MISCELLANEOUS BUILDING MATERIALS

Miscellaneous Materials

Means interior building material on structural components, structural members

or fixtures, such as floor and ceiling tiles, and does not include surfacing material or

thermal system insulation.

●​ Common Miscellaneous Building Materials

1.​ Plywood

Plywood is a versatile material

composed of thin layers of wood

veneer glued together with

alternating grain directions. This

construction method provides

strength, stability, and flexibility,

making it suitable for subflooring,

sheathing, and decorative finishes.

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2.​ Insulation

Insulation materials, such as

fiberglass, foam board, and

mineral wool, are essential for

regulating temperature and

reducing energy consumption in

buildings. Proper insulation helps

maintain consistent indoor temperatures, improving energy efficiency and

enhancing comfort levels.

3.​ Fasteners

Fasteners, including nails,

screws, bolts, and anchors, are

crucial for securely joining materials

together. They come in various

sizes, types, and materials to

accommodate different construction

needs and requirements.

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4.​ Drywall

Drywall, also known as gypsum

board or plasterboard, is a popular

interior finishing material used for

walls and ceilings. It provides a

smooth, durable surface for

painting or wallpapering and helps

improve fire resistance and sound insulation.

5.​ Roofing Material

Roofing materials, such as

shingles, tiles, and metal panels,

protect buildings from the

elements and provide structural

support for roofs. They come in a

variety of styles, colors, and

materials to suit different architectural styles and climate conditions.

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 6.​ Flooring Materials

Flooring materials, including

hardwood, laminate, vinyl, and tile,

enhance the beauty and

functionality of interior spaces.

They offer durability, ease of

maintenance, and aesthetic

appeal, making them popular choices for residential and commercial flooring

applications.

●​ Other Miscellaneous Building Materials

1.​ Glass

Glass is a versatile material

used in windows, doors, and other

architectural elements. Its

properties include transparency,

durability, and resistance to

chemicals.

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2.​ Plastics

Plastics are organic materials

prepared from resins, often

containing fillers, plasticizers, and

solvents. They possess a wide

range of properties, including

flexibility, durability, and electrical

insulation, making them suitable for various applications in construction.

3.​ Bitumen

Bitumen, also known as

asphalt, is a hydrocarbon material

used for waterproofing, paving,

and roofing. It is obtained from

crude oil and serves as a binding

material in asphalt.

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4.​ Asbestos

Asbestos, a fibrous mineral,

was once widely used for its fire

resistance and insulation

properties. However, due to its

health risks, its use has been

significantly restricted in many

countries.

5.​ Paints

Paints are applied to surfaces

as a protective layer and for

aesthetic purposes. They consist

of a base, a vehicle, a pigment, a

drier, and a thinner. Paints offer

protection against moisture,

corrosion, and weathering, while enhancing the visual appeal of buildings.

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 6.​ Distemper

Distemper is a cheaper alternative to paint,

using chalk as a base and water as a vehicle. It

is primarily used for interior applications and

offers good coverage but is less durable than

paint.

7.​ Varnishes

Varnishes are solutions of

resins or resinous substances in

solvents like oil, used to protect

and enhance the appearance of

wood surfaces. They provide a

clear, protective coating that

enhances the natural beauty of the wood.

INTRODUCTION OF CONCRETE BLOCK

Concrete blocks, also known as

concrete masonry units (CMUs), are a

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common building material used in construction. They are typically rectangular

blocks made from cast concrete, often with hollow centers to reduce weight and

improve insulation. Concrete blocks offer several advantages over traditional bricks,

including faster construction times, lower material costs, and greater design

flexibility.

The use of concrete blocks allows for structures to be built in a traditional

masonry style, with layers of staggered

blocks. They are widely used for

load-bearing walls, foundation walls, and

partition walls. Concrete blocks are also

used in a variety of other applications,

such as retaining walls, paving, and

landscaping.

The popularity of concrete blocks has grown significantly in recent years, as

they offer a cost-effective and durable alternative to traditional brick construction.

They are also becoming increasingly popular in sustainable building practices due

to their potential for incorporating recycled materials.

●​ Composition of Concrete Blocks

Concrete Blocks are primarily composed of four key elements:

1.​ Cement

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 -​ The binding agent that holds the block together.

2.​ Aggregates

-​ These include sand, gravel, or crushed stone,

which provide strength and texture.

3.​ Water

-​ Essential for the hydration process of cement.

