PRODUCTION OF

FUEL CELL SYSTEMS

2nd edition
The chair “Production Engineering of E- The VDMA Fuel Cells Working Group
Mobility Components” (PEM) of RWTH supports manufacturers of fuel cell com-
Aachen University deals with the production ponents and systems in Germany in ex-
engineering of fuel cells. Within the panding their industry network. It currently
mechanical engineering sector, the activities offers more than 80 leading, nationally and
range from the cost-efficient production of internationally active manufacturers and
hydrogen-powered drivetrain components suppliers a communication platform for
to innovative mobility solutions and overall networking and joint representation of
emission reduction. Through national and interests. Technical solutions for optimizing
international projects in companies at and reducing the costs of fuel cell systems
various stages of the value chain as well as and their respective components as well as
participation in numerous research projects, for setting up series production are de-
PEM offers extensive expertise. veloped in project groups.

PEM of RWTH Aachen University VDMA

Chair of Production Engineering of Fuel Cells Working Group
E-Mobility Components Friedrichstraße 95
Bohr 12 10117 Berlin
52072 Aachen
www.pem.rwth-aachen.de www.vdma.org/fuel-cells

Authors
PEM of RWTH Aachen University VDMA
Gerd Krieger
Managing Director of the Fuel Cells
Dr.-Ing. Heiner Heimes Working Group
Executive Chief Engineer [email protected]
[email protected]
Jana Müller
Project Manager Fuel Cells
Mario Kehrer, M. Sc. [email protected]
Chief Engineer
[email protected]

Do you have any questions?

Sebastian Hagedorn, M. Sc.

Fuel Cell Group Leader
Contact us!
[email protected]

Sebastian Biegler, M. Sc.

Aachen, October 2022
Research Associate Fuel Cell
PEM of RWTH Aachen University and
[email protected]
VDMA WG Fuel Cells
2nd edition
ISBN: 978-3-947920-30-3
Overview
of a PEM fuel cell
Fuel cell components Fuel cell stack

Fuel cell system

Component production Stack production System production

In this guide, the production process of a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
fuel cell system is illustrated schematically based on the individual production
steps for stack and system production, including the assembly.
The individual PEM fuel cells are connected in series in a fuel cell stack. The stack
and other electrical, mechanical and thermal components are assembled to form
the fuel cell system.
Depending on the system design, the number and the dimension of inter-
connected fuel cells within a stack varies. The design of the peripheral
components is adjusted correspondingly to the performance data of the fuel cell
stack. Due to the large number of different product and process variants,
comprehensive information on the process parameters is only possible to a
limited extent and can be specified in more detail in joint discussions with the
PEM chair or the VDMA.

Automotive Applications
of the PEM fuel cell
For automotive applications, two different drive strategies based for PEM fuel cells
can be distinguished. If the vehicle has a drive system dominated by the fuel cell,
the driving power requirement is primarily covered by the fuel cell. An additional
lithium-ion battery is installed to handle short-term power peaks. Alternatively,
the fuel cell can be used as a so-called range extender. In this case, the fuel cell
functions as an “onboard charging system” for the vehicle’s lithium-ion battery,
which is the main energy supply.

Predominant fuel cell Range extender

Acceleration
Power distribution Recuperation Power distribution

Converter Converter
Battery Battery

Converter Converter

Hydrogen Hydrogen PEMFC

PEMFC Main engine storage Main engine
storage
Vehicle Architecture
of a PEM fuel cell system

Hydrogen tanks

Battery
Electric motors

Fuel cell stack

The architecture of the drive train of a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) consists of
the main components fuel cell system, hydrogen tanks, lithium-ion battery,
electric motor and power electronics. While the battery, electric motor and power
electronics are also part of a battery-powered vehicle, fuel cell system and
hydrogen tanks are unique to a FCEV.
While the hydrogen tank is usually made of carbon fiber-wrapped plastic, the fuel
cell system consists of air, hydrogen and cooling circuits: In the air circuit, ambient
air is first compressed and then humidified before being fed to the cathode side
of the fuel cell. The hydrogen is supplied by the pressure storage and the
recirculated and compressed hydrogen from the stack outlet.
The cooling circuit ensures that the reaction heat is dissipated. It is necessary for
the cold start capability at temperatures below freezing point.

System Architecture
The architecture of a fuel cell system including functional peripheral components
is structured as follows:

Stacking insulation
Cooler M Motor Compressor
valve
Valves Check valve H2 tank Turbine

Air filter Humidifier Demister Inlet/outlet

Balance-of-Plant Components
as part of the system architecture
The components of a fuel cell system are holistically referred to as “Balance-of-
Plant” (BoP). The individual components can be subdivided into three super-
ordinate subsystems: anode module, cathode module and cooling system. They
ensure the functionality of the media circuits and are exemplarily illustrated
below. The hydrogen storage is not part of the illustration.

