AIR POLLUTION: SOURCES AND EFFECTS

Definition
 Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials into
the atmosphere that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other
living organisms including plants & food crops, or damage the natural environment or
built environment.
 A substance in the air that can be adverse to humans and the environment is known as
an air pollutant. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or
gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made. Pollutants can be classified as
primary or secondary.
(i) Primary pollutants are directly produced from a process, such as ash- from a
volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or
sulphur dioxide released from factories.
(ii) Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary
pollutant is ground level ozone – one of the many secondary pollutants that make
up photochemical smog. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary:
that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
(i) Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulphur dioxide, a chemical compound with
the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial
processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur compounds, their
combustion generates sulphur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one
of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels
as power sources.
(ii) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are expelled from high
temperature combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by
electric discharge and it can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume
downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula
NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odour. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
(iii) Carbon monoxide (CO) - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very
poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural
gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
(iv) Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In
this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and
non- methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas
which contributes to enhance global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the
life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local
air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and
xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukaemia through prolonged
exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated
with industrial uses.
 Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric
particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid
suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together.
Sources of particulates
 It can be manmade or natural.
 Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust
storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.
 Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power
plants and various industrial processes also generate significant
amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols
—those made by human activities – currently account for about 10 per
cent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels
of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart
disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause
cardiopulmonary disease.
 Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from
products currently banned from use.
 Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a
compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a
characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a
building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide
use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
 Odours – such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
  Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war
explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
 Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a
portmanteau of smoke and fog.
 Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by
a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide.
 Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and
industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light
from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key
constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain
regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer.
Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical
processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally
high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion
of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
Factors Responsible for Air Pollution
Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions. Natural events that pollute the
air include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of
organic compounds and natural radioactivity. Sources of air pollution refer to the various
locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the
atmosphere.
(i) Man-made sources
It is mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel.
 Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the
major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and
dung.
 "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of
sound etc.
  Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry
management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in
forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire
is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a
tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable
forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents.
 Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable
and may form explosive mixtures with air.
 Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
Natural sources
 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation.
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colourless,
odourless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of
radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can
accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is
the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on
warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically,
NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal
haze of secondary pollutants.
 Volcanic activity, which produce sulphur, chlorine, and ash particulates.
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority
of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and
trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit
formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is
introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood
fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air,
inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other
chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and
fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal
indoors.
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates.
Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust
mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal
droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and
spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the
lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would
otherwise occur in nature.
Effects of Air Pollution
Health Effects
(i) Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including
respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO.
(ii) The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing,
wheezing, coughing, asthma and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac
conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor
or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death.
(iii) The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect
the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions
to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree
of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.
(iv) The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen-
dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused
approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide. Children aged less than five years
that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of
total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.
(v) The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from
causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths
attributable to indoor air pollution.
(vi) The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal
Disaster. Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to
Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured
anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000.
(vii) The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4
Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and
8,000 more died within the following months.
 (viii) An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the
former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of
hundreds of civilian deaths.
(ix) Around the world, children living in cities with high exposure to air pollutants are
at increased risk of developing asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory
infections. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation
they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. Risks of low initial birth
weight are also heightened in such cities.
Environmental Effects
Poisonous air pollutants (toxic chemicals in the air) can form acid rain. It can also form
dangerous ground level ozone. These destroy trees, crops, farms, animals and continue to
make water bodies harmful to humans and animals that live and depend on water.
Economic Effects
The effect of air pollution on the economy may be a derived one. In simple language, the
economy thrives when people are healthy, and business that depends on cultivated raw
materials and natural resources are running at full efficiency. Air pollution reduces
agricultural crop and commercial forest yields by billions of money each year. This in
addition to people staying off work for health reasons can costs the economy greatly.
Measures to reduce Air Pollution
Solution efforts on pollution are always a big problem. This is why prevention interventions
are always a better way of controlling air pollution. These prevention methods can either
come from government (laws) or by individual actions. In many big cities, monitoring
equipment has been installed at many points in the city. Authorities read them regularly to
check the quality of air.