●​ Application of Concrete Blocks

1.​ Load-bearing walls – Used for

constructing heavy-load structures such

as high-rise buildings, retaining walls,

and industrial structures.

2.​ Foundations and basement walls –

Due to their high strength, solid blocks

are suitable for foundations and

basement walls where durability is

crucial.

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 3.​ Pavements and landscaping – Used

for pathways, driveways, and boundary

walls because of their strength and

stability.

4.​ Fireproof structures – Suitable for

fire-resistant walls in factories,

warehouses, and high-risk areas.

HISTORY OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

●​ Prehistoric Times

The concept of using stacked

materials for construction began in

prehistoric times, with people utilizing

readily available stones to create

rudimentary shelters. This early form of

masonry laid the groundwork for future

advancements in building techniques.

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●​ Ancient Egypt (c. 2700-2200 BCE)

The construction of the Egyptian

pyramids showcased a significant leap

forward: the use of standardized stone

blocks. This innovation improved

efficiency and precision in construction,

influencing building practices for

millennia to come. The use of sun-baked clay bricks, dating back to even earlier

periods, also played a crucial role in establishing masonry as a primary construction

method.

●​ 1700s

The earliest known attempts at creating concrete blocks emerged in the late

1700s. These early blocks, however, were solid and made entirely by hand, making

them heavy and difficult to work with.

●​ 1832

An English builder, Ranger, developed a solid concrete block using a mixture

of sea gravel, flints, and stone chippings bound with lime and water. While stronger

than previous attempts, these blocks remained cumbersome due to their solid

nature.

●​ 1850

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 Joseph Gibbs patented the

hollow-cast concrete block, a significant

breakthrough. The hollow design

drastically reduced weight and improved

ease of handling, making concrete

blocks a more practical building material.

●​ 1900

Harmon S. Palmer patented a machine for producing hollow concrete blocks,

marking the beginning of mechanized production. This innovation greatly increased

efficiency and output, accelerating the adoption of concrete blocks.

●​ 1920

Harmon H. Palmer, son of

Harmon S. Palmer, further refined the

design, creating the modern hollow

concrete block. This design improved

insulation and reduced material usage,

making concrete blocks even more

appealing for residential and

commercial construction.

●​ 20th and 21st Centuries

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 The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the widespread automation of

concrete block production, allowing for mass production and a wide variety of sizes,

shapes, and finishes. A growing focus on sustainability is leading to the

incorporation of recycled materials and eco-friendly manufacturing processes.

TYPES OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

a.​ CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS (CHB)

​ Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB), are one of the most extensively used

walling materials in the Philippines.

Some of the reasons for this is their

relative low cost when compared to

other materials and speed of

installation by semi-skilled laborers.

Concrete Hollow Blocks are blocks made from concrete, typically with hollow

cores. They are widely used in construction for their durability, affordability, and

versatility.

●​ Types of Concrete Hollow Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks come in a variety of sizes, such as 100 mm x 200

mm x 400 mm, 150 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm, and 200 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm.

13
These blocks are most commonly gray but can also be found in different colors,

including tan and dark red.

1.​ Stretcher Block

Concrete stretcher blocks are

used in construction to connect

the corner of masonry units. Their

faces are laid parallel to the face

of the wall.

2.​ Pillar Block

As the name implies, pillar blocks are most often used to build pillars or

piers. They’re also called double

corner blocks and are designed

so that both ends could be left

visible. Pillar blocks are the kind

of blocks many people think of

when they think of concrete

blocks, and they are often available in large quantities at building supply

stores.

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3.​ Lintel Block

Also called channeled or beam blocks, lintel blocks are recognizable by

their U shape. The deep grooves

created by the U shape, which run

along the length of these blocks,

are filled with concrete and

reinforcing bars. Used in

preparation for lintel beams,

they’re typically placed on the top of doors and windows to transfer the load

pressing down from above.

A solid-bottom lintel block, such as the one pictured here, can be

purchased in a 6-by-8-by-16-inch configuration.

4.​ Jamb Block

Jamb blocks are made with a

shallow groove across the two

holes and a deeper groove at one

end. They provide space for the

casing members of a window and

are often used specifically in

double-hung windows.

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5.​ Column Block

A column block is typically a

square block with a single hole.

These can be stacked to create

columns, with reinforcement

inside.