Anode module: Cooling system:

● Closed hydrogen circuit including ● Temperature control of the fuel
pressure-temperature control cell by de-ionized coolant
● Anode module as dosing unit for ● Consists of coolant pump,
supplying the anode and coolant filters and pressure
hydrogen recirculation regulator
● Assurance of the operating ● Cooling power requirement of
pressure and hydrogen purity the stack up to 150% of the
nominal stack capacity

Control unit
Filter
Coolant pump
Pressure
regulator Coolant
Anode module
Distributor
valve
Cooling
system
Hydrogen
Pressure
Hydrogen regulator
compressor
Demister

Frame
Air filter
Cathode module

Air

Compressor

Pressure
Humidifier regulator

Cathode module:
● Supply and treatment of the reactant oxygen by means of air filter, electrically
operated compressor and air humidifier
● Oil-free turbocharger as air compressor, supported by reaction exhaust air, to
increase efficiency
● Humidifier made of bundled or stacked separating membranes
 Production Process
of a PEM fuel cell system

● The process chain for the series production of PEM fuel cell systems differs
depending on the application and the number of units produced annually.
Uniform standards are not yet available due to the manual nature of fuel cell
production.
● The production of a PEM fuel cell system can be divided into the three super-
ordinate steps of component production, stack production, and system
production.
● This guide presents the process steps that make up the current state of the art
in the production of PEM fuel cell stacks and systems.
● The production of the individual fuel cell components is explained in more
detail in a separate guide (“Production of Fuel Cell Components”).

Component production*:

Coating Decal & Hot Pressing & Subgasket

CCM
Mixing
Drying Decal Removing application

Joining &

MEA
Seperating

Chopping Forming Impreg- Water- MPL application GDL

Graphitizing
Carbon Fiber Carbon Paper nating proofing & Sintering

Stamping Leakage Gasket

BPP

Coating Joining
Hydroforming Isolating Testing application

*Essential part of the brochure „Production of Fuel Cell Components“

Stack production:

Stacking & Leakage Break-in &

Stack

Compressing Tensioning Finalization

Preassembly testing Testing

System production:
System

Balance-of-Plant assembly Electrical integration “End of Line” testing

Process step Intermediate product Final product

 Overview
PEM fuel cell stack and system

Fuel cell stack

● The fuel cell stack consists of any

number of individual fuel cells
connected in series which enables
scalable power ranges.
● In addition to the individual
cells, a functional stack consists
of end plates, current collectors, a
distribution plate and a monitoring
unit.
● In practice, there are several ways to
apply a clamping force to the fuel
cell stack components. For example,
tension bands (see figure) or tension
rods.

BoP components

Control unit ● The Balance-of-Plant (BoP) consists

Anode module of an air circuit (cathode module),
a hydrogen circuit (anode module),
and a high-temperature and low-
Cooling temperature cooling system.
system
● In the air circuit, the ambient air is
filtered, compressed and fed to the
fuel cell in a specified condition.

● In the air circuit, the ambient air is

filtered, compressed and supplied to
Cathode module
the fuel cell in a controlled propor-
tion.

Fuel cell system

● The fuel cell stack, the Balance-of-

Plant (BoP), and the tank system
make up the fuel cell (FC) system.
● The two cooling systems are used
to cool the fuel cell stack (high
temperature) and to temper the
compressed air (low temperature) as
well as auxiliary units.
 Scaling the Production
Cost degression through economies of scale
Manufacturing costs Cost of materials Production costs Guiding price
Figure adapted from “Kampker et al. [2022] – Reducing fuel cell system costs through economies of scale”.
350
303
300 265
250 232
218 206
199 196 190
€/kW

200 183 177 173

168 164 159
155 152 150 147
150
100
50
20,000

30,000

50,000

200,000

300,000

500,000

600,000
500

2,500
5,000

75,000

400,000

750,000
100,000

150,000
10,000

15,000
1,000

The costs were calculated using the example of a fuel cell system specified by the PEM
chair of RWTH Aachen University and its production steps. The modelling of pro-
duction technology currently established on the market shows that the production
costs are almost constant from a production volume of approximately 2,500 fuel cell
systems per year. This is due to the underlying system technology, which has not yet
been designed for large quantities. This makes it difficult to achieve economies of scale
and the associated cost reductions. At this point, mechanical and plant engineering
can make a considerable contribution to making economies of scale usable at an early
stage through innovative production technology. The following explanations in this
guide refer to a production scenario of 10,000 FC systems per year.

