriate research design for their study, and use
statistical analysis to make the most of their data. By effectively describing the data
necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses and explaining how such data will be
obtained, research design saves a researcher’s time.

Overall, an appropriately chosen and executed research design helps researchers to conduct
high-quality research, draw meaningful conclusions, and contribute to the advancement of
knowledge in their field.

Types of research Design

1. Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory research is a methodology approach that

investigates research questions that have not previously been studied in depth.
Exploratory research is defined as research used to investigate a problem which is not
clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing research
problem, but will not provide conclusive results. Exploratory research is defined as
research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to
have a better understanding of the existing research problem, but will not provide
conclusive results. For such research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses
this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future research.
An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her
direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such research is usually
carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why
and how.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory research

While it may sound difficult to research something that has very little information about it,
there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data
collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be
conducted namely primary and secondary. Under these two types, there are multiple methods
which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from this research can be qualitative or
quantitative. Some of the most widely used research designs include the following:

Primary research methods

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be through a group
of people or even an individual. Such research can be carried out directly by the researcher
himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically
carried out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.

• Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group

of respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative methods. Various types of
surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in
technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance,
use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is
also available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer
short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response
rates.

For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions
about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information
organization can dig deeper into the topic and make business related decision.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes
an in-person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such
research is a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter expert can
give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide.
Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions
to get meaningful information about the topic.

For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the
degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum
theory can give you in-depth information on that topic.

• Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research.
In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights
on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while
choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a common background and
have comparable experiences.

For example: A focus group helps research identify the opinions of consumers if they
were to buy a phone. Such research can help the researcher understand what the
consumer value while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the
dimensions. Based on which the organization can understand what are consumer buying
attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.

• Observations: Observational research can be qualitative observation or quantitative

observation. Such research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their
reaction to certain parameters. In such research, there is no direct interaction with the
subject.

For example: An FMCG company wants to know how its consumer react to the new
shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects
the data, which is then used to draw inferences from the collective information.

Secondary research methods

 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In

such research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers,
books, etc.

• Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest ways to gather information
on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can
download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such research is
the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering
the information from.

For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer
a specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search
engine and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.

• Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive methods used
for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in
libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include
newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government agencies,
specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published statistics from
research organizations and so on.

However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources.
Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a
nominal cost. Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but
in fact educational institutions carry out a greater number of research than any other
entities. Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like
political agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information,
etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available
statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization related
or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research
data can be accessed through government documents or commercial sources.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more
information through carefully analysing existing cases which have gone through a
similar problem. Such exploratory data analysis are very important and critical
especially in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses
the case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his
own case. It is very commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector
or even in the health sector.

For example: A particular orthopaedic surgeon has the highest success rate for
performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case
to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to
increase their success rate.

Exploratory research: Steps to conduct research

• Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem
is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.

• Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there are no prior
studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis
based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.

• Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his
study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study
the subject in detail and find out if the information is true or not.

Characteristics of Exploratory research

• They are not structured studies

• It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
• It will enable a researcher answer question like what is the problem? What is the
purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied?
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the
existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.
• It is time-consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
• The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular
study he is doing.
• There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and
scattered.
• The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the
industry the research carried out is ineffective.
• The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will
make it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
• Such research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative
data can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

Advantages of Exploratory research

• The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research
progresses.
• It is usually low cost.
• It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
• It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the
time and resources and if it is worth pursuing.
• It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be
further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the
problem.

Disadvantages of Exploratory research

• Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is
usually inconclusive.
• The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data.
Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
• Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results
cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a
chance of that data being old and is not updated.

Importance of Exploratory research

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if
it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such research is to explore the problem and around it
and not actually derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to
set a strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and
finding variables that actually are important for the in-depth analysis. Most importantly, such
research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of time and resources, as it will
enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

2. Descriptive Research Design: Descriptive research is a research method used to try

and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon. Descriptive
research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or
phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the
research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment
without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
“describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.
Characteristics of descriptive research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study,
and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method
because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
• Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect
quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular
market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s
nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This
uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables
or their behaviour is not in the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections
belonging to the same group are studied.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• The basis for further research: Researchers further researches the data collected and
analysed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can
also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent
research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before
getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite
following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to
use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some
ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw

concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns,
traits, and behaviours of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a
respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand
millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this
information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive
research design’s statistical capability. Consider if an apparel company researches
different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch
of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it
provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the
clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
• Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to
understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For
example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the
brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income,
gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation, etc. This consumer research
helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population
and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create
a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help

ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to
the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some
aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each variable and conduct
an in-depth analysis. Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that
may be prevalent in a population.
• Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different
periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of
variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be
repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

• Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods
like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three,
all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information.
This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your
research object.

• Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.

• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in

the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data
is collected.

• Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive
research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

• Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and
researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and
values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of
quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies
observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume,
scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using
a simple Net Promoter Score question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and
effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For
example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’
selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing
experience of the customer.

• Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to
a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies
should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions
because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are
not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away
from external validity.

• Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a
popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful
data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended
questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline,
making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than
textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the
employees.

3. Experimental Research Design: A research method used to investigate the interaction

between independent and dependent variables, which can be used to determine a cause-
and-effect relationship. Experimental designs: are used to test cause-and-effect
relationships. In an experiment, the researcher manipulates one or more independent
variables and observes the effect on a dependent variable.

Experimental research is a study conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the
second set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental.

If you don’t have enough data to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts.
This research gathers the data necessary to help you make better decisions.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:

• Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

• Invariable behaviour between cause and effect.
• You wish to understand the importance of cause and effect.

Experimental Research Design Types

The classic experimental design definition is: “The methods used to collect data in
experimental studies.”

There are three primary types of experimental design:

• Pre-experimental research design

• True experimental research design
• Quasi-experimental research design
a) Pre-experimental research design:

This is an observational research mechanism used to evaluate changes in a group or various

groups of dependent variables after changing the independent variable values. This is the
simplest form of experimental research used to assess the need for further inspection, if
satisfactory results are not derived from the observations registered.

This can further be subdivided as :

• One-shot Case Study Research Design: A post-test study relying only on a single set of
variables for observational purposes.

• One-group Pretest-post-test Research Design: This is a combination of pre and post-

tests that studies a single set of variables before and after the method of testing has been
implemented.

• Static-group Comparison: The total groups of variables get divided into 2 sub-groups,
one subjected to the testing while the other group remains as it as. Observations at the
end of the testing reveal the contrast between the tested and the non-tested panel.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

b) True experimental research:

This is a statistical approach to establish a cause-and-effect relationship within a variable set.

The quantitative approach of this study makes it highly accurate. The assignment of test units
and treatments takes place in a randomized manner.

Apart from this, it uses the availability of a control group along with an independent variable
that can be manipulated to obtain the required results.

c) Quasi- experimental research design:

Quasi-experimental research design is a partial representation of true experimental research

such that it seeks to establish a cause-and-effect relationship by manipulating an independent
variable, the only difference being that it does not adhere to random distribution of participants
into groups.

Thus, Quasi- Experimental research design is only applied to those situations where there is no
relevance or possibility for random distribution.

Advantages of experimental research:

• All the variables are in the researchers’ control, and that means the researcher can
influence the experiment according to the research question’s requirements.
• As you can easily control the variables in the experiment, you can specify the results
as much as possible.
• The results of the study identify a cause-and-effect relation.
• The results can be as specific as the researcher wants.
• The result of an experimental design opens the doors for future related studies.

Disadvantages of experimental research:

• Completing an experiment may take years and even decades, so the results will not
be as immediate as some of the other research types.
• As it involves many steps, participants, and researchers, it may be too expensive for
some groups.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• The possibility of researchers making mistakes and having a bias is high. It is

important to stay impartial
• Human behaviour and responses can be difficult to measure unless it is specifically
experimental research in psychology.

Difference between experimental and non- experimental research

1) Experimental research focuses on understanding the nature of relationship between

independent and dependent variables involved under a particular field of study. On the other
hand, Non-experimental research is descriptive in nature and so, focuses on defining a process,
situation or idea.

2) Experimental research provides the freedom to control external independent variables to

decipher relationships, however, such a control mechanism is absent in non-experimental
research.

3) Experimental data does not make use of case studies and published works for establishing
relationships while non-experimental research cannot be carried out using simulations.

4) Experimental research involves a scientific approach whereas such an approach is absent in

non-experimental research due to the descriptive nature of the study.

4. Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research design typically involves gathering

data through methods such as interviews, observations, focus groups, and analysis of
documents
Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining
data through open-ended and conversational communication.

This method is about “what” people think and “why” they think so. For example,
consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic
observation concludes that more men are visiting this store. One good method to
determine why women were not visiting the store is conducting an in-depth interview
method with potential customers.