Government (or community) level prevention
 Governments throughout the world have already taken action against air pollution by
introducing green energy. Some governments are investing in wind energy and solar
energy, as well as other renewable energy, to minimize burning of fossil fuels, which
cause heavy air pollution.
 Governments are also forcing companies to be more responsible with their
manufacturing activities, so that even though they still cause pollution, they are a lot
controlled.
• Companies are also building more energy efficient cars, which pollute less than
before.
Individual Level Prevention
  Encourage your family to use the bus, train or bike when commuting. If we all do this,
there will be fewer cars on road and less fumes.
 Use energy (light, water, boiler, kettle and fire woods) wisely. This is because lots of
fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity, and so if we can cut down the use, we
will also cut down the amount of pollution we create.
 Recycle and re-use things. This will minimize the dependence of producing new
things. Remember manufacturing industries create a lot of pollution, so if we can re-
use things like shopping plastic bags, clothing, paper and bottles, it can help.
Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or
transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust
stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
 Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multi-cyclones)
 Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas
(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of
gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and
smoke from the air stream.
 Bag houses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a
blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal
system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the
dust).
 Particulate scrubbers: Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The
term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from
other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact
with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool
of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
Some Facts and Statistics about Air Pollution
 Air pollution affects kids more than adults due to higher concentrations of polluted air
in their systems per body size.
 India is the country with the worst air quality in the world.
 The European Union would save 161 billion Euros a year if deaths caused by air
pollution were diminished.
  In large cities, over 80% of fatal pollutants that cause lung damage come from cars,
buses, motorcycles and other vehicles on the road.
 According to the World Health Organization, there are as many deaths (1.3 million
per year) in the world due to air pollution as there are deaths due to car accidents.
 The average adult breathes 3,000 gallons of air every day.
 The Great Smog of London in 1952 was one of the worst air pollution events in
history with over 8,000 deaths.
 The largest cause of air pollution in Europe is road transportation with over 5,000
people dying each year from lung cancer and heart attacks caused by vehicle exhaust
fumes.

Conclusion
Air pollution can be prevented only if individuals and businesses stop using toxic substances
that cause air pollution in the first place. This would require the cessation of all fossil fuel-
burning processes, from industrial manufacturing to home use of air conditioners. This is an
unlikely scenario at this time. However, we have to make rules which set stringent
regulations on industrial and power supply manufacturing and handling. The regulations are
to be designed to further reduce harmful emissions into the Earth's atmosphere
 Water
Water is a chemical substance composed of hydrogen and oxygen existing in gaseous, liquid
and solid tastes that is essential to all known forms of life. Water is a clear, colourless,
odourless, tasteless liquid that freezes into ice below 0 degrees centigrade and boils above
100 degrees centigrade.
The chemical formula of water is hydrogen oxide (H2O) and it has the important ability to
dissolve many other substances. Indeed, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to
living organisms.
Life is believed to have originated in the aqueous solutions of the world’s oceans, and living
organisms depend solely on aqueous solutions, such as blood and digestive juices, for
biological processes.
In small quantities water appears colourless, but water actually has an inherent blue colour
caused by slight absorption of light at red wavelengths.
Although the molecules of water are simple in structure (H2O), the physical and chemical
properties of the compound are extraordinarily complicated, and they are not typical of most
substances found on Earth.
Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body’s solutes dissolve and as an
essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of
anabolism and catabolism.
In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic
chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e. g. starches, triglycerides and
proteins for storage of fuels and information).
Natural Sources of Water
Water is one of the vital elements needed in our day to day activities as a living being. Water
is not just essential to our health, but we also use it for numerous household tasks such as
cooking, bathing, cleaning, and drinking; but how often do we think about its source? Where
does our water come from? How is it treated? How do we know it is safe to drink? and many
other questions we ought to raise.
Major source of water
However, there are two major sources of water which are surface water and groundwater.
Surface water is found in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. Groundwater lies under the surface of
the land, where it travels through and fills openings in the rocks.
1. Ground Water
Groundwater is water that is found underground within rocks. Its presence depends primarily
on the type of rock. Permeable rocks have tiny spaces between the solid rock particles that
allow water and other fluids to pass through and to be held within the rock structure. The
layers of rock that hold groundwater are called aquifers.