Cost Structure
of the FC system
Target price

Total costs

Manufacturing costs

Production costs Cost of materials

The expenses modelled by RWTH’s PEM chair are based on a cost structure that
defines the “target price” as the selling price of the product when all costs, taxes
and calculated profit of the company are covered. The “total costs” are made up
of expenses for sales, administration, research, and development as well as
manufacturing costs. The “manufacturing costs” are the sum of production and
material costs. The “production costs” consist of “direct production costs” and
“production overheads”, while the “material costs” comprise the “direct material
costs” and the “material overheads”. Direct costs refer to expenses incurred per
product produced. Overhead costs include expenses that are only indirectly
allocated to individual products. In the following, the investment costs per plant
are shown for each production step.
 Stacking and Pre-assembly
Stack production

Placement End plate

robot
1000427BH934ZX8
Gripping tool
Power collector Specific
Barcode Power
collector

End plate

Component production Stack production System production

● At the beginning of fuel cell stack production, the lower end plate and the
lower current collector are pre-assembled.
● An optional scanning step of product labels of the MEA (membrane electrode
assembly) and the BPP (Bipolar Plate) in the incoming goods department
facilitates later component traceability of the product.
● MEA (here: 5-layer MEA), BPP and gaskets are stacked on top of each other in
a defined order: (1) BPP, (2) gasket, (3) MEA, (4) gasket, (5) BPP.
● Finally, the upper current collector and the upper end plate with media
accesses are added.
● The exact alignment of the individual components of the stack can be en-
sured by guiding elements.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Number of fuel cells: 2 - 10 cells per kW • Pick-and-place robot for stacking process
• Stacking speed: < 2.3 seconds per • Fully automatic stacking by feeding systems
component
• Semi-automatic stacking by carousel devices
• Component positioning accuracy:
• Manual stacking
0.1 mm/100 µm

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Accuracy of component thickness: < 10 µm • Stack height 1 - 2 mm per cell (depending

on performance level)
• Cleanroom classification: ISO 8
• Accuracy of cell positioning
• Non-destructive

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.5 - 0.8 million

Compression
Stack production
Hydraulic press
N Displacement
control Result
Stamp
s

Compressed fuel cell

stack

Component production Stack production System production

● Compression takes place within a pressing device, for example a hydraulic

press.
● By pressing the individual components, the fuel cell seals are compressed and
the stack is thus sealed.
● The contact resistances between the components are lowered by the
compression.
● A regulation of the pressing force and the pressing path ensures sufficient
compression and avoids damage to the components due to overloading.
● Uniform pressing has a significant influence on the subsequent power density
as well as the service life of the stack.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Press force (product-dependent): max. 160 • Spindle press

kN for metallic bipolar plates
• Hydraulic press
• Uniform contact pressure
• Pneumatic press
• Pressing path (depending on product)
• Servo-hydraulic press
• Process time: 150 seconds to 30 minutes per
stack

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Pressing force and displacement • Stack height: 1 - 2 mm per cell (depending
accuracy: +/- 2% on power class)
• Cleanroom classification: ISO 8 • Tightness
• Traversing speed • Non-destructive
• Positioning accuracy • Even pressure distribution

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.2 - 0.4 million

Tensioning
Stack production
Tension straps Tension rods
Tension Fastening Nuts
band Tension
clamp rods

Pressing Pressing
force force
- Less weight & installation space - Simple components & process
- Uniform pressure distribution control

- Uneven pressure distribution

- Risk of overloading the straps at - More weight & installation
the edges space

Component production Stack production System production

● The permanent compression of the stack is guaranteed by suitable tensioning

devices, usually tension bands or tension rods.
● The tensioning devices are fastened in the press while the force is still applied.
● The bands, usually metallic or carbon fiber-reinforced, are placed around the
stack and overlapped.
● The ends of the belts are joined by means of clamps, sometimes also with a
material joint (e.g. by welding) or with a form fit (e.g. by crimping).
● Tension rods are alternatively guided through the openings provided on the
end plates and fastened against the end plates by means of nuts.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Contact pressure: approx. 0.5 - 1 MPa • Tension rods

• Tightening torque: approx. 11 Nm (single • Clamping plates
cells)
• Clamping straps
• Rotation of the device up to 180° in cross-
• Sheathing
sectional area

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Screwing order • Destruction-free tensioning belts