Key characteristics of qualitative research design include:

 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Exploratory nature: Qualitative research often begins with an open-ended approach

to allow for the discovery of new insights and patterns.
• Contextual understanding: It emphasizes understanding phenomena within their
social, cultural, and historical contexts, as these factors shape individuals’ experiences.
• Subjectivity and reflexivity: Qualitative researchers acknowledge the influence of
their own perspectives and biases and often engage in reflexivity to critically examine
their role in shaping the research process and outcomes.
• Small and purposive sampling: Rather than aiming for large representative
samples, qualitative research often involves selecting participants who can provide rich
and diverse information relevant to the research question.
• In-depth data collection: Researchers spend considerable time with participants,
collecting detailed and nuanced data, often through open-ended interviews,
observations, or analysis of texts.
• Iterative data analysis: Qualitative analysis involves coding, categorizing, and
interpreting data to identify patterns, themes, and relationships. This process is often
iterative, with researchers revisiting and refining their analysis as new insights emerge.

Types of Qualitative Research Design

There are several types of qualitative research designs, each with its own specific
characteristics and purposes. Here are some common types:

• Phenomenological Research

This design aims to understand the essence and meaning of human experiences related to a
particular phenomenon. Researchers explore participants’ subjective experiences through in-
depth interviews or observations to uncover the underlying structures and patterns of their lived
experiences.

• Ethnographic Research

Ethnography involves studying and understanding the culture, beliefs, practices, and social
interactions of a specific group or community. Researchers immerse themselves in the
participants’ natural environment for an extended period, often conducting participant
observation, interviews, and document analysis to gain an in-depth understanding of the
culture.

• Grounded Theory
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Grounded theory is an approach where researchers aim to develop theories or conceptual

frameworks grounded in the data. Through constant comparison and analysis of collected data,
researchers identify categories, concepts, and relationships to generate a theory that explains
the phenomenon under investigation.

• Case Study

Case study research involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group,

organization, or specific context. Researchers collect multiple sources of data such as
interviews, observations, and documents to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case
and to draw insights that may have broader implications.

• Narrative Research

Narrative research focuses on understanding and analyzing the stories and personal narratives
shared by individuals. Researchers examine the structure, content, and context of these
narratives to gain insights into how individuals construct meaning and make sense of their
experiences.

• Participatory Action Research (PAR)

PAR is a collaborative approach that involves researchers working closely with participants or
communities to identify and address social issues or problems. The aim is to empower
participants and generate actionable knowledge through a cyclical process of reflection, action,
and change.

• Constructivist/Interpretive Research

This design emphasizes the importance of understanding multiple subjective realities and
interpretations of social phenomena. Researchers explore the different meanings and
perspectives attributed to a phenomenon, often using interviews, focus groups, or textual
analysis to uncover the complexities of individuals’ interpretations.

Qualitative Research Design Methods

Whether you’re a seasoned researcher or new to the field, this comprehensive resource will
equip you with the tools and techniques needed to conduct impactful qualitative research.

• Interviews: Gain In-Depth Insights Discover the nuances of conducting interviews,

from structured to unstructured approaches. Learn how to ask the right questions, build
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

rapport with participants, and extract valuable insights into their experiences, beliefs,
and attitudes.

• Observations: Decode Human Behaviour Explore the world of observational research

and learn how to systematically observe and record human behaviour in natural or
controlled settings. From participant to non-participant observation, uncover the secrets
to decoding social interactions and contextual factors.

• Focus Groups: Harness Collective Wisdom Harness the power of group dynamics
with focus groups. Delve into the process of facilitating discussions, eliciting diverse
perspectives, and uncovering shared insights that drive actionable outcomes.

• Case Studies: Unravel Complex Phenomena Embark on an in-depth exploration of

single cases to unravel complex phenomena. Dive deep into the world of case studies,
gathering multiple data sources to provide a comprehensive understanding within real-
world contexts.

• Ethnography: Immerse Yourself in Culture Immerse yourself in the cultural context

of your research subjects with ethnographic methods. From participant observation to
in-depth interviews, learn how to capture the essence of cultural practices and social
interactions.

• Visual Methods: Enhance Understanding Elevate your research with visual methods,
from photography to video recordings. Explore how visual data can complement
traditional methods, providing additional insights and documentation of participants’
experiences.

• Textual Analysis: Uncover Hidden Patterns Master the art of textual analysis and
uncover hidden patterns and meanings within written or verbal data. From coding
techniques to thematic analysis, unlock the secrets buried within the text.

5. Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research design typically follows a

systematic and structured approach Quantitative research design is defined as a research
method used in various disciplines, including social sciences, psychology, economics,
and market research. It aims to collect and analyse numerical data to answer research
questions and test hypotheses.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Quantitative research design key elements

Quantitative research design typically follows a systematic and structured approach. It involves
the following key elements:

• Research Question: The researcher formulates a clear and specific question that can
be answered through quantitative research. The question should be measurable and
objective

• Variables: The researcher identifies and defines the variables relevant to the research
question. Variables are attributes or characteristics that can be measured or observed.
They can be independent variables (factors that are manipulated or controlled) or
dependent variables (outcomes or responses that are measured).

• Hypotheses: The researcher develops one or more hypotheses based on the research
question. Hypotheses are verifiable statements that make predictions about the
association between variables.

• Sampling: The researcher determines the target population and selects a representative
sample from that population. The sample should be large enough to provide statistically
significant results and should be chosen using appropriate sampling techniques.

• Data Collection: Quantitative research design relies on the collection of numerical

data. This can be done through various methods such as surveys,
experiments, quantitative observations, or secondary data analysis. Standardized
instruments, such as questionnaires or scales, are often used to ensure consistency and
reliability.

• Data Analysis: The collected data is analysed using statistical methods and techniques.
Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the data, while inferential
statistics are used to draw conclusions and make generalizations about the population
based on the sample data.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Results and Conclusions: The researcher interprets the findings and draws
conclusions based on the analysis. The results are typically presented in the form of
tables, graphs, and statistical measures, such as means, correlations, or regression
coefficients.

Types of Quantitative Research Design

There are several types of quantitative research designs, each suited for different research
purposes and questions. Here are some common types of quantitative research designs:

• Experimental Design

Experimental design involves the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect
on a dependent variable while controlling for other variables. Participants are typically
randomly assigned to different groups, such as a control group and one or more experimental
groups, to compare the outcomes. This approach enables the establishment of cause-and-effect
relationships.

• Quasi-Experimental Design

Quasi-experimental design exhibits similarities to experimental design, yet it lacks the random
assignment of participants to groups. The researcher takes advantage of naturally occurring
groups or pre-existing conditions to compare the effects of an independent variable on a
dependent variable. While it doesn’t establish causality as strongly as experimental design, it
can still provide valuable insights.

• Survey Research

Survey research involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews administered to

a sample of participants. Surveys allow researchers to gather data on a wide range of variables
and can be conducted in various settings, such as online surveys or face-to-face interviews.
This design is particularly useful for studying attitudes, opinions, and behaviors within a
population.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

• Correlational Design

The correlational design investigates the association between two or more variables without
engaging in their manipulation. Researchers measure variables and determine the degree and
direction of their association using statistical techniques such as correlation analysis. However,
correlational research cannot establish causality, only the strength and direction of the
relationship.

• Longitudinal Design

Longitudinal design involves collecting data from the same individuals or groups over an
extended period. This design allows researchers to study changes and patterns over time,
providing insights into the stability and development of variables. Longitudinal studies can be
conducted retrospectively (looking back) or prospectively (following participants into the
future).

• Cross-sectional Design

Cross-sectional design collects data from a specific population at a single point in time.
Researchers examine different variables simultaneously and analyze the relationships among
them. This design is often used to gather data quickly and assess the prevalence of certain
characteristics or behaviors within a population.

• Ex post facto Design

Ex post facto design involves studying the effects of an independent variable that is beyond the
researcher’s control. The researcher selects participants based on their exposure to the
independent variable, collecting data retrospectively. This design is useful when random
assignment or manipulation of variables is not feasible or ethical.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Quantitative Research Design Methods

Quantitative research design methods refer to the specific techniques and approaches used to
collect and analyse numerical data in quantitative research. Below are several commonly
utilized quantitative research methods:

• Surveys: Surveys involve administering questionnaires or structured interviews to

gather data from a sample of participants. Surveys can be implemented through
different channels, such as conducting them in person, over the phone, via mail, or
utilizing online platforms. Researchers use various question types, such as multiple-
choice, Likert scales, or rating scales, to collect quantitative data on attitudes, opinions,
behaviours, and demographics.

• Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables

and measuring their effects on dependent variables. To compare outcomes, participants
are assigned randomly to various groups, including control and experimental groups.
Experimental designs allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships by
controlling for confounding factors.

