Chapter 2 (Notes)

Tissue
A group of cells that are specialized to perform a particular function forms a
tissue.
The term tissue was coined by Bichat in 1792.
The study of tissues is called Histology.

Division of labour:
It is defined as the distribution of various life activities and functions amongst
different parts of body so that they get specialise to perform that function.

For example, in humans muscle cells contract and relax to produce movement.
Nerve cells are specialised to carry messages, blood flows to transport oxygen,
food, hormones etc.
In plants, vascular tissues conduct water from one part of the plant to the other.
Thus, multi-cellular organisms exhibit division of labour.

Tissues are mainly classified into two types :

1. Plant Tissues
2. Animal Tissues

Difference between Plant tissue and Animal tissue

 Plant tissues
Types of Plant Tissues:
Based on the dividing capacity of the tissues, various plant tissues can be
classified as growing or meristematic tissue and permanent tissue which have
further sub-divisions as explained below:

A. Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissues are responsible for growth in plants. Cells in these tissues
can divide and form new cells.
Meristematic tissues are of three types:
(i) Apical Meristem: It is present at the growing tip of the stem and roots and
increases the length.
(ii) Lateral Meristem (cambium): It is present beneath the bark. It is
responsible for growth in girth of trunk.
(iii) Intercalary Meristem: It is present at internodes or base of the leaves and
increases the length between the nodes.
 Functions of Meristematic tissue

B. Permanent Tissue
• Cells of meristematic tissues change their shape & size to get specialised in
performing other functions in plants body. This process is called Differentiation.
• Once the cells of meristematic tissue divide to a certain extent, they become
specialized for a particular function.

Permanent tissues are of two types:

Simple tissues and Complex tissues

(i) Simple tissues: This type of tissue is composed of same type of cells.
These are again of four types:
(a) Parenchyma simple tissues:
• Cells of parenchyma tissues are live.
• They are oval, elongated and loosely packed with large inter-cellular space,
 forming basic packing of tissue and are found throughout the plant body.
• Cell wall is thin.
• It encloses a dense cytoplasm which contains a small nucleus and surrounds a
large central vacuole.

Functions of parenchyma:
• They provide mechanical support to the plant body.
• They store food and nutrients in vacuoles.
Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma with chlorophyll which performs photosynthesis is
called as chlorenchyma.
Aerenchyma: In aquatic plants, cells of parenchyma have large air cavities to
give buoyancy to the plant and is called aerenchyma.

(b) Collenchyma simple Tissues:

• Cells of collenchyma are live.
• They are oval and elongated and tightly packed with no inter-cellular spaces.
• They are found below epidermis in leaves and stem.
• It is characterised by deposition of extra cellulose at the corners of the cells.

Functions of collenchyma tissues:

• They provide mechanical support to plant.
• They also provide flexibility to plants so that they can bend without breaking.

(c) Sclerenchyma Simple Tissues:

• Cells of sclerenchyma are dead.
• They are narrow and elongated.
• The cell wall in sclerenchyma is composed of lignin which makes it hard.
• Sclerenchyma are found around vascular bundles, veins of leaves in hard
covering of seeds and nuts.
For example: Sclerenchyma tissues are found in coconut husk.
Types of Sclerenchyma tissues
 Functions of sclerenchyma:
• They help to makes parts of plant hard and stiff.
• Also provides mechanical strength.

(d) Protective tissues: They protect the plant body by forming an outer layer.
There are two types of protective tissues:

1. Epidermis Simple Tissues:

•Epidermis tissue covers the entire body of plant. They protect plant from injury,
germs and water loss.
•Cells of epidermal tissue form a continuous layer without intercellular spaces.

Stomata
Stomata are small openings on epidermal layer of leaf and soft part of stem to
facilitate the gaseous exchange and transpiration in plants.
Each stoma is composed of two guard cells which regulate the opening and
closing of stomata.
Guard cells play a crucial role in photosynthesis by regulating the entry of
materials necessary for the process.
In desert plants, epidermis and cutin (a water proof waxy substance secreted by
epidermis) are thicker to reduce loss of water due to transpiration.
2. Cork Simple Tissues:
• These types of tissue consist dead cells with no intercellular spaces. They form
the outer layer of old tree trunks.
• Cork cells have a chemical called suberin in their walls that makes them
impervious to gases and water.
• Cork tissue protects plants from injuries, germs and water loss.
• Cork being light in weight is used for making several products like bottle
stoppers and shuttle cork.

(ii) Complex tissues: Group of different type of cells performing common task
together are named as complex tissues.
Complex tissues are of two types:
(a) Xylem (b) Phloem
(a) Xylem:
This is the tissue that transports water and nutrients from root to upper parts of
plant. It is composed of four types of cells i.e., tracheid, vessel, xylem
parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma (fibre).

1.Trachieds are long elongated cells with tapered ending. Tracheid cells are
dead. Tracheid transports water through pits.
2.Vessel is a pipe like structure. Vessels are dead and have lignified thick cell
wall. Upper and lower portion of cell wall is absent.
3.Parenchyma are living cells. They store food and nutrients.
4.Sclerenchyma (fibres) are dead cells. They provide mechanical support to
plant.
(b) Phloem:
Phloem is the tissue that transports food from site of photosynthesis to different
parts of plants.
It is composed of four types of cell i.e. sieve cells, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma, phloem fibre or blast fibre. All types of cells are live except
phloem fibres.