• Tightening torque • No fractures or cracks in the cells or
endplates
• Uneven tensioning due to deformation of the
end plate • Uniform pressure distribution

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.1 - 0.2 million

Check Tightness
Stack production
Pressure decay test Leaking test
O.K. gas
p
Not O.K.
Measuring Test gas
Valves
station supply

Flow test
O.K.
Q
Not O.K. bar

Flow

Component production Stack production System production

● To check the tightness of the compressed stack, a pressure drop, or flow test
is carried out.
● A measuring station including test gas supply is connected to the media
inputs of the stack.
● In the pressure drop test, the outputs of the stack are closed, and the pressure
drop is measured over time after filling with test gas.
● During the flow test, the outputs of the stack are opened, and the test gas
flow is measured.
● The overall tightness of the stack, but also that of the individual circuits can be
determined.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• H2 leak rate: max. 1x10-1 mbar l/s (according • Nitrogen as test gas
to IEC 62282-2) • Helium as test gas
• O2 leak rate: max. 4 times leakage rate of H2
• Flow test
• Operating load: depending on stack power
• Test medium: helium or nitrogen • Pressure drop test

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Tightness of the supply lines and media • Leak rate

connections
• Definition of acceptable rework
• Destruction-free components
• Uneven tensioning
• Ambient pressure and temperature
• Dust protection

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.3 - 0.4 million

 Check Insulation
Stack production

Cell test:
e-
e-

e- e-
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 e-
𝐼≤ ∗ 1 𝑚𝐴
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Housing test :

Housing Positive pole Negative pole

Component production Stack production System production

● The insulation test ensures that the clearances and solid insulation of the
components have sufficient dielectric strength to withstand a temporary over-
voltage.
● Insulation testing takes place between a touchable conductive component
and the circuit and is intended as a fully automatic procedure.
● The test is considered to have been passed if no electrical breakthroughs
have occurred within the cells and between the stack and the housing
(summarized figure above).
● The leakage current must not exceed 1 mA multiplied by the ratio of the test
voltage to the open-circuit voltage.
● Since individual fuel cells act like capacitors, the cause of short circuits cannot
always be clearly determined.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Test duration type test: min. 60 sec. • None available

(according to DIN EN 62477-1)
• Test duration unit test: >5 sec. (according to
DIN EN 62282-2-100)
• Frequency of the test voltage: 38 - 62 Hz
• Test voltage: 2 to 6 kV
• Test medium: coolant

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Individual fuel cells act like capacitors → • Prevention of electrical breakthroughs

Source of power failures difficult to identify
• A lot of manual operations

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.1 - 0.2 million

 Finalization
Stack production
CVM unit Distributor
plate

Current busbars

Epoxy resin

Bipolar plate

Gasket Contact
Housing

Component production Stack production System production

● The CVM (cell voltage monitoring) unit is attached to the side of the stack to
monitor the voltage of the individual cells.
● The individual contacts of the CVM unit are attached to the bipolar plates of
the fuel cells using epoxy resins.
● The current busbars for the later HV output wiring of the stack are screwed to
the current collectors.
● The stack is inserted into a housing and the housing cover is mounted.
● The cover of the enclosure is also the distribution plate and contains all inputs
and outputs for media as well as connections for sensors and HV cabling.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Dosing quantity of the epoxy resin • Semi-automated assembly

• Ensuring transport safety • Measurement of the total stack voltage
instead of individual cell voltages
• Positioning accuracy of the conductor ends

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Wetting and quality of the epoxy resin • Conductivity and correct reception of the
individual cell voltages
• Handling and safety regulations for employee
inspection • Serviceability with the possibility of opening
the housing

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: approx. € 0.1 million

Break-in and Testing
Stack production
Polarization curve
Testing
station

Power (W)
Voltage (V)
Electric Amperage (A)
load
Hydrogen supply
Compressor
Coolant pump Air temperature
conditioning
bar V rF
Humidifier

Flow A rF

Component production Stack production System production

● The assembled fuel cell stacks are activated in a test stand to ensure per-
formance.
● During activation, impurities and solvent residues are removed, the pores are
opened, and the membrane and ionomers are moistened.
● During the break-in process, different combinations of flow rate, media pres-
sure, air temperature, and humidity are run through.
● The performance of the stack increases steadily at the beginning and then
asymptotically approaches an optimum, resulting in a trade-off between acti-
vation time and performance.
● Different protocols exist that cause different activation times and cell degra-
dation.
● In some cases, a new leak test is necessary following the activation process.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Process time: approx. 10 min for 90% power • Discontinuous load cycles
and approx. 120 to 480 min for 100% power • Discontinuous media supply
• Operating load: 0.3 to 0.6 V (sometimes 0.9 V)
• Discontinuous temperature curve
• Operating temperature: 55 to 95°C
• Operating pressure: 3.4 to 5 bar