Groundwater in an aquifer is replenished by rain and other forms of precipitation (any form
of water, such as rain, snow, sleet or hail that falls to the Earth’s surface. The level of water
below ground is called the water table. Groundwater can be extracted from wells or collected
from springs.
Advantages of Ground water
(i) Likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria
(ii) Usually free of turbidity and colour
(iii) Can usually be used without further treatment
(iv) Can often be found in close vicinity to consumers
(v) Economical to obtain and distribute
(vi) The water-bearing soil or rock provides a natural storage point
Disadvantages
(i) Often has a high mineral content (i.e. has naturally occurring substances that are
not from living organisms) such as calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese
(ii) Usually requires pumping for extraction
(iii) May have a high level of bicarbonate, carbonate and chloride
(iv) Poor in oxygen content
(v) Can contain chemical contaminants such as arsenic, fluorides and nitrates
(vi) If it gets polluted, treatment can be difficult to achieve
2. Well Water
Well water as a source of water can be described by their depth, or by the way they are
constructed. Most especially they use different types of pump at the surface to raise the water.
The pump is usually used to retrieve water and it go through an extensive filtration or
decontamination process either naturally or chemically. There are two major types of well
water
Shallow wells
Shallow wells and boreholes usually have a depth of less than 30 m, although they can be as
much as 60 m deep, especially in very dry areas of Ethiopia where the water table is low.
Wells can be excavated by hand if the soil is not too hard or the water table is high. Hand-dug
wells have a relatively large diameter because they have to be wide enough for a person to be
able to stand inside and dig.
Deep wells
These are wells that have been sunk with drilling machines designed for constructing water
extraction boreholes. These machines are able to penetrate through harder material that
cannot be tackled by hand digging and can therefore pass through at least one impermeable
layer of rock to a productive aquifer underneath.
Deep well typically obtain water from depths ranging from 30 to 60 m, but large urban
supply boreholes can be much deeper than this. A casing of metal or plastic pipe is usually
necessary to line the borehole and prevent the soil and rock from collapsing into it. The lower
part of the casing must have suitable openings to allow water to enter the borehole from the
aquifer.
3. Rain Water Rain water is the source of water that comes from above the clouds, this water
is very pure. Until it encounter something on it way down. However if it is stored properly it
may relinquish clean drinking water.
In regions where rainfall is abundant and frequent, rainwater can be a good source of water
supply for individual, families and some communities. The storage of rainwater is
particularly important in areas with a long dry season, or where spring water is difficult to
obtain.
The term rainwater harvesting is sometimes used. It simply means collecting, or harvesting,
rainwater as it runs off from hard surfaces and storing it in a tank or cistern.
Rainwater has several advantages. It is free, relatively clean and usually reliable, even if it
rains only once or twice a year, a rainwater harvesting system can be easily constructed and
maintained at low cost. Although mainly found in rural areas.
Apparently, if rainwater is used for water supply, it is important to ensure that it is not
contaminated by improper methods of storage, or by bird droppings and leaves from the roof
that it is collected from.
Rainwater may also be contaminated by pollution in the air, dust, dirt, paint and other
material on the roof or in roofing materials. All of these contaminants can be washed into the
storage tank or cistern.
4. Surface Water
Surface water is easily the most abundant supply of natural water. The downside is that most
of the surface water on the planet is salt water so it is not ideal for drinking for most living
species. Surface water does play an important part in our daily lives in addition to being a
source of drinking water.
Surface water is used to produce hydro-electric power as a clean energy source that is also
renewable. Surface water is supplied by precipitation, springs and ice melting from higher
elevations and glaciers.
5. Snow melt
Melting snow is another natural source of water when melted in great amounts can yield
clean drinking water especially once boiled
7. Lake and River Water
Lakes and rivers provide much water to wild animals and if cleaned and filtered properly it
could become clean enough to drink for humans. Most countries with access to lakes and
rivers use their water for human consumption. This source of water supply is usually
regularly replenished by various weather events.
8. Salt water from oceans
Ocean water can effectively be processed for consumption through the desalinisation process
removing excess salt. Without this process the water becomes counter-active and actually
dehydrates you.
 WATER POLLUTION, CAUSES AND EFFECTS
Definition of Water Pollution
When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of man’s
activities such that it becomes unfit for any useful purpose is said to be polluted.