6.​ Corner Block

Corner blocks are placed at

corners, as you might expect, or

at the ends of windows and door

openings. The plain side is

exposed to the exterior, while the

stretcher side runs parallel to the

wall.

7.​ Split Face Block

Split Face blocks look like pillar blocks, except one edge has a very

rough, almost jagged texture that exposes the block’s inner aggregates. This

16
 block is very porous and therefore

vulnerable to water damage, but it

also has a lower risk of termite

infestation and is less susceptible

to fire.

A split face block like the one

pictured above might come in a 6-by-8-by-16-inch size.

8.​ Bullnose Block

Bullnose blocks are the same as corner blocks in their use and structure,

except that they have rounded

edges (which is the reason for

their name).

A single bullnose block, like

the one shown here, might come

in a 6-by-8-by-16-inch size; a

block with a double bullnose at one end is available in the same size.

17
 9.​ Partition Block

Partition blocks are similar to

concrete pillar blocks except that

they are taller than they are wide.

These narrow blocks look almost

like wide goggles if viewed

straight-on.

●​ Properties of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)

1.​ Lightweight: Hollow concrete blocks are lighter than solid blocks, which

makes them easier to handle and transport.

2.​ Insulation: The hollow spaces in these blocks provide insulation, helping to

reduce heat loss and noise transmission.

3.​ Strength: Hollow concrete blocks are designed to be structurally sound and

have good load-bearing capabilities.

4.​ Durability: These blocks are durable and can withstand weathering and

natural disasters such as earthquakes.

5.​ Fire resistance: Concrete blocks are non-combustible and provide good fire

resistance.

6.​ Versatility: Hollow concrete blocks come in a variety of sizes and shapes,

making them versatile and suitable for a range of construction applications.

18
 7.​ Cost-effective: These blocks are an economical building material as they

are made from low-cost materials such as cement, water, and aggregates.

8.​ Sustainable: Concrete blocks are made from natural materials and can be

recycled, making them an environmentally friendly choice.

●​ Advantages of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)

1. Sustainability

- Concrete Hollow Blocks are environmentally friendly as they require

fewer raw materials compared to solid concrete blocks. This makes them a

sustainable choice for construction projects.

2. Ease of Installation

- CHBs are relatively easy to install, reducing construction time and labor

costs. Their uniform shape and size simplify the building process.

3. Design Flexibility

- Architects and builders appreciate the design flexibility offered by CHBs.

They come in various sizes and can be easily adapted to suit specific design

requirements.

●​ Disadvantages of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)

1. Lower Tensile Strength

19
 - Concrete hollow blocks have poor tensile strength compared to solid

blocks or reinforced concrete.

2. Water Absorption

- Concrete blocks are porous and tend to absorb water.

b. SOLID CONCRETE BLOCKS

​ A block which has more than 75%

of the total mass filled up with concrete,

of the overall dimensions is categorised

as Solid Concrete Block. They are

often used in construction for their

strength and durability, making them

suitable for load-bearing structures like foundations, retaining walls, and paving

projects.

●​ Types Of Solid Concrete Blocks

1.​ Fly Ash Block

​ Fly ash blocks are eco-friendly concrete

blocks made with fly ash, a by-product of

20
coal combustion. They are lightweight but tend to come in smaller blocks as

they get less durable the bigger they get.

2.​ Aerated Autoclaved Concrete Block

​ AAC blocks are the lightweight

champions of concrete blocks. They are

about 80% air, offer impressive sound and

temperature insulation, and can

accommodate nails and screws. Despite the advantages, they are

susceptible to damage from the elements and aren’t suitable for load-bearing

applications.

21
3.​ Paving Block

​ A paving block, also called a paver, is a

rectangular or shaped concrete unit used

for creating decorative and durable outdoor

surfaces like driveways, patios, and

walkways. They come in various colors,

textures, and interlocking designs used to create attractive and functional

pavements.

4.​ Cellular Lightweight Block

​ Cellular lightweight blocks (CLC blocks)

are much lighter than standard blocks,

because they are a careful mix of fly ash,

cement, and foam. This makes them easier

to handle and reduces building weight.

High-density CDCs can be used for load-bearing walls, plus they are

fire-resistant, eco-friendly, and cost-effective.

22
5.​ Expanded Clay Aggregate Block

​ An Expanded Clay Aggregate (ECA)

block is a lightweight concrete block made

with a certain combination of fly ash and

cement, and fired in a kiln to cure it. They

can be made into different sizes and densities, and they are both waterproof

and fire-proof.