1. Sieve cells are elongated and have thin cell wall. They have cytoplasm but no
nucleus and other organelles. These cells are responsible for transportation of
food and nutrients
2. Companion cells have cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles. They perform
the tasks required for sieve cells for living.
3. Phloem parenchyma store food.
4. Phloem fibres have thick cell wall and they provide mechanical support to
plant.
 Animal Tissues
Types of Animal Tissues:
Animal tissues are classified into four types based on the functions they
perform:
(i) Epithelial
(ii) Connective
(iii) Muscular
(iv) Nervous

Epithelial tissues
• They form the covering of the external surfaces, internal cavities and organs of
the animal body.

• Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.

• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and
kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue:

(i) Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.
(ii) It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
(iii) The permeability of the cells of various epithelia play an important role in
regulating the exchange of materials between the body and the external
environment.

Types of epithelial tissues:

(a) Simple squamous epithelium:
Single layer of flat cells.
Location in the human body: Lining of the mouth, oesophagus, lung, alveoli,
etc.
(b) Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
The skin, which protects the body, is also made of squamous epithelium.
Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear. Since
they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called stratified
squamous epithelium.
(c) Cuboidal epithelium:
This is cuboidal in shape and forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts of
salivary glands.
In some cases, a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward to form a
multicellular gland. This is called glandular epithelium.

It performs a function of secretion and absorption.

(d) Columnar Epithelium:

Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the intestine, tall
epithelial cells are present and are named as columnar epithelium.
In the respiratory tract, on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells there are hair
like projections called cilia. These cilia can move, and their movement pushes
the mucus forward to clear it. This type of epithelium is named as ciliated
columnar epithelium.

Its function is of secretion and absorption.

Connective tissues
The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an
intercellular matrix.
They are specialised to connect various body organs.

For example:
Blood (plasma), bones, Cartilage. ligaments and tendons etc.

Blood:
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma, blood cells and
platelets. It circulates throughout our body delivering oxygen and nutrients to
various cells and tissues. It makes up 8% of our body weight. An average adult
possesses around 5-6 litres of blood.
Plasma: The fluid (liquid) matrix of blood is called plasma which constitutes
45% of blood.
Plasma is a yellowish liquid like material.

Plasma contains three types of blood cells (55%) suspended in it. These are:

(i) RBC - Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

RBCs are the biconcave cells and without nucleus in humans; also known as
erythrocytes.
RBCs contain the iron-rich protein called haemoglobin; give blood its red
colour.
RBCs are the most copious blood cell produced in bone marrows.
Their main function is to transport oxygen from and to various tissues and
organs.

(ii) WBC - White blood Cells (Leucocytes)

Leucocytes are the colourless blood cells.
They are colourless because it is devoid of haemoglobin.
WBCs mainly contribute to immunity and defence mechanism, that’s why
called soldiers of the body.

(iii) Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Thrombocytes are specialized blood cells produced from bone marrow.
They help in clotting and coagulation of blood.

Bones:
It is also a connective tissue that forms the framework that supports the body.
It is a strong and nonflexible tissue.

Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and
phosphorus compounds.

Cartilage:
It is another type of connective tissue which has widely spaced cells. The solid
matrix of this tissue is composed of proteins and sugars.
Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints.
Location: Tip of nose, ear pinna, trachea and larynx.
 Ligaments:
Two bones are connected to each other by a connective tissue called the
ligament.
This tissue is flexible or elastic in nature.

Tendons:
Bones are connected to muscles by another type of connective tissue named as
tendons.
Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.

Areolar tissue: They are found in the skin and muscles, around the blood
vessels, nerves, etc.
Function of areolar tissue:

• It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in repair
of tissues.

Adipose tissue: It is found between the internal organs and below the skin.
Function of adipose tissue:

• It stores fats.
• It acts as an insulator.
 Muscular tissues
Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres. This tissue
is responsible for movement in our body.

Main function of muscular tissues is to provide movement to the body.

Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and
relax to cause movement.
 The Nervous Tissue

How do we react to stimuli?

This is because of the nervous tissues present in our body. They are capable of
transmitting information quickly from the brain to different parts of the body and
vice-versa.
• Therefore, nervous tissues are found in nerves, brain, and spinal cord.
• The Nervous tissue is made up of cells called the Nerve Cells or Neurons.
• These neurons connect together to form the nerves of our body.

The Structure of Neuron

1. Dendrites
• They are tree-like extensions (highly-branched) at the beginning of a neuron.

• They increase the surface area of the neuron.

• They receive chemical signals from different neurons of the body.
• They then convert these chemical signals into electrical signals and pass them
to the neuron cell body.
• A neuron can have a single dendrite or multiple dendrites
2. Cell Body
• Also called Soma.

• The main function of the cell body and nucleus of the neuron is to maintain the
functionality of the cell.
• It does not play an active role in the transmission of the signal.
• It produces proteins that are required by different parts of the neuron to work
properly.
• It contains different cell organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus etc
that perform various functions of the cell.
3. Axon
• Neurons have one axon in general.

• It is a long structure that connects the cell body to the terminals and it also
connects with other neurons, cells and organs of the body through nerve
terminals.
• It allows in fast transmission of signals. The larger the diameter of the axon
the faster it will transmit signals.
• It is covered with a special insulating substance called myelin. It helps in rapid
transmission of signals.

Function of Nervous Tissue

• Neurons generate and carry out nerve impulses. They produce electrical
signals that are transmitted across distances, they do so by secreting
chemical neurotransmitters.
• Responds to stimuli
• Carries out communication and integration
• Provides electrical insulations to nerve cells and removes debris
• Carries messages from other neurons to the cell body