Types of Pollutions:
1. Point source of pollution:
This source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a definite source and place,
where it enters the water.
Example: Municipal industrial discharges pipes.
2. Non-point source of pollution:
When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified such as agricultural runoff, acid rain
etc., it is called as non-point source of pollution.
Causes of Surface Water Pollution:
a. Disease causing agents parasitic worms, bacteria, viruses, protozoa that enter water from
domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.
b. Oxygen depleting wastes: These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic
bacteria. The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of organic matter is
called BOD. It is an indicator of level of pollution.
c. Inorganic plant nutrients: There are water soluble nitrates and phosphates.
d. Excess pesticides: For control of pest, pesticides are used in discriminately. These fall on
ground and leach with rain water to canals and rivers.
e. Water soluble organic chemicals: These are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals
such as mercury and lead.
f. Variety of organic chemicals: includes oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, detergents and
many other chemicals.
g. The sediments of suspended matter: Occur when soil is eroded.
h. Water soluble radioactive isotopes: Enter the water courses along with rain water.
i. Hot water released by power plants and industries that use large volume of water to cool the
plant results in a rise in temp of local water bodies.
j. Acid drainage into rivers.
Causes of Ground Water Pollution:
A greater threat to human life comes from ground water which is used for drinking and
irrigation being polluted.
a. Urban runoff of untreated or poorly treated waste water storage and garbage.
b. Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifer
c. Agricultural practices such as application of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides,
animal feeding operations etc. in rural sector
d. Leaks from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous substances
e. Leachate from land fills
f. Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
g. Mining waters
Effects of Water Pollution:
1. Large amount of human waste in water increase the number of bacteria such as Escherichia
coli and streptococcus species which cause gastro intestinal diseases. Water born diseases
diarrhoea, typhoid etc.
2. If more organic matter is added to water the O2 is used up. This causes fish and other
forms of O2 dependent aquatic life dies.
3. Eutrophication due to inorganic pollutants:
Eutrophication The term “eutrophic” means well-nourished; thus, “eutrophication” refers to
natural or artificial addition of nutrients to bodies of water and to the effects of the added
nutrients. When the effects are undesirable, eutrophication may be considered a form of
pollution (National Academy of Sciences, 1969).
4. Nixon (1995) defined it as an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter in an
ecosystem. It is the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of
nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of
algae.
5. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing
organisms deplete the available oxygen of water, causing the death of other organisms, such
as fish. Similarities include subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia, and
severe reductions in water quality, fish and other animal populations may occur.
6. Other species may experience an increase in population that negatively affects other
species in the direct ecosystem. In simpler terms it is the bloom of phytoplankton in a water
body. It is often the result of anthropogenic pollution with nutrients, particularly the release
of sewage effluent and agricultural run-off carrying fertilizers into natural waters.
However, it also occurs naturally in situations where nutrients accumulate (e.g., depositional
environments) or where they flow into systems on an ephemeral basis. Eutrophication
generally promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favours simple algae and plankton
over other more complicated plants, and causes a severe reduction in water quality.
7. In aquatic environments, enhanced growth of choking aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton
(e.g., algal blooms) disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of
problems such as a lack of oxygen in the water, needed for fish and shellfish to survive. The
water then becomes cloudy, coloured a shade of green, yellow, brown, or red.
8. Human society is impacted as well: eutrophication decreases the resource value of rivers,
lakes, and estuaries such that recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic enjoyment are
hindered. Health-related problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with
drinking water treatment.
4. Bio-magnification due to excess use of pesticides:
Bio-magnification, also known as bio-amplification or biological magnification, is the
increase in concentration of a substance, such as the pesticide DDT that occurs in a food
chain as a consequence of:
a. Persistence (can’t be broken down by environmental processes)
b. Food chain energetic
Low (or non-existent) rate of internal degradation/excretion of the substance (often due to
water-insolubility). Biological Magnification often refers to the process whereby certain
substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into
rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by
large birds, animals or humans.
5. High levels of organic chemicals (acids, salts and toxic metals) can make the water unfit to
drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields.
6. Variety of organic chemicals/oil gasoline, plastics detergents are harmful to aquatic life
and human life.