23
 ●​ Properties of Solid Concrete Blocks

1.​ High Compressive Strength – Solid blocks have a compressive

strength of 4 MPa+, making them suitable for load-bearing walls.

2.​ Heavy Weight – Due to their solid structure, they are heavier, which

increases stability but makes handling and transportation more difficult.

3.​ Low Porosity – They absorb less water, making them more

moisture-resistant and suitable for foundations and basements.

4.​ Better Sound Insulation – Their dense composition provides good

soundproofing, reducing noise transmission.

5.​ High Fire Resistance – Solid blocks are highly fire-resistant, making

them ideal for industrial and commercial buildings.

6.​ Slow Construction Speed – Because they are heavy, the construction

process can be slower and more labor-intensive.

7.​ More Material Usage – Solid blocks require more concrete and raw

materials, making them more expensive compared to hollow blocks.

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

The compressive strength of concrete blocks is a critical factor, indicating the

maximum load the block can bear before failure.

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GRADE DENSITY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
(at 28 days)

Concrete Hollow Blocks

A ≥ 1,500 kg/m3 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, and 7.0 N/mm2

B Less than 1,500 kg/m3 2.0, 3.0, and 5.0 N/mm2

C Larger than 1,000 kg/m3 1.5 N/mm2

Solid Concrete Blocks

D ≥ 1,800 kg/m3 4.0 and 5.0 N/mm2

●​ Factors Influencing Strengths of Concrete Blocks

○​ Mix Proportion of Ingredients – The strength of concrete blocks

depends on the correct ratio of cement, sand, aggregates, and water.

○​ Quality of Raw Materials – The type and grade of cement, the

characteristics of aggregates, and the purity of water used in the mix all

affect the final strength of the concrete block.

○​ Compaction and Density – Proper compaction removes air voids and

increases the overall density of the block, resulting in higher strength.

○​ Curing Process and Environment– Moist curing for at least 7 to 28

days allows the concrete to reach its optimal strength. Also,

environmental factors such as temperature and humidity influence the

hydration process of concrete.

25
 ○​ Manufacturing Process – The method of production, including the use

of vibration and pressure during molding, affects the density and strength

of the block.

○​ Additives and Admixtures – The use of pozzolanic materials like fly ash

and silica fume can enhance the strength of concrete blocks. Plasticizers

and superplasticizers improve workability and compactness, leading to

better overall performance.

TESTS ON CONCRETE BLOCKS

●​ ASTM C140

○​ It is a standard test method for sampling and testing concrete masonry units

(CMUs) and related concrete units, covering procedures for measuring

dimensions, compressive strength, absorption, unit weight, moisture

content, flexural load, and ballast weight.

○​ Here are the different test methods on concrete blocks:

1.​ Dimension Measurement

All blocks are measured for

length, width, and height using a

steel scale. For hollow blocks, the

thickness of the webs and face shells

is also measured with calipers.

26
 Tolerances:

●​ Length: ± 3.2 mm

●​ Width: ± 1.6 mm

●​ Height: ± 1.6 mm

2.​ Density Test

A sample of blocks (typically

three) is weighed and their volume

calculated to determine density. This

helps in assessing the block's quality

and suitability for specific

applications.

To calculate the density, use this formula:

Density = W1 / V

Where: W1​= Dry weight (kg)

27
 V = Volume (m³)​

3.​ Compressive Strength Test

Eight blocks are subjected

to a compression testing

machine. The blocks are

capped with materials like

sulfur or gypsum plaster to

ensure even load distribution.

The load is applied at a

constant rate until the block

fails, and the maximum load

is recorded. The compressive

strength is then calculated by

dividing this load by the block's

cross-sectional area.

Formula for computing Compressive Strength:

𝑓=𝑃/𝐴

Where: 𝑓 = Compressive strength (MPa)

28
 𝑃 = Maximum load applied (N)

𝐴 = Cross-sectional area (mm²)

4.​ Water Absorption Test

This test measures the block's

ability to absorb water, which can

affect durability and structural

performance. High water absorption

can lead to issues like efflorescence,

reduced strength, and increased susceptibility to freeze-thaw cycles in

colder climates.

To calculate water absorption, use this formula:

Absorption = ((W2 - W1) / W1) * 100

Where: W1​= Dry weight (kg)

W2= Wet weight (kg)

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