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Media purity (i.e. grade 7 hydrogen for • Cell voltage and efficiency
mobile applications)
• Influence on cell degradation
• Media supply and cooling capacity
• Tightness
• Tightness of the supply lines and media
connections
• Operating pressure and temperature

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 1.0 - 1.2 million

 Balance-of-Plant Assembly
System production
Control unit Filter Coolant pump
Pressure
Droplet separator
regulator

Distributor Pressure
valve regulator
Cooling system
Anode module

Recirculation fan Frame

Air filter
Humidifier
Compressor
Hydrogen
Pressure
Coolant
regulator
Air Cathode module

Component production Stack production System production

● The Balance-of-Plant (BoP) components are connected to the fuel cell stack,
for example with the aid of a mounting frame.
● To supply the entire system with hydrogen, the anode module (consisting of
hydrogen recirculation blower, pressure regulator, distributor valve, droplet
separator, and lines) is attached.
● To ensure the necessary system cooling, the cooling system (consisting of
filters, coolant pump, pressure regulator, and pipes) is installed.
● The cathode module (consisting of compressor, air filter, humidifier, pressure
regulator and pipes) is mounted to supply the entire system with air.
● The control unit is mounted to control the media supply and thermal
management.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Assembly instructions including division into • Partial automation of assembly possible

subassemblies • Plug-in and screw connections
• Component design suitable for assembly
(e.g. hole pattern in the frame)
• Ensuring transport safety (cables,
connections, protective flaps, etc.)

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Handling and safety regulations for control • External integrity and technical cleanliness
by employees
• Firmly seated joints
• Inline measurement and testing technology
• Correct positioning and wiring of the
of assembly
peripheral devices
• Poka-Yoke design to protect against
• Dismountability
incorrect assembly
• Accessibility of the connection points

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: € 0.05 - 0.1 million

Electrical Integration
System production
HV cable Wiring
harness
Assembled fuel cell system

Air hoses Cooling lines

Component production Stack production System production

● The previously mounted BoP components are connected to the media

openings of the stack via lines.
● The control unit is connected to the individual BoP components.
● The HV output wiring is attached.
● In the last assembly step, the wiring harness is mounted for later vehicle
integration.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Qualification of employees for the installation • Plug-in and screw connections

of flexible cables • Pressing on the hoses and lines
• Qualification of employees for assembly
under high-voltage safety (> 60 V)
• Ensuring transport safety (cables,
connections, protective flaps, etc.)

Quality influences Quality criteria

• Handling and safety regulations for control • External integrity and technical cleanliness
by employees
• Firmly seated joints
• Accessibility of the connection points
• Correct positioning and wiring of the
• Poka-Yoke design for protection against peripherals
faulty contacting
• Dismountability

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: approx. € 0.05 million

End-of-Line Testing
System production

Optical Release for vehicle

inspection integration
Leistung (W)
Spannung (V)

EoL test station

Stromstärke (A)

Flow bar

V A

rF T

Electrical load

Component production Stack production System production

● The entire fuel cell system, including all connected media lines and
aggregates, is tested on an End-of-Line (EoL) test bench.
● The system runs through a test program in which different operating states
are triggered through by varying the input parameters.
● The EoL testing ensures the functionality of the system consisting of the
individual components (incl. software) and their correct connection to each
other.
● In the process, the system undergoes a function and safety test for flawless
performance as well as flow of gases and liquids. If the EoL test is completed
without a fault signal and the optical test is passed, the fuel cell system is
released for the vehicle integration.

Process parameters & requirements Technology alternatives

• Process know-how • Upstream testing of the individual peripheral

• List of criteria for comprehensive testing components → safety test not included
(no uniform regulation) • Statistical testing with increasing production
• Defined delivery status in coordination with numbers
vehicle assembly
• Possibly combine EoL with commissioning
• Qualification of employees for high-voltage
safety (> 60 V)

Quality influences Quality criteria

• None • Factory acceptance test (FAT) as final

product release
• Definition of permitted rework
• Internal characteristics of manufacturer and
customer

Production costs [excerpt] Investment for equipment: approx. € 0.55 million

Further Information
on fuel cells and H2 components
The production chain of a fuel cell system explained in this guide is based on the
production of individual fuel cells. For more information on this, please refer to
the guide listed below. It further details the production steps for manufacturing
the individual cell components and the associated total costs.

ISBN: 978-3-947920-30-3