7. Sediments (erosion) fish clog the lakes and artificial reservoirs.

8. Radioisotopes cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage. Hot water cause thermal
pollution not only decreases the solubility of O2 but also changes the breeding cycles of
various aquatic organisms.
9. Hot water because of thermal pollution not only decreases the solubility of O2 but also
changes the breeding cycles of various aquatic organisms.
10. Accidental oil spills cause environmental damage.
11. Minamata disease is caused due to mercury poisoning of water.
12. Fluorine contamination in drinking water causes Fluorosis, NO3 contamination causes
Blue baby disease (Methaemoglobinaceae) and PO4 contamination causes bone marrow
disease.
13. Arsenic poisoning is the major effect mostly in West Bengal. Arsenicosis or arsenic
toxicity develops after 2-5 years exposure to arsenic contaminated drinking water.
Control Measures of Water Pollution:
 Setting up of effluent and sewage treatment plants to treat waste water can reduce the
pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent and domestic water can be
reused either for gardening or cooling purposes or wherever possible. Sewage
treatment either removes the harmful components or converts them into harmless
components.
 . Integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated pest management (IPM)
practices will reduce the effects caused due to excess pesticides.
 For effective control of water pollution, legal provisions regarding water pollution
should be enforced by special administrative machinery comprising of highly
qualified and experienced personnel.
Treatment of Domestic Sewage:
Domestic sewage can be purified even to make it suitable for drinking; however the process
is expensive. Usually, treatment of sewage to reduce its organic matter content is adopted.
In this treatment, three steps are involved:
Step 1: Primary Treatment:
In this step the following are affected:
(a) Large objects are trapped.
(b) Dust, grease, scum are removed.
(c) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is removed.
(d) Suspended matter is made to settle down by passing water through the gut chamber.

Step 2: Secondary Treatment:

In this step, following are affected:
(a) BOD is further reduced.
(b) By aeration using a trickling filter, aerobic organisms are grown to decompose pollutants.
(c) The water at the end of this step can be used for irrigation and in industries.
Step 3: Tertiary Treatment:
In this expensive step:
(a) Organic chemicals and nutrients are removed.
(b) The dissolved organic salts are removed using coagulation or distillation or reverse
osmosis.
(c) Pathogens are destroyed by disinfection.
The water after this treatment is fit for groundwater recharge. After chlorination and proper
check, it can be used for drinking.
 OCCUATIONAL HAZARDS (WORK PLACE) AND IT AFFECTS ON HEALTH
Occupational hazard may be defined as a source or situation with a potential for harm in
terms of injury or ill health, damage to property, damage to the workplace environment, or a
combination of these.
Types of Occupational Health Hazards
a) Physical
b) Chemical
c) Biological
d) Mechanical
e) Psychosocial
A. Diseases due to Physical Agents
1. Heat – Exhaustion, Syncope, Cramps, burns, Prickly
2. Cold – Frost bite
3. Light – Occupational Cataract, Illumination
4. Atmospheric-pressure – Caisson disease, explosion
5. Noise – Occupational deafness
6. Radiation – Cancer, Leukemia, Aplastic anemia
7. Electricity – Burns, Shocks
Heat Illness
Predisposing factors for heat illness include:
– Physical activity
– Extremes of age, poor physical condition, fatigue
– Excessive clothing
– Dehydration
– Cardiovascular disease
– Skin disorders
– Obesity
b. Chemical Hazards
Routes of entry of chemical hazards include inhalation (main route of entry), ingestion and
skin absorption.
Chemical agents may be:
1. Metals – Lead, As, Hg, Cd, Ni , Co
2. Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Benzene, Toluene, Phenol
3. Aliphatic Hydrocarbons – Methyl alcohol
4. Gases
a. Simple asphyxiants : N2, CH4, CO2;
b. Chemical asphyxiants : CO, H2S, HCN
c. Irritant gases: Ammonia, SO2, Cl2
TLV (Threshold Limit Value)
“Time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour working day and a 40-hour
working week, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day, without
adverse effect”
c. Biological Hazards
Biological hazards include:
• Bacteria – Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Anthrax, Brucellosis (Milkmen), Gonorrhea
• Virus – Hepatitis, HIV
• Protozoal & Parasitic – Malaria, Hookworms, Hydatid (Dog-handlers), tapeworms
• Fungi (Agri-workers) – Tinea-infections, Psittacosis, Coccidiomycosis, Ornithosis
d. Mechanical Hazards
Mechanical hazards include:
• Injuries – Falls, cuts, abrasions, concussions, contusions
• Ergonomic Disorders – Musculo-skeletal disorders(MSDs), Cumulative-trauma-Disorders
(CTDs)
• Ergonomics – Adjustment of Man & Machine
• Ergo-friendly tools – Tools which reduce the stresses or problems resulting in CTD’s /
MSD’s.)