• Observational Studies: Observational studies involve systematically observing and

recording behaviour, events, or phenomena in natural settings. Researchers can use
structured or unstructured quantitative observation methods, depending on the research
objectives. Quantitative data can be collected by counting the frequency of specific
behaviours or by using coding systems to categorize and analyse observed data.

• Archival Research: Archival research involves analysing existing data collected for
purposes other than the current study. Researchers may use historical documents,
government records, public databases, or organizational records to extract data
through quantitative research. Archival research allows for large-scale data analysis
and can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns.

• Secondary Data Analysis: Similar to archival research, secondary data analysis

involves using existing datasets that were collected by other researchers or
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

organizations. Researchers analyse the data to answer new research questions or test
different hypotheses. Secondary data sources can include government surveys, social
surveys, or market research data.

• Content Analysis: Content analysis is a method used to analyse textual or visual data
to identify patterns, themes, or relationships. Researchers code and categorize the
content of documents, interviews, articles, or media sources. The coded data is then
quantified and statistically analysed to draw conclusions. Content analysis can be
both qualitative and quantitative, depending on the approach used.

• Psychometric Testing: Psychometric testing involves the development and

administration of tests or scales to measure psychological constructs, such as
intelligence, personality traits, or attitudes. Researchers use statistical techniques to
analyze the test data, such as factor analysis, reliability analysis, or item response
theory.

Qualitative research vs. Quantitative research

Qualitative research Quantitative research

Deals with subjective aspects, e.g., Measures different types of variables and
experiences, beliefs, perspectives, and describes frequencies, averages, correlations,
concepts. etc.

Tests hypotheses about relationships between

Deals with non-numerical data, such as words,
variables. Results are presented numerically
images, and observations.
and statistically.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

In qualitative research design, data are

Quantitative research design is empirical. Data
collected via direct observations, interviews,
collection methods involved are experiments,
focus groups, and naturally occurring data.
surveys, and observations expressed in
Methods for conducting qualitative research
numbers. The research design categories under
are grounded theory, thematic analysis, and
this are descriptive, experimental, correlational,
discourse analysis.
diagnostic, and explanatory.

Data analysis involves interpretation and Data analysis involves statistical analysis and
narrative analysis. hypothesis testing.

The reasoning used to synthesize data is The reasoning used to synthesize data is
inductive. deductive.

Typically used in fields such as sociology, Typically used in fields such as economics,
linguistics, and anthropology. ecology, statistics, and medicine.

Example: Focus group discussions with women

Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new
farmers about climate change perception.
treatment for insomnia.
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Important Concepts in Quantitative research

Measurement: Measurement refers to the process of collecting numerical data that represents
the variables being studied. Researchers use tools like surveys, tests, and instruments to gather
data that can be quantified.

Causality: Causality in quantitative research means establishing a cause-and-effect

relationship between variables. Researchers often use experiments to determine causality.

Generalization: Generalization is the process of applying the findings from a sample to a

larger population. In quantitative research, researchers aim to select a representative sample so
that the results can be generalized to the entire population.

Replication: Replication involves repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.
This is crucial for verifying the reliability and validity of research findings.

Merging Two Research Approaches

• Merging quantitative and qualitative approaches often referred to as mixed methods

research, offers a powerful way to gain the more comprehensive understanding of a
research topic. A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting,
analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods in a
single study to understand a research problem. To utilize this design effectively, you
must understand both quantitative and qualitative research.

Advantages of Mixed Research Methods

• Triangulate findings: Strengthen the credibility of findings by corroborating them

through different methods and perspective.
• Gain Deeper Insights: Explore the “Why” behind the “What” using quantitative data
to provide context and generalisation and qualitative data to delve into the meanings
and experience
• Address complex Research Questions: Investigate multifaceted at topics that require
both quantitative and qualitative data to fully understand

Common ways to merge quantitative and qualitative approaches

• Sequential design:
 Research Methodology 21BRM57

o Conduct qualitative research first to explore the research question and inform
the design of the quantitative study.
o Follow up with quantitative research to test hypothesis or generalize findings
• Concurrent design
o Collect both quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously.
o Analyze each type of data separately, then integrate findings to gain holistic
understanding.

• Embedded design
o Integrate qualitative elements within a quantitative study, such as conducting
interviews with respondents to explore their experiences.

Challenges of Mixed method Research

• Increased complexity: Designing, conducting and analyzing mixed methods research

can be more complex than using a single approach

• Integration issues: Combining and interpreting data from different sources requires
careful planning and thoughtful analysis

• Resource limitations: Mixed methods research may require additional resources such
as time funding and expertise