e. Psychosocial Hazards
Psychosocial hazards include lack of job satisfaction, insecurity, poor interpersonal relations,
work pressure, ambiguity.
Psychological & behavioural changes including hostility, aggressiveness, anxiety, depression,
alcoholism, drug addiction, sickness absenteeism
Psychosomatic disorders like hypertension, headache, body-ache, peptic ulcers, asthma,
diabetes, heart disorders.
Occupational diseases
Diseases caused by agents
1) Diseases caused by chemical agents
(a) Diseases caused by beryllium or its toxic compounds
(b) Diseases caused by cadmium or its toxic compounds
(c) Diseases caused by phosphorus or its toxic compounds
(d) Diseases caused by chromium or its toxic compounds
(e) Diseases caused by manganese or its toxic compounds
(f) Diseases caused by arsenic or its toxic compounds
(g) . Diseases caused by mercury or its toxic compounds
(h) Diseases caused by lead or its toxic compounds
(i) Diseases caused by fluorine or its toxic compounds
2. Diseases caused by physical agents
a) Hearing impairment caused by noise
b) Diseases caused by vibration (disorders of muscles, tendons, bones, joints, peripheral
blood vessels or peripheral nerves)
c) Diseases caused by work in compressed and decompressed air
d) Diseases caused by ionizing radiations
e) Diseases caused by radiofrequency radiations
f) Diseases caused by optical (ultraviolet, visible light, infrared) radiations
g) Diseases caused by extreme temperature
h) Diseases caused by any other physical agents worker
3. Diseases caused by biological agents
(a) Brucellosis
 (b) Diseases caused by hepatitis viruses
(c) Diseases caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
(d) Tetanus
(e) Tuberculosis
(f) Toxic or inflammatory syndromes associated with bacterial or fungal
contaminant.
(g) Malaria
(h) Anthrax
(i) Leptospirosis
(j) Diseases caused by any other biological agents arising from work activity and the
disease contracted by the worker
(k) Diseases by target organ systems
4. Occupational respiratory diseases
a) Pneumoconiosis caused by fibrogenic mineral dust (silicosis, anthraco-silicosis,
b) asbestosis)
c) Silicotuberculosis
d) Pneumoconioses caused by non-fibrogenic mineral dust
e) Siderosis
f) Bronchopulmonary diseases caused by hard-metal dust
g) Bronchopulmonary diseases caused by cotton dust (byssinosis), or flax, hemp or
h) sisal dust.
i) Occupational asthma caused by recognized sensitizing agents or irritants inherent to
the work process
j) Extrinsic allergic alveolitis caused by the inhalation of organic dusts, as prescribed
by national legislation
k) Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
l) Diseases of the lung caused by aluminium
m) Upper airways disorders caused by recognized sensitizing agents or irritants inherent
to the work process
5. Occupational skin diseases
a) Allergic contact dermatoses and contact urticaria caused by recognized allergy
provoking agents.
b) Skin diseases caused by physical, chemical or biological agents not included
under other items
6. Occupational cancer
Cancer caused by the following agents.
Asbestos, Benzidine and its salts, Bis chloromethyl ether (BCME), Chromium VI and
chromium VI compounds, Coal tars, coal tar pitches or soots, Vinyl chloride, Toxic nitro- and
amino-derivatives of benzene or its homologues, Ionizing radiations, Tar, pitch, bitumen,
mineral oil, anthracene, or the compounds, products or residues of these substances, Coke
oven emissions, Compounds of nickel, Wood dust, Arsenic and its compounds, Beryllium
and its compounds, Cadmium and its compounds, Ethylene oxide, Formaldehyde and
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and C Virus (